The autotaxin-LPA axis emerges as a novel regulator of lymphocyte homing and inflammation

Autotaxin-Lysophosphatidate Axis: Promoter of Cancer Development and Possible Therapeutic Implications

Autotaxin (ATX) is a member of the ectonucleotide pyrophosphate/phosphodiesterase (ENPP) family; it is encoded by the ENPP2 gene. ATX is a secreted glycoprotein and catalyzes the hydrolysis of lysophosphatidylcholine to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA is responsible for the transduction of various signal pathways through the interaction with at least six G protein-coupled receptors, LPA Receptors 1 to 6 (LPAR1-6). The ATX-LPA axis is involved in various physiological and pathological processes, such as angiogenesis, embryonic development, inflammation, fibrosis, and obesity. However, significant research also reported its connection to carcinogenesis, immune escape, metastasis, tumor microenvironment, cancer stem cells, and therapeutic resistance. Moreover, several studies suggested ATX and LPA as relevant biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets. In this review of the literature, we aimed to deepen knowledge about the role of the ATX-LPA axis as a promoter of cancer development, progression and invasion, and therapeutic resistance. Finally, we explored its potential application as a prognostic/predictive biomarker and therapeutic target for tumor treatment.

Update on asthma biology

This is an exciting time to be conducting asthma research. The recent development of targeted asthma biologics has validated the power of basic research to discover new molecules amenable to therapeutic intervention. Advances in high-throughput sequencing are providing a wealth of "omics" data about genetic and epigenetic underpinnings of asthma, as well as about new cellular interacting networks and potential endotypes in asthma. Airway epithelial cells have emerged not only as key sensors of the outside environment but also as central drivers of dysregulated mucosal immune responses in asthma. Emerging data suggest that the airway epithelium in asthma remembers prior encounters with environmental exposures, resulting in potentially long-lasting changes in structure and metabolism that render asthmatic individuals susceptible to subsequent exposures. Here we summarize recent insights into asthma biology, focusing on studies using human cells or tissue that were published in the past 2 years. The studies are organized thematically into 6 content areas to draw connections and spur future research (on genetics and epigenetics, prenatal and early-life origins, microbiome, immune and inflammatory pathways, asthma endotypes and biomarkers, and lung structural alterations). We highlight recent studies of airway epithelial dysfunction and response to viral infections and conclude with a framework for considering how bidirectional interactions between alterations in airway structure and mucosal immunity can lead to sustained lung dysfunction in asthma.

Untargeted metabolomics reveals that declined PE and PC in obesity may be associated with prostate hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that obesity may contribute to the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). However, the mechanism of this pathogenesis is not fully understood.

METHODS

A prospective case-control study was conducted with 30 obese and 30 nonobese patients with BPH. Prostate tissues were collected and analyzed using ultra performance liquid chromatography ion mobility coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-IMS-Q-TOF).

RESULTS

A total of 17 differential metabolites (3 upregulated and 14 downregulated) were identified between the obese and nonobese patients with BPH. Topological pathway analysis indicated that glycerophospholipid (GP) metabolism was the most important metabolic pathway involved in BPH pathogenesis. Seven metabolites were enriched in the GP metabolic pathway. lysoPC (P16:0/0:0), PE (20:0/20:0), PE (24:1(15Z)/18:0), PC (24:1(15Z)/14:0), PC (15:0/24:0), PE (24:0/18:0), and PC (16:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) were all significantly downregulated in the obesity group, and the area under the curve (AUC) of LysoPC (P-16:0/0/0:0) was 0.9922. The inclusion of the seven differential metabolites in a joint prediction model had an AUC of 0.9956. Thus, both LysoPC (P-16:0/0/0:0) alone and the joint prediction model demonstrated good predictive ability for obesity-induced BPH mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, obese patients with BPH had a unique metabolic profile, and alterations in PE and PC in these patients be associated with the development and progression of BPH.

Autotaxin inhibition attenuates the aortic valve calcification by suppressing inflammation-driven fibro-calcific remodeling of valvular interstitial cells

BACKGROUND

Patients with fibro-calcific aortic valve disease (FCAVD) have lipid depositions in their aortic valve that engender a proinflammatory impetus toward fibrosis and calcification and ultimately valve leaflet stenosis. Although the lipoprotein(a)-autotaxin (ATX)-lysophosphatidic acid axis has been suggested as a potential therapeutic target to prevent the development of FCAVD, supportive evidence using ATX inhibitors is lacking. We here evaluated the therapeutic potency of an ATX inhibitor to attenuate valvular calcification in the FCAVD animal models.

METHODS

ATX level and activity in healthy participants and patients with FCAVD were analyzed using a bioinformatics approach using the Gene Expression Omnibus datasets, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunohistochemistry, and western blotting. To evaluate the efficacy of ATX inhibitor, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient (Il1rn-/-) mice and cholesterol-enriched diet-induced rabbits were used as the FCAVD models, and primary human valvular interstitial cells (VICs) from patients with calcification were employed.

RESULTS

The global gene expression profiles of the aortic valve tissue of patients with severe FCAVD demonstrated that ATX gene expression was significantly upregulated and correlated with lipid retention (r = 0.96) or fibro-calcific remodeling-related genes (r = 0.77) in comparison to age-matched non-FCAVD controls. Orally available ATX inhibitor, BBT-877, markedly ameliorated the osteogenic differentiation and further mineralization of primary human VICs in vitro. Additionally, ATX inhibition significantly attenuated fibrosis-related factors' production, with a detectable reduction of osteogenesis-related factors, in human VICs. Mechanistically, ATX inhibitor prohibited fibrotic changes in human VICs via both canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling, and subsequent induction of CTGF, a key factor in tissue fibrosis. In the in vivo FCAVD model system, ATX inhibitor exposure markedly reduced calcific lesion formation in interleukin-1 receptor antagonist-deficient mice (Il1rn-/-, P = 0.0210). This inhibition ameliorated the rate of change in the aortic valve area (P = 0.0287) and mean pressure gradient (P = 0.0249) in the FCAVD rabbit model. Moreover, transaortic maximal velocity (Vmax) was diminished with ATX inhibitor administration (mean Vmax = 1.082) compared to vehicle control (mean Vmax = 1.508, P = 0.0221). Importantly, ATX inhibitor administration suppressed the effects of a high-cholesterol diet and vitamin D2-driven fibrosis, in association with a reduction in macrophage infiltration and calcific deposition, in the aortic valves of this rabbit model.

CONCLUSIONS

ATX inhibition attenuates the development of FCAVD while protecting against fibrosis and calcification in VICs, suggesting the potential of using ATX inhibitors to treat FCAVD.

Renal tubule-specific Atgl deletion links kidney lipid metabolism to glucagon-like peptide 1 and insulin secretion independent of renal inflammation or lipotoxicity

OBJECTIVE

Lipotoxic injury from renal lipid accumulation in obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) is implicated in associated kidney damage. However, models examining effects of renal ectopic lipid accumulation independent of obesity or T2D are lacking. We generated renal tubule-specific adipose triglyceride lipase knockout (RT-SAKO) mice to determine if this targeted triacylglycerol (TAG) over-storage affects glycemic control and kidney health.

METHODS

Male and female RT-SAKO mice and their control littermates were tested for changes in glycemic control at 10-12 and 16-18 weeks of age. Markers of kidney health and blood lipid and hormone concentrations were analyzed. Kidney and blood lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) levels were measured, and a role for LPA in mediating impaired glycemic control was evaluated using the LPA receptor 1/3 inhibitor Ki-16425.

RESULTS

All groups remained insulin sensitive, but 16- to 18-week-old male RT-SAKO mice became glucose intolerant, without developing kidney inflammation or fibrosis. Rather, these mice displayed lower circulating insulin and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) levels. Impaired first-phase glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was detected and restored by Exendin-4. Kidney and blood LPA levels were elevated in older male but not female RT-SAKO mice, associated with increased kidney diacylglycerol kinase epsilon. Inhibition of LPA-mediated signaling restored serum GLP-1 levels, first-phase insulin secretion, and glucose tolerance.

CONCLUSIONS

TAG over-storage alone is insufficient to cause renal tubule lipotoxicity. This work is the first to show that endogenously derived LPA modulates GLP-1 levels in vivo, demonstrating a new mechanism of kidney-gut-pancreas crosstalk to regulate insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis.

Discovery of a Novel Orally Active, Selective LPA Receptor Type 1 Antagonist, 4-(4-(2-Isopropylphenyl)-4-((2-methoxy-4-methylphenyl)carbamoyl)piperidin-1-yl)-4-oxobutanoic Acid, with a Distinct Molecular Scaffold

Lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 (LPAR1) antagonists show promise as potentially novel antifibrotic treatments. In a human LPAR1 β-arrestin recruitment-based high-throughput screening campaign, we identified urea 19 as a hit with a LPAR1 IC50 value of 5.0 μM. Hit-to-lead activities revealed that one of the urea nitrogen atoms can be replaced by carbon and establish the corresponding phenylacetic amide as a lead structure for further optimization. Medicinal chemistry efforts led to the discovery of piperidine 18 as a potent and selective LPAR1 antagonist with oral activity in a mouse model of LPA-induced skin vascular leakage. The molecular scaffold of 18 shares no obvious structural similarity with any other LPAR1 antagonist disclosed so far.

Discovery of the Novel, Orally Active, and Selective LPA1 Receptor Antagonist ACT-1016-0707 as a Preclinical Candidate for the Treatment of Fibrotic Diseases

Piperidine 3 is a potent and selective lysophosphatidic acid receptor subtype 1 receptor (LPAR1) antagonist that has shown efficacy in a skin vascular leakage target engagement model in mice. However, compound 3 has very high human plasma protein binding and high clearance in rats, which could significantly hamper its clinical development. Continued lead optimization led to the potent, less protein bound, metabolically stable, and orally active azetidine 17. Rat pharmacokinetics (PK) studies revealed that 17 accumulated in the liver. In vitro studies indicated that 17 is an organic anion co-transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1) substrate. Although analogue 24 was no longer a substrate of OATP1B1, PK studies suggested that the compound undergoes enterohepatic recirculation. Replacing the carboxylic acidic side chain by a non-acidic sulfamide moiety and further fine-tuning of the scaffold yielded the potent, orally active LPAR1 antagonist 49, which was selected for preclinical development for the treatment of fibrotic diseases.

Autotaxin-lysolipid signaling suppresses a CCL11-eosinophil axis to promote pancreatic cancer progression

Lipids and their modifying enzymes regulate diverse features of the tumor microenvironment and cancer progression. The secreted enzyme autotaxin (ATX) hydrolyzes extracellular lysophosphatidylcholine to generate the multifunctional lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and supports the growth of several tumor types, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Here we show that ATX suppresses the accumulation of eosinophils in the PDAC microenvironment. Genetic or pharmacologic ATX inhibition increased the number of intratumor eosinophils, which promote tumor cell apoptosis locally and suppress tumor progression. Mechanistically, ATX suppresses eosinophil accumulation via an autocrine feedback loop, wherein ATX-LPA signaling negatively regulates the activity of the AP-1 transcription factor c-Jun, in turn suppressing the expression of the potent eosinophil chemoattractant CCL11 (eotaxin-1). Eosinophils were identified in human PDAC specimens, and rare individuals with high intratumor eosinophil abundance had the longest overall survival. Together with recent findings, this study reveals the context-dependent, immune-modulatory potential of ATX-LPA signaling in cancer.

A dual role of lysophosphatidic acid type 2 receptor (LPAR2) in nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced mouse enteropathy

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive phospholipid mediator that has been found to ameliorate nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-induced gastric injury by acting on lysophosphatidic acid type 2 receptor (LPAR2). In this study, we investigated whether LPAR2 signaling was implicated in the development of NSAID-induced small intestinal injury (enteropathy), another major complication of NSAID use. Wild-type (WT) and Lpar2 deficient (Lpar2-/-) mice were treated with a single, large dose (20 or 30 mg/kg, i.g.) of indomethacin (IND). The mice were euthanized at 6 or 24 h after IND treatment. We showed that IND-induced mucosal enteropathy and neutrophil recruitment occurred much earlier (at 6 h after IND treatment) in Lpar2-/- mice compared to WT mice, but the tissue levels of inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, TNF-α, inducible COX-2, CAMP) remained at much lower levels. Administration of a selective LPAR2 agonist DBIBB (1, 10 mg/kg, i.g., twice at 24 h and 30 min before IND treatment) dose-dependently reduced mucosal injury and neutrophil activation in enteropathy, but it also enhanced IND-induced elevation of several proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines. By assessing caspase-3 activation, we found significantly increased intestinal apoptosis in IND-treated Lpar2-/- mice, but it was attenuated after DBIBB administration, especially in non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice. Finally, we showed that IND treatment reduced the plasma activity and expression of autotaxin (ATX), the main LPA-producing enzyme, and also reduced the intestinal expression of Lpar2 mRNA, which preceded the development of mucosal damage. We conclude that LPAR2 has a dual role in NSAID enteropathy, as it contributes to the maintenance of mucosal integrity after NSAID exposure, but also orchestrates the inflammatory responses associated with ulceration. Our study suggests that IND-induced inhibition of the ATX-LPAR2 axis is an early event in the pathogenesis of enteropathy.

Group III secreted phospholipase A2 -driven lysophospholipid pathway protects against allergic asthma

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by recurrent episodes of airway obstruction, hyperresponsiveness, remodeling, and eosinophilia. Phospholipase A2 s (PLA2 s), which release fatty acids and lysophospholipids from membrane phospholipids, have been implicated in exacerbating asthma by generating pro-asthmatic lipid mediators, but an understanding of the association between individual PLA2 subtypes and asthma is still incomplete. Here, we show that group III-secreted PLA2 (sPLA2 -III) plays an ameliorating, rather than aggravating, role in asthma pathology. In both mouse and human lungs, sPLA2 -III was expressed in bronchial epithelial cells and decreased during the asthmatic response. In an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma model, Pla2g3-/- mice exhibited enhanced airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilia, OVA-specific IgE production, and type 2 cytokine expression as compared to Pla2g3+/+ mice. Lipidomics analysis showed that the pulmonary levels of several lysophospholipids, including lysophosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), were decreased in OVA-challenged Pla2g3-/- mice relative to Pla2g3+/+ mice. LPA receptor 2 (LPA2 ) agonists suppressed thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) expression in bronchial epithelial cells and reversed airway hyperresponsiveness and eosinophilia in Pla2g3-/- mice, suggesting that sPLA2 -III negatively regulates allergen-induced asthma at least by producing LPA. Thus, the activation of the sPLA2 -III-LPA pathway may be a new therapeutic target for allergic asthma.

The role of natural killer T cells in liver transplantation

Natural killer T cells (NKTs) are innate-like lymphocytes that are abundant in the liver and participate in liver immunity. NKT cells express both NK cell and T cell markers, modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. Type I and Type II NKT cells are classified according to the TCR usage, while they recognize lipid antigen in a non-classical major histocompatibility (MHC) molecule CD1d-restricted manner. Once activated, NKT cells can quickly produce cytokines and chemokines to negatively or positively regulate the immune responses, depending on the different NKT subsets. In liver transplantation (LTx), the immune reactions in a series of processes determine the recipients' long-term survival, including ischemia-reperfusion injury, alloresponse, and post-transplant infection. This review provides insight into the research on NKT cells subpopulations in LTx immunity during different processes, and discusses the shortcomings of the current research on NKT cells. Additionally, the CD56-expressing T cells are recognized as a NK-like T cell population, they were also discussed during these processes.

Autotaxin in encephalitogenic CD4 T cells as a therapeutic target for multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated inflammatory disease of the CNS. A defining characteristic of MS is the ability of autoreactive T lymphocytes to cross the blood-brain barrier and mediate inflammation within the CNS. Previous work from our lab found the gene Enpp2 to be highly upregulated in murine encephalitogenic T cells. Enpp2 encodes for the protein autotaxin, a secreted glycoprotein that catalyzes the production of lysophosphatidic acid and promotes transendothelial migration of T cells from the bloodstream into the lymphatic system. The present study sought to characterize autotaxin expression in T cells during CNS autoimmune disease and determine its potential therapeutic value. Myelin-activated CD4 T cells upregulated expression of autotaxin in vitro, and ex vivo analysis of CNS-infiltrating CD4 T cells showed significantly higher autotaxin expression compared with cells from healthy mice. In addition, inhibiting autotaxin in myelin-specific T cells reduced their encephalitogenicity in adoptive transfer studies and decreased in vitro cell motility. Importantly, using two mouse models of MS, treatment with an autotaxin inhibitor ameliorated EAE severity, decreased the number of CNS infiltrating T and B cells, and suppressed relapses, suggesting autotaxin may be a promising therapeutic target in the treatment of MS.

A Review of Cyclic Phosphatidic Acid and Other Potential Therapeutic Targets for Treating Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA), a chronic degenerative joint disease, is the most common form of arthritis. OA occurs when the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of bones gradually breaks down. This leads to the rubbing of bones against each other, resulting in pain and stiffness. Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) shows promise as a treatment for OA. In this article, we review the most recent findings regarding the biological functions of cPA signaling in mammalian systems, specifically in relation to OA. cPA is a naturally occurring phospholipid mediator with unique cyclic phosphate rings at the sn-2 and sn-3 positions in the glycerol backbone. cPA promotes various responses, including cell proliferation, migration, and survival. cPA possesses physiological activities that are distinct from those elicited by lysophosphatidic acid; however, its biochemical origin has rarely been studied. Although there is currently no cure for OA, advances in medical research may lead to new therapies or strategies in the future, and cPA has potential therapeutic applications.

Coupled Electrostatic and Hydrophobic Destabilisation of the Gelsolin-Actin Complex Enables Facile Detection of Ovarian Cancer Biomarker Lysophosphatidic Acid

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a promising biomarker candidate to screen for ovarian cancer (OC) and potentially stratify and treat patients according to disease stage. LPA is known to target the actin-binding protein gelsolin which is a key regulator of actin filament assembly. Previous studies have shown that the phosphate headgroup of LPA alone is inadequate to bind to the short chain of amino acids in gelsolin known as the PIP2-binding domain. Thus, the molecular-level detail of the mechanism of LPA binding is poorly understood. Here, we model LPA binding to the PIP2-binding domain of gelsolin in the gelsolin-actin complex through extensive ten-microsecond atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We predict that LPA binding causes a local conformational rearrangement due to LPA interactions with both gelsolin and actin residues. These conformational changes are a result of the amphipathic nature of LPA, where the anionic phosphate, polar glycerol and ester groups, and lipophilic aliphatic tail mediate LPA binding via charged electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals interactions. The negatively-charged LPA headgroup binds to the PIP2-binding domain of gelsolin-actin while its hydrophobic tail is inserted into actin, creating a strong LPA-insertion pocket that weakens the gelsolin-actin interface. The computed structure, dynamics, and energetics of the ternary gelsolin-LPA-actin complex confirms that a quantitative OC assay is possible based on LPA-triggered actin release from the gelsolin-actin complex.

EMT activates exocytotic Rabs to coordinate invasion and immunosuppression in lung cancer

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) underlies immunosuppression, drug resistance, and metastasis in epithelial malignancies. However, the way in which EMT orchestrates disparate biological processes remains unclear. Here, we identify an EMT-activated vesicular trafficking network that coordinates promigratory focal adhesion dynamics with an immunosuppressive secretory program in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). The EMT-activating transcription factor ZEB1 drives exocytotic vesicular trafficking by relieving Rab6A, Rab8A, and guanine nucleotide exchange factors from miR-148a-dependent silencing, thereby facilitating MMP14-dependent focal adhesion turnover in LUAD cells and autotaxin-mediated CD8+ T cell exhaustion, indicating that cell-intrinsic and extrinsic processes are linked through a microRNA that coordinates vesicular trafficking networks. Blockade of ZEB1-dependent secretion reactivates antitumor immunity and negates resistance to PD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade, an important clinical problem in LUAD. Thus, EMT activates exocytotic Rabs to drive a secretory program that promotes invasion and immunosuppression in LUAD.

The Concentration of PCSK9-Lp(a) Complexes and the Level of Blood Monocytes in Males with Coronary Atherosclerosis

In this study we analyzed the concentration of lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes and the circulating monocyte subsets in coronary atherosclerosis. For this study, 257 patients with coronary atherosclerosis and 68 patients without stenotic atherosclerosis in the coronary, carotid and lower extremity arteries (control group) were enrolled. The monocyte subpopulations (classical CD14++CD16-, intermediate CD14++CD16+ and non-classical CD14+CD16++) were analyzed by direct immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. The Lp(a) and PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes in the serum were detected by ELISA. The concentration of Lp(a) was higher in the coronary atherosclerosis group compared with the controls (23.0 (9.1; 73.3) mg/dL versus 10.7 (4.7; 25.0) mg/dL, p < 0.05). No correlations between the level of Lp(a) and the concentration of the PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes, nor between the level of Lp(a) or PCSK9 and the total number of monocytes, were observed in either group. A slight positive correlation between the concentration of PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes and the absolute level of monocytes was obtained (r = 0.20, p = 0.002) in the patients with atherosclerosis due to the intermediate monocyte subsets (r = 0.33, p = 0.04). According to regression analysis, both the PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes concentration and BMI were related to the absolute number of blood monocytes in patients with atherosclerosis. Further studies are required to determine the pathogenetic contribution of PCSK9-Lp(a) complexes to the development of atherosclerosis.

Entering, Linked with the Sphinx: Lysophosphatidic Acids Everywhere, All at Once, in the Oral System and Cancer

Oral health is crucial to overall health, and periodontal disease (PDD) is a chronic inflammatory disease. Over the past decade, PDD has been recognized as a significant contributor to systemic inflammation. Here, we relate our seminal work defining the role of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and its receptors (LPARs) in the oral system with findings and parallels relevant to cancer. We discuss the largely unexplored fine-tuning potential of LPA species for biological control of complex immune responses and suggest approaches for the areas where we believe more research should be undertaken to advance our understanding of signaling at the level of the cellular microenvironment in biological processes where LPA is a key player so we can better treat diseases such as PDD, cancer, and emerging diseases.

Bioactive lipid lysophosphatidic acid species are associated with disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive disease with significant mortality. Prognostic biomarkers to identify rapid progressors are urgently needed to improve patient management. Since the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) pathway has been implicated in lung fibrosis in preclinical models and identified as a potential therapeutic target, we aimed to investigate if bioactive lipid LPA species could be prognostic biomarkers that predict IPF disease progression. LPAs and lipidomics were measured in baseline placebo plasma of a randomized IPF-controlled trial. The association of lipids with disease progression indices were assessed using statistical models. Compared to healthy, IPF patients had significantly higher levels of five LPAs (LPA16:0, 16:1, 18:1, 18:2, 20:4) and reduced levels of two triglycerides species (TAG48:4-FA12:0, -FA18:2) (false discovery rate < 0.05, fold change > 2). Patients with higher levels of LPAs had greater declines in diffusion capacity of carbon monoxide over 52 weeks (P < 0.01); additionally, LPA20:4-high (≥median) patients had earlier time to exacerbation compared to LPA20:4-low ( Collapse

Key Words

• DLCO
• Lysophosphatidic acid
• exacerbation
• idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
• mortality

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MESH Headings

• Humans
• Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/metabolism
• Disease Progression
• Lysophospholipids
• Biomarkers

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Margaret Neighbors OMNI Translational Medicine, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA
Qingling Li Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics & Lipidomics, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA
Sha Joe Zhu PD Data Science, F Hoffmann-La Roche, Shanghai, China
Jia Liu PD Data Science, F Hoffmann-La Roche, Shanghai, China
Weng Ruh Wong Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics & Lipidomics, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA
Guiquan Jia Department of Biomarker Discovery OMNI, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA
Wendy Sandoval Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics & Lipidomics, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA
Gaik W Tew I2O Technology and Translational Research, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, USA.

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Hypoxia Increases ATX Expression by Histone Crotonylation in a HIF-2α-Dependent Manner

Autotaxin (ATX), the key enzyme that generates lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), is involved in tumorigenesis through the ATX-LPA axis and is regarded as a valuable target in tumor therapy. Hypoxia is a major feature of solid tumors and contributes to tumor development with striking alterations in the gene expression profile. Here, we show that hypoxia induces ATX expression in a hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 2α-dependent fashion in human colon cancer SW480 cells. HIF-2α is directly bound to specific hypoxia response elements (HREs) in the ATX promoter. Under hypoxic conditions, knockout or inhibition of ATX suppressed the migration of SW480 cells, which could be rescued by the addition of LPA, suggesting that the induction of ATX during hypoxia promotes cancer cell migration through the ATX-LPA axis. Further studies showed that ATX expression was induced by HIF-2α through recruiting p300/CBP, which led to crotonylation but not acetylation of histone H3 in the ATX promoter region during hypoxia. Moreover, elevation of cellular histone crotonylation levels could induce ATX expression under normoxic conditions. In conclusion, our findings reveal that ATX is induced in SW480 cells during hypoxia by histone crotonylation in a HIF-2α-dependent manner, while as a novel mechanism of ATX expression regulation, the upregulation of ATX expression by histone crotonylation is not confined to hypoxia.

Genetic Polymorphisms of ENPP2 Are Possibly Associated with Pain Severity and Opioid Dose Requirements in Patients with Inflammatory Pain Conditions: Clinical Observation Study

Autotaxin, encoded by the ENPP2 gene, is a known key element of neuropathic pain; however, its involvement in nociceptive pain processing remains unclear. We explored the associations between postoperative pain intensity, 24-h postoperative opioid dose requirements, and 93 ENNP2-gene single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 362 healthy patients who underwent cosmetic surgery using the dominant, recessive, and genotypic models. Next, we validated the associations between relevant SNPs on the one hand and pain intensity and daily opioid dosages on the other in 89 patients with cancer-related pain. In this validation study, a Bonferroni correction for multiplicity was applied on all relevant SNPs of the ENPP2 gene and their respective models. In the exploratory study, three models of two SNPs (rs7832704 and rs2249015) were significantly associated with postoperative opioid doses, although the postoperative pain intensity was comparable. In the validation study, the three models of the two SNPs were also significantly associated with cancer pain intensity (p < 0.017). Patients with a minor allele homozygosity complained of more severe pain compared with patients with other genotypes when using comparable daily opioid doses. Our findings might suggest that autotaxin is associated with nociceptive pain processing and the regulation of opioid requirements.

Alkaline sphingomyelinase (NPP7) impacts the homeostasis of intestinal T lymphocyte populations

Background and aim

Alkaline sphingomyelinase (NPP7) is expressed by intestinal epithelial cells and is crucial for the digestion of dietary sphingomyelin. NPP7 also inactivates proinflammatory mediators including platelet-activating factor and lysophosphatidylcholine. The aim of this study was to examine a potential role for NPP7 in the homeostasis of the intestinal immune system.

Methods

We quantified the numbers of B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, T-lymphocytes including regulatory T-lymphocytes (T_regs), natural killer cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, in the small and large intestines, the mesenteric lymph nodes and the spleens of heterozygous and homozygous NPP7 knockout (KO) and wildtype (WT) mice. Tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry and stainings quantified using computerized image analysis.

Results

The numbers of both small and large intestinal CD3ε⁺, CD4⁺, and CD8α⁺ T-lymphocytes were significantly higher in NPP7 KO compared to WT mice (with a dose-response relationship in the large intestine), whereas T_reg numbers were unchanged, and dendritic cell numbers reduced. In contrast, the numbers of CD3ε⁺ and CD4⁺ T-lymphocytes in mesenteric lymph nodes were significantly reduced in NPP7 KO mice, while no differences were observed in spleens. The numbers of B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, and neutrophils were similar between genotypes.

Conclusion

NPP7 contributes to the regulation of dendritic cell and T-lymphocyte numbers in mesenteric lymph nodes and both the small and large intestines, thus playing a role in the homeostasis of gut immunity. Although it is likely that the downstream effects of NPP7 activity involve the sphingomyelin metabolites ceramide and spingosine-1-phosphate, the exact mechanisms behind this regulatory function of NPP7 need to be addressed in future studies.

Classes of Lipid Mediators and Their Effects on Vascular Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

It is commonly believed that the inactivation of inflammation is mainly due to the decay or cessation of inducers. In reality, in connection with the development of atherosclerosis, spontaneous decay of inducers is not observed. It is now known that lipid mediators originating from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are important constituents of all cell membranes, can act in the inflamed tissue and bring it to resolution. In fact, PUFAs, such as arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are precursors to both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory compounds. In this review, we describe the lipid mediators of vascular inflammation and resolution, and their biochemical activity. In addition, we highlight data from the literature that often show a worsening of atherosclerotic disease in subjects deficient in lipid mediators of inflammation resolution, and we also report on the anti-proteasic and anti-thrombotic properties of these same lipid mediators. It should be noted that despite promising data observed in both animal and in vitro studies, contradictory clinical results have been observed for omega-3 PUFAs. Many further studies will be required in order to clarify the observed conflicts, although lifestyle habits such as smoking or other biochemical factors may often influence the normal synthesis of lipid mediators of inflammation resolution.

Circulating autotaxin levels in healthy teenagers: Data from the Vitados cohort

Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme with a lysophospholipase D activity, mainly secreted by adipocytes and widely expressed. Its major function is to convert lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) into lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), an essential bioactive lipid involved in multiple cell processes. The ATX-LPA axis is increasingly studied because of its involvement in numerous pathological conditions, more specifically in inflammatory or neoplastic diseases, and in obesity. Circulating ATX levels gradually increase with the stage of some pathologies, such as liver fibrosis, thus making them a potentially interesting non-invasive marker for fibrosis estimation. Normal circulating levels of ATX have been established in healthy adults, but no data exist at the pediatric age. The aim of our study is to describe the physiological concentrations of circulating ATX levels in healthy teenagers through a secondary analysis of the VITADOS cohort. Our study included 38 teenagers of Caucasian origin (12 males, 26 females). Their median age was 13 years for males and 14 years for females, ranging from Tanner 1 to 5. BMI was at the 25th percentile for males and 54th percentile for females, and median blood pressure was normal. ATX median levels were 1,049 (450-2201) ng/ml. There was no difference in ATX levels between sexes in teenagers, which was in contrast to the male and female differences described in the adult population. ATX levels significantly decreased with age and pubertal status, reaching adult levels at the end of puberty. Our study also suggested positive correlations between ATX levels and blood pressure (BP), lipid metabolism, and bone biomarkers. However, except for LDL cholesterol, these factors were also significantly correlated with age, which might be a confounding factor. Still, a correlation between ATX and diastolic BP was described in obese adult patients. No correlation was found between ATX levels and inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP), Body Mass Index (BMI), and biomarkers of phosphate/calcium metabolism. In conclusion, our study is the first to describe the decline in ATX levels with puberty and the physiological concentrations of ATX levels in healthy teenagers. It will be of utmost importance when performing clinical studies in children with chronic diseases to keep these kinetics in mind, as circulating ATX might become a non-invasive prognostic biomarker in pediatric chronic diseases.

Autotaxin and Lysophosphatidic Acid Signalling: the Pleiotropic Regulatory Network in Cancer

Autotaxin, also known as ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 2, is a secreted glycoprotein that plays multiple roles in human physiology and cancer pathology. This protein, by converting lysophosphatidylcholine into lysophosphatidic acid, initiates a complex signalling cascade with significant biological implications. The article outlines the autotaxin gene and protein structure, expression regulation and physiological functions, but focuses mainly on the role of autotaxin in cancer development and progression. Autotaxin and lysophosphatidic acid signalling influence several aspects of cancer, including cell proliferation, migration, metastasis, therapy resistance, and interactions with the immune system. The potential of autotaxin as a diagnostic biomarker and promising drug target is also examined.

Autotaxin in Breast Cancer: Role, Epigenetic Regulation and Clinical Implications

Autotaxin (ATX), the protein product of Ectonucleotide Pyrophosphatase Phosphodiesterase 2 (ENPP2), is a secreted lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) responsible for the extracellular production of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). ATX-LPA pathway signaling participates in several normal biological functions, but it has also been connected to cancer progression, metastasis and inflammatory processes. Significant research has established a role in breast cancer and it has been suggested as a therapeutic target and/or a clinically relevant biomarker. Recently, ENPP2 methylation was described, revealing a potential for clinical exploitation in liquid biopsy. The current review aims to gather the latest findings about aberrant signaling through ATX-LPA in breast cancer and discusses the role of ENPP2 expression and epigenetic modification, giving insights with translational value.

RAGE pathway activation and function in chronic kidney disease and COVID-19

The multi-ligand receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) and its ligands are contributing factors in autoimmunity, cancers, and infectious disease. RAGE activation is increased in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). CKD may increase the risk of COVID-19 severity and may also develop in the form of long COVID. RAGE is expressed in essentially all kidney cell types. Increased production of RAGE isoforms and RAGE ligands during CKD and COVID-19 promotes RAGE activity. The downstream effects include cellular dysfunction, tissue injury, fibrosis, and inflammation, which in turn contribute to a decline in kidney function, hypertension, thrombotic disorders, and cognitive impairment. In this review, we discuss the forms and mechanisms of RAGE and RAGE ligands in the kidney and COVID-19. Because various small molecules antagonize RAGE activity in animal models, targeting RAGE, its co-receptors, or its ligands may offer novel therapeutic approaches to slowing or halting progressive kidney disease, for which current therapies are often inadequate.

Absolute quantitative lipidomics reveals lipids profiling in liver of mice with early-stage alcoholic liver disease

Background

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is one of the most prevalent chronic liver disease worldwide. Alcohol-induced alterations in hepatic lipids play an important role in ALD develpoment and progression. The present study aimed to thoroughly describe the changes of lipid profiling in liver of mice with early-stage alcoholic liver disease.

Methods

C57BL/6J male mice aged 7-week were randomized into alcohol-fed (AF) group and pair-fed control group (PF) (n = 10 per group). The early stage of ALD was induced with Lieber-DeCarli liquid diet. The lipids profiling was analyzed by absolute quantitative lipidomics with UHPLC-QTRAP-MS/MS.

Results

Alcohol intake significantly increased the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in plasma, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and triacylglycerols (TAG) levels in liver. Lipidomis analyses showed that 41 TAGs were up-regulated and 8 TAGs were down-regulated in response to alcohol intake. The 8 decreased TAGs were with more double bond, longer carbon chain length and mostly contained docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3), compared with the up-regulated TAGs. Furthermore, the down-regulated TAG(56:9)_FA20:5 was inversely associated with ALT and IL-6 levels. In addition, several altered lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPE) and hexosylceramides (HCER) were all significantly decreased in response to alcohol consumption, especially HCer(18:1/22:0), with the top reduction among all the down-regulated lipids.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that not only the up-regulated lipids, alcohol-induced reduction in some specific lipids might also contribute to the ALD development, especially TAG(56:9)_FA20:5 and HCer(18:1/22:0). Their physiological functions and effects on ALD development warrants further investigation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12986-022-00679-z.

Sex-Biased Control of Inflammation and Metabolism by a Mitochondrial Nod-Like Receptor

Mitochondria regulate steroid hormone synthesis, and in turn sex hormones regulate mitochondrial function for maintaining cellular homeostasis and controlling inflammation. This crosstalk can explain sex differences observed in several pathologies such as in metabolic or inflammatory disorders. Nod-like receptor X1 (NLRX1) is a mitochondria-associated innate receptor that could modulate metabolic functions and attenuates inflammatory responses. Here, we showed that in an infectious model with the human protozoan parasite, Leishmania guyanensis, NLRX1 attenuated inflammation in females but not in male mice. Analysis of infected female and male bone marrow derived macrophages showed both sex- and genotype-specific differences in both inflammatory and metabolic profiles with increased type I interferon production, mitochondrial respiration, and glycolytic rate in Nlrx1-deficient female BMDMs in comparison to wild-type cells, while no differences were observed between males. Transcriptomics of female and male BMDMs revealed an altered steroid hormone signaling in Nlrx1-deficient cells, and a “masculinization” of Nlrx1-deficient female BMDMs. Thus, our findings suggest that NLRX1 prevents uncontrolled inflammation and metabolism in females and therefore may contribute to the sex differences observed in infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Dietary Lactobacillus-Derived Exopolysaccharide Enhances Immune-Checkpoint Blockade Therapy

Microbes and their byproducts have been reported to regulate host health and immune functions. Here we demonstrated that microbial exopolysaccharide produced by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus OLL1073R-1 (EPS-R1) induced CCR6+ CD8+ T cells of mice and humans. In mice, ingestion of EPS-R1 augmented antitumor effects of anti-CTLA-4 or anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody against CCL20-expressing tumors, in which infiltrating CCR6+ CD8+ T cells were increased and produced IFNγ accompanied by a substantial immune response gene expression signature maintaining T-cell functions. Of note, the antitumor adjuvant effect of EPS-R1 was also observed in germ-free mice. Furthermore, the induction of CCR6 expression was mediated through the phosphorylated structure in EPS-R1 and a lysophosphatidic acid receptor on CD8+ T cells. Overall, we find that dietary EPS-R1 consumption induces CCR6+ CD8+ T cells in Peyer's patches, favoring a tumor microenvironment that augments the therapeutic effect of immune-checkpoint blockade depending on CCL20 production by tumors.

SIGNIFICANCE

Gut microbiota- and probiotic-derived metabolites are attractive agents to augment the efficacy of immunotherapies. Here we demonstrated that dietary consumption of Lactobacillus-derived exopolysaccharide induced CCR6+ CD8+ T cells in Peyer's patches and improved the tumor microenvironment to augment the therapeutic effects of immune-checkpoint blockade against CCL20-producing tumors. See related commentary by Di Luccia and Colonna, p. 1189. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1171.

TAZ/WWTR1 mediates liver mesothelial-mesenchymal transition induced by stiff extracellular environment, TGF-β1, and lysophosphatidic acid

Mesothelial cells cover the surface of the internal organs and the walls of body cavities, facilitating the movement between organs by secretion of a lubricating fluid. Upon injury, mesothelial cells undergo a mesothelial-mesenchymal transition (MMT) and give rise to myofibroblasts during organ fibrosis, including in the liver. Although transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) was shown to induce MMT, molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying MMT remain to be clarified. In the present study, we examined how the extracellular environment, soluble factors, and cell density control the phenotype of liver mesothelial cells by culturing them at different cell densities or on hydrogels of different stiffness. We found that TGF-β1 does not fully induce MMT in mesothelial cells cultured at high cell density or in the absence of fetal bovine serum. Extracellular lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) synergistically induced MMT in the presence of TGF-β1 in mesothelial cells. LPA induced nuclear localization of WW domain-containing transcription regulator1 (WWTR1/TAZ) and knockdown of Taz, which suppressed LPA-induced MMT. Mesothelial cells cultured on stiff hydrogels upregulated nuclear localization of TAZ and myofibroblastic differentiation. Knockdown of Taz suppressed MMT of mesothelial cells cultured on stiff hydrogels, but inhibition of TGF-β1 signaling failed to suppress MMT. Our data indicate that TAZ mediates MMT induced by TGF-β1, LPA, and a stiff matrix. The microenvironment of a stiff extracellular matrix is a strong inducer of MMT.

LPA suppresses T cell function by altering the cytoskeleton and disrupting immune synapse formation

Cancer and chronic infections often increase levels of the bioactive lipid, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), that we have demonstrated acts as an inhibitory ligand upon binding LPAR5 on CD8 T cells, suppressing cytotoxic activity and tumor control. This study, using human and mouse primary T lymphocytes, reveals how LPA disrupts antigen-specific CD8 T cell:target cell immune synapse (IS) formation and T cell function via competing for cytoskeletal regulation. Specifically, we find upon antigen-specific T cell:target cell formation, IP3R1 localizes to the IS by a process dependent on mDia1 and actin and microtubule polymerization. LPA not only inhibited IP3R1 from reaching the IS but also altered T cell receptor (TCR)–induced localization of RhoA and mDia1 impairing F-actin accumulation and altering the tubulin code. Consequently, LPA impeded calcium store release and IS-directed cytokine secretion. Thus, targeting LPA signaling in chronic inflammatory conditions may rescue T cell function and promote antiviral and antitumor immunity.

Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Secretion Is Inhibited by Lysophosphatidic Acid

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) potentiates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). While dozens of compounds stimulate GLP-1 secretion, few inhibit. Reduced GLP-1 secretion and impaired GSIS occur in chronic inflammation. Lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) are bioactive phospholipids elevated in inflammation. The aim of this study was to test whether LPA inhibits GLP-1 secretion in vitro and in vivo. GLUTag L-cells were treated with various LPA species, with or without LPA receptor (LPAR) antagonists, and media GLP-1 levels, cellular cyclic AMP and calcium ion concentrations, and DPP4 activity levels were analyzed. Mice were injected with LPA, with or without LPAR antagonists, and serum GLP-1 and DPP4 activity were measured. GLUTag GLP-1 secretion was decreased ~70–90% by various LPAs. GLUTag expression of Lpar1, 2, and 3 was orders of magnitude higher than Lpar4, 5, and 6, implicating the former group in this effect. In agreement, inhibition of GLP-1 secretion was reversed by the LPAR1/3 antagonist Ki16425, the LPAR1 antagonists AM095 and AM966, or the LPAR2 antagonist LPA2-antagonist 1. We hypothesized involvement of Gαi-mediated LPAR activity, and found that intracellular cyclic AMP and calcium ion concentrations were decreased by LPA, but restored by Ki16425. Mouse LPA injection caused an ~50% fall in circulating GLP-1, although only LPAR1 or LPAR1/3 antagonists, but not LPAR2 antagonism, prevented this. GLUTag L-cell and mouse serum DPP4 activity was unchanged by LPA or LPAR antagonists. LPA therefore impairs GLP-1 secretion in vitro and in vivo through Gαi-coupled LPAR1/3 signaling, providing a new mechanism linking inflammation with impaired GSIS.

Lysophosphatidic acid receptor1/3 antagonist inhibits the activation of satellite glial cells and reduces acute nociceptive responses

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) exerts various biological activities through six characterized G protein-coupled receptors (LPA_1-6 ). While LPA-LPA₁  signaling contributes toward the demyelination and retraction of C-fiber and induces neuropathic pain, the effects of LPA-LPA₁  signaling on acute nociceptive pain is uncertain. This study investigated the role of LPA-LPA₁  signaling in acute nociceptive pain using the formalin test. The pharmacological inhibition of the LPA-LPA₁ axis significantly attenuated formalin-induced nociceptive behavior. The LPA₁  mRNA was expressed in satellite glial cells (SGCs) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and was particularly abundant in SGCs surrounding large DRG neurons, which express neurofilament 200. Treatment with LPA_1/3 receptor (LPA_1/3 ) antagonist inhibited the upregulation of glial markers and inflammatory cytokines in DRG following formalin injection. The LPA_1/3 antagonist also attenuated phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, especially in SGCs and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein in the dorsal horn following formalin injection. LPA amounts after formalin injection to the footpad were quantified by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, and LPA levels were found to be increased in the innervated DRGs. Our results indicate that LPA produced in the innervated DRGs promotes the activation of SGCs through LPA₁ , increases the sensitivity of primary neurons, and modulates pain behavior. These results facilitate our understanding of the pathology of acute nociceptive pain and demonstrate the possibility of the LPA₁ on SGCs as a novel target for acute pain control.

Phospholipase A1 Member A Activates Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes through the Autotaxin-Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptor Axis

Lysophosphatidylserine (lysoPS) is known to regulate immune cell functions. Phospholipase A1 member A (PLA1A) can generate this bioactive lipid through hydrolysis of sn-1 fatty acids on phosphatidylserine (PS). PLA1A has been associated with cancer metastasis, asthma, as well as acute coronary syndrome. However, the functions of PLA1A in the development of systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases remain elusive. To investigate the possible implication of PLA1A during rheumatic diseases, we monitored PLA1A in synovial fluids from patients with rheumatoid arthritis and plasma of early-diagnosed arthritis (EA) patients and clinically stable systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients. We used human primary fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) to evaluate the PLA1A-induced biological responses. Our results highlighted that the plasma concentrations of PLA1A in EA and SLE patients were elevated compared to healthy donors. High concentrations of PLA1A were also detected in synovial fluids from rheumatoid arthritis patients compared to those from osteoarthritis (OA) and gout patients. The origin of PLA1A in FLSs and the arthritic joints remained unknown, as healthy human primary FLSs does not express the PLA1A transcript. Besides, the addition of recombinant PLA1A stimulated cultured human primary FLSs to secrete IL-8. Preincubation with heparin, autotaxin (ATX) inhibitor HA130 or lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor antagonist Ki16425 reduced PLA1A-induced-secretion of IL-8. Our data suggested that FLS-associated PLA1A cleaves membrane-exposed PS into lysoPS, which is subsequently converted to LPA by ATX. Since primary FLSs do not express any lysoPS receptors, the data suggested PLA1A-mediated pro-inflammatory responses through the ATX-LPA receptor signaling axis.

Enpp2 Expression by Dendritic Cells Is a Key Regulator in Migration

Enpp2 is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) to lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), which exhibits a wide variety of biological functions. Here, we examined the biological effects of Enpp2 on dendritic cells (DCs), which are specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs) characterized by their ability to migrate into secondary lymphoid organs and activate naïve T-cells. DCs were generated from bone marrow progenitors obtained from C57BL/6 mice. Enpp2 levels in DCs were regulated using small interfering (si)RNA or recombinant Enpp2. Expression of Enpp2 in LPS-stimulated mature (m)DCs was high, however, knocking down Enpp2 inhibited mDC function. In addition, the migratory capacity of mDCs increased after treatment with rmEnpp2; this phenomenon was mediated via the RhoA-mediated signaling pathway. Enpp2-treated mDCs showed a markedly increased capacity to migrate to lymph nodes in vivo. These findings strongly suggest that Enpp2 is necessary for mDC migration capacity, thereby increasing our understanding of DC biology. We postulate that regulating Enpp2 improves DC migration to lymph nodes, thus improving the effectiveness of cancer vaccines based on DC.

Commonalities Between ARDS, Pulmonary Fibrosis and COVID-19: The Potential of Autotaxin as a Therapeutic Target

Severe COVID-19 is characterized by acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)-like hyperinflammation and endothelial dysfunction, that can lead to respiratory and multi organ failure and death. Interstitial lung diseases (ILD) and pulmonary fibrosis confer an increased risk for severe disease, while a subset of COVID-19-related ARDS surviving patients will develop a fibroproliferative response that can persist post hospitalization. Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted lysophospholipase D, largely responsible for the extracellular production of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a pleiotropic signaling lysophospholipid with multiple effects in pulmonary and immune cells. In this review, we discuss the similarities of COVID-19, ARDS and ILDs, and suggest ATX as a possible pathologic link and a potential common therapeutic target.

Loss of lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 in hepatocytes reduces steatosis via down-regulation of CD36

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis is a major public health concern and is characterized by the accumulation of triglyceride in hepatocytes and inflammation in the liver. Steatosis is caused by dysregulation of the influx and efflux of lipids, lipogenesis, and mitochondrial β-oxidation. Extracellular lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) regulates a broad range of cellular processes in development, tissue injury, and cancer. In the present study, we examined the roles of LPA in steatohepatitis induced by a methionine-choline-deficient (MCD) diet in mice. Hepatocytes express LPA receptor (Lpar) 1-3 mRNAs. Steatosis developed in mice fed the MCD diet was reduced by treatment with inhibitors for pan-LPAR or LPAR1. Hepatocyte-specific deletion of the Lpar1 gene also reduced the steatosis in the MCD model. Deletion of the Lpar1 gene in hepatocytes reduced expression of Cd36, a gene encoding a fatty acid transporter. Although LPA/LPAR1 signaling induces expression of Srebp1 mRNA in hepatocytes, LPA does not fully induce expression of SREBP1-target genes involved in lipogenesis. Human hepatocytes repopulated in chimeric mice are known to develop steatosis and treatment with an LPAR1 inhibitor reduces expression of CD36 mRNA and steatosis. Our data indicate that antagonism of LPAR1 reduces steatosis in mouse and human hepatocytes by down-regulation of Cd36.

Lysophosphatidic acid species are associated with exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations are heterogenous and profoundly impact the disease trajectory. Bioactive lipid lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) has been implicated in airway inflammation but the significance of LPA in COPD exacerbation is not known. The aim of the study was to investigate the utility of serum LPA species (LPA16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2, 20:4) as biomarkers of COPD exacerbation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

LPA species were measured in the baseline placebo sera of a COPD randomized controlled trial. Tertile levels of each LPA were used to assign patients into biomarker high, medium, and low subgroups. Exacerbation rate and risk were compared among the LPA subgroups.

RESULTS

The levels of LPA species were intercorrelated (rho 0.29-0.91). Patients with low and medium levels of LPA (LPA16:0, 20:4) had significantly higher exacerbation rate compared to the respective LPA-high patients [estimated rate per patient per year (95% CI)]: LPA16:0-low = 1.2 (0.8-1.9) (p = 0.019), LPA16:0-medium = 1.3 (0.8-2.0) (p = 0.013), LPA16:0-high = 0.5 (0.2-0.9); LPA20:4-low = 1.4 (0.9-2.1) (p = 0.0033), LPA20:4-medium = 1.2 (0.8-1.8) (p = 0.0089), LPA20:4-high = 0.4 (0.2-0.8). These patients also had earlier time to first exacerbation (hazard ratio (95% CI): LPA16:0-low = 2.6 (1.1-6.0) (p = 0.028), LPA16:0-medium = 2.7 (1.2-6.3) (p = 0.020); LPA20.4-low = 2.8 (1.2-6.6) (p = 0.017), LPA20:4-medium = 2.7 (1.2-6.4) (p = 0.021). Accordingly, these patients had a significant increased exacerbation risk compared to the respective LPA-high subgroups [odd ratio (95% CI)]: LPA16:0-low = 3.1 (1.1-8.8) (p = 0.030), LPA16:0-medium = 3.0 (1.1-8.3) (p = 0.031); LPA20:4-low = 3.8 (1.3-10.9) (p = 0.012), LPA20:4-medium = 3.3 (1.2-9.5) (p = 0.025). For the other LPA species (LPA18:0, 18:1, 18:2), the results were mixed; patients with low and medium levels of LPA18:0 and 18:2 had increased exacerbation rate, but only LPA18:0-low patients had significant increase in exacerbation risk and earlier time to first exacerbation compared to the LPA18:0-high subgroup.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provided evidence of association between systemic LPA levels and exacerbation in COPD. Patients with low and medium levels of specific LPA species (LPA16:0, 20:4) had increased exacerbation rate, risk, and earlier time to first exacerbation. These non-invasive biomarkers may aid in identifying high risk patients with dysregulated LPA pathway to inform risk management and drug development.

LPA and Autotaxin: Potential Drug Targets in Asthma?

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a versatile lysolipid, and activates a variety of signaling cascades in many cell types. Extracellular LPA is produced from lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) by the enzyme autotaxin (ATX), and binds to a family of G-protein coupled receptors on its target cells. Research by many groups continues to support the idea that LPA, and the ATX-LPA axis, have important roles in asthma and allergic airway inflammation. In vitro studies have shown that LPA activates many cell types implicated in airway inflammation, including eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, lymphocytes, airway epithelial cells, and airway smooth muscle cells. In animal models ATX and LPA receptor antagonists have been shown to attenuate allergic airway inflammation and hyperreactivity, cardinal features of asthma in humans. ATX and LPA antagonists are currently under active development to treat lung fibrosis, cancer, and other conditions. If compounds with acceptable safety profiles can be identified, then it seems likely that they will be useful in inflammatory lung diseases like asthma.

Platelet-derived lysophosphatidic acid mediated LPAR1 activation as a therapeutic target for osteosarcoma metastasis

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant bone cancer, with high rates of pulmonary metastasis. Osteosarcoma patients with pulmonary metastasis have worse prognosis than those with localized disease, leading to dramatically reduced survival rates. Therefore, understanding the biological characteristics of metastatic osteosarcoma and the molecular mechanisms of invasion and metastasis of osteosarcoma cells will lead to the development of innovative therapeutic intervention for advanced osteosarcoma. Here, we identified that osteosarcoma cells commonly exhibit high platelet activation-inducing characteristics, and molecules released from activated platelets promote the invasiveness of osteosarcoma cells. Given that heat-denatured platelet releasate maintained the ability to promote osteosarcoma invasion, we focused on heat-tolerant molecules, such as lipid mediators in the platelet releasate. Osteosarcoma-induced platelet activation leads to abundant lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) release. Exposure to LPA or platelet releasate induced morphological changes and increased invasiveness of osteosarcoma cells. By analyzing publicly available transcriptome datasets and our in-house osteosarcoma patient-derived xenograft tumors, we found that LPA receptor 1 (LPAR1) is notably upregulated in osteosarcoma. LPAR1 gene KO in osteosarcoma cells abolished the platelet-mediated osteosarcoma invasion in vitro and the formation of early pulmonary metastatic foci in experimental pulmonary metastasis models. Of note, the pharmacological inhibition of LPAR1 by the orally available LPAR1 antagonist, ONO-7300243, prevented pulmonary metastasis of osteosarcoma in the mouse models. These results indicate that the LPA-LPAR1 axis is essential for the osteosarcoma invasion and metastasis, and targeting LPAR1 would be a promising therapeutic intervention for advanced osteosarcoma.

Serum Lysophosphatidic Acid Measurement by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry in COPD Patients

Lysophospholipids are bioactive signaling molecules derived from cell membrane glycerophospholipids or sphingolipids and are highly regulated under normal physiological conditions. Lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) are a class of lysophospholipids that act on G-protein-coupled receptors to exert a variety of cellular functions. Dysregulation of phospholipase activity and consequently LPA synthesis in serum have been linked to inflammation, such as seen in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The accurate measurement of phospholipids is critical for evaluating their dysregulation in disease. In this study, we optimized experimental parameters for the sensitive measurement of LPAs. We validated the method based on matrix, linearity, accuracy, precision, and stability. An investigation into sample extraction processes emphasized that the common practice of including low concentration of hydrochloric acid in the extraction buffer causes an overestimation of lipid recovery. The liquid chromatography gradient was optimized to separate various lysophospholipid classes. After optimization, detection limits of LPA were sufficiently sensitive for subsequent analysis, ranging from 2 to 8 nM. The validated workflow was applied to a cohort of healthy donor and COPD patient sera. Eight LPA species were identified, and five unique species of LPA were quantified. Most LPA species increased significantly in COPD patients compared to healthy donors. The correlation between LPAs and other demographic parameters was further investigated in a sample set of over 200 baseline patient sera from a COPD clinical trial. For the first time, LPAs other than the two most abundant and readily detectable moieties are quantified in COPD patients using validated methods, opening the door to downstream biomarker evaluation in respiratory disease.

Positron Emission Tomography Imaging of Autotaxin in Thyroid and Breast Cancer Models Using [18F]PRIMATX

Autotaxin (ATX) is a secreted enzyme responsible for producing lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). The ATX/LPA signaling axis is typically activated in wound healing and tissue repair processes. The ATX/LPA axis is highjacked and upregulated in the progression and persistence of several chronic inflammatory diseases, including cancer. As ATX inhibitors are now progressing to clinical testing, innovative diagnostic tools such as positron emission tomography (PET) are needed to measure ATX expression in vivo accurately. The radiotracer, [¹⁸F]PRIMATX, was recently developed and tested for PET imaging of ATX in vivo in a murine melanoma model. The goal of the present work was to further validate [¹⁸F]PRIMATX as a PET imaging agent by analyzing its in vivo metabolic stability and suitability for PET imaging of ATX in models of human 8305C thyroid tumor and murine 4T1 breast cancer. [¹⁸F]PRIMATX displayed favorable metabolic stability in vivo (65% of intact radiotracer after 60 min p.i.) and provided sufficient tumor uptake profiles in both tumor models. Radiotracer uptake could be blocked by 8-12% in 8305C thyroid tumors in the presence of ATX inhibitor AE-32-NZ70 as determined by PET and ex vivo biodistribution analyses. [¹⁸F]PRIMATX also showed high brain uptake, which was reduced by 50% through the administration of ATX inhibitor AE-32-NZ70. [¹⁸F]PRIMATX is a suitable radiotracer for PET imaging of ATX in the brain and peripheral tumor tissues.

Lysophosphatidic Acid: Promoter of Cancer Progression and of Tumor Microenvironment Development. A Promising Target for Anticancer Therapies?

Increased expression of the enzyme autotaxin (ATX) and the consequently increased levels of its product, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), have been reported in several primary tumors. The role of LPA as a direct modulator of tumor cell functions—motility, invasion and migration capabilities as well as resistance to apoptotic death—has been recognized by numerous studies over the last two decades. Notably, evidence has recently been accumulating that shows that LPA also contributes to the development of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Indeed, LPA plays a crucial role in inducing angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, triggering cellular glycolytic shift and stimulating intratumoral fibrosis. In addition, LPA helps tumoral cells to escape immune surveillance. Treatments that counter the TME components, in order to deprive cancer cells of their crucial support, have been emerging among the promising new anticancer therapies. This review aims to summarize the latest knowledge on how LPA influences both tumor cell functions and the TME by regulating the activity of its different elements, highlighting why and how LPA is worth considering as a molecular target for new anticancer therapies.

Emerging Role of Phospholipase-Derived Cleavage Products in Regulating Eosinophil Activity: Focus on Lysophospholipids, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids

Eosinophils are important effector cells involved in allergic inflammation. When stimulated, eosinophils release a variety of mediators initiating, propagating, and maintaining local inflammation. Both, the activity and concentration of secreted and cytosolic phospholipases (PLAs) are increased in allergic inflammation, promoting the cleavage of phospholipids and thus the production of reactive lipid mediators. Eosinophils express high levels of secreted phospholipase A2 compared to other leukocytes, indicating their direct involvement in the production of lipid mediators during allergic inflammation. On the other side, eosinophils have also been recognized as crucial mediators with regulatory and homeostatic roles in local immunity and repair. Thus, targeting the complex network of lipid mediators offer a unique opportunity to target the over-activation and 'pro-inflammatory' phenotype of eosinophils without compromising the survival and functions of tissue-resident and homeostatic eosinophils. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of the critical role of phospholipase-derived lipid mediators in modulating eosinophil activity in health and disease. We focus on lysophospholipids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and eicosanoids with exciting new perspectives for future drug development.

Analysis of Intra-Tumoral Macrophages and T Cells in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) Indicates a Role for Immune Checkpoint and CD200-CD200R Interactions

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors shows beneficial responses, but only in a proportion of patients. To improve immunotherapy in NSCLC, we need to map the immune checkpoints that contribute immunosuppression in NSCLC-associated immune cells and to identify novel pathways that regulate immunosuppression. Here, we investigated the gene expression profiles of intra-tumoral immune cells isolated from NSCLC patients and compared them to the expression profiles of their counterparts in adjacent healthy tissue. Transcriptome analysis was performed on macrophages, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. The data was subjected to Gene Ontology (GO) term enrichment and weighted correlation network analysis in order to identify mediators of immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment in NSCLC. Immune cells from NSCLC revealed a consistent differential expression of genes involved in interactions between myeloid cells and lymphocytes. We further identified several immunosuppressive molecules and pathways that may be activated in tumor-associated macrophages in NSCLC. Importantly, we report novel data on immune cell expression of the newly described CD200/CD200R1 pathway, and the leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors (LILRs), which may represent novel innate immune checkpoints, dampening the anti-tumor T cell immune response in NSCLC. Our study substantiates the importance of tumor-associated macrophages as a mediator of immunosuppression and a promising target for immunotherapy.

BMSC-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Induce Cartilage Reconstruction of Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis via Autotaxin-YAP Signaling Axis

Background: Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) seriously affects the health of patients, and the current treatments are invasive and only used for advanced cases. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC)-derived small extracellular vesicles (BMSC-sEVs) may represent a safer and more effective treatment, but their role in TMJOA has not been elucidated. This study attempted to analyze the cartilage reconstruction effect of BMSC-sEVs on TMJOA and the mechanism underlying this effect.

Methods: BMSC-sEVs were isolated and purified by microfiltration and ultrafiltration and were subsequently characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, electron microscopy, and immunoblotting. TMJOA models were established in vivo and in vitro, and hematoxylin–eosin staining, immunohistochemistry, and histological scoring were performed to analyze the histological changes in TMJOA cartilage tissues treated with BMSC-sEVs. The proliferation, migratory capacity, and cell cycle distribution of TMJOA cartilage cells treated with BMSC-sEVs were detected. Furthermore, the related mechanisms were studied by bioinformatic analysis, immunoblotting, and quantitative PCR, and they were further analyzed by knockdown and inhibitor techniques.

Results: The acquisition and identification of BMSC-sEVs were efficient and satisfactory. Compared with the osteoarthritis (OA) group, the condylar tissue of the OA group treated with BMSC-sEV (OA^sEV) showed an increase in cartilage lacuna and hypertrophic cartilage cells in the deep area of the bone under the cartilage. Significantly upregulated expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and cartilage-forming factors and downregulated expression of cartilage inflammation-related factors in OA^sEV were observed. In addition, we found higher rates of cell proliferation and migratory activity and alleviated G1 stagnation of the cell cycle of OA^sEV. Autotaxin was found in the BMSC-sEVs, and key factors of the Hippo pathway, Yes-associated protein (YAP), phosphorylated Yes-associated protein (p-YAP), etc. were upregulated in the OA^sEV group. Treatment with BMSC-sEVs after autotaxin knockdown or inhibition no longer resulted in expression changes in cartilage-forming and inflammation-related factors and key factors of the Hippo pathway.

Conclusions: These results suggest that the autotaxin–YAP signaling axis plays an important role in the mechanism by which BMSC-sEVs promote cartilage reconstruction in TMJOA, which may provide guidance regarding their therapeutic applications as early and minimally invasive therapies for TMJOA, and provide insight into the internal mechanisms of TMJOA.

Immunity and the carotid body: implications for metabolic diseases

Neuro-immune communication has gained enormous interest in recent years due to increasing knowledge of the way in which the brain coordinates functional alterations in inflammatory and autoimmune responses, and the mechanisms of neuron-immune cell interactions in the context of metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. In this review, we will explain how this relationship between the nervous and immune system impacts the pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways with specific reference to the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland axis and the vagal reflex and will explore the possible involvement of the carotid body (CB) in the neural control of inflammation. We will also highlight the mechanisms of vagal anti-inflammatory reflex control of immunity and metabolism, and the consequences of functional disarrangement of this reflex in settlement and development of metabolic diseases, with special attention to obesity and type 2 diabetes. Additionally, the role of CB in the interplay between metabolism and immune responses will be discussed, with specific reference to the different stimuli that promote CB activation and the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic in this context. In doing so, we clarify the multivarious neuronal reflexes that coordinate tissue-specific responses (gut, pancreas, adipose tissue and liver) critical to metabolic control, and metabolic disease settlement and development. In the final section, we will summarize how electrical modulation of the carotid sinus nerve may be utilized to adjust these reflex responses and thus control inflammation and metabolic diseases, envisioning new therapeutics horizons.

Loss of FOXF1 expression promotes human lung-resident mesenchymal stromal cell migration via ATX/LPA/LPA1 signaling axis

Forkhead box F1 (FOXF1) is a lung embryonic mesenchyme-associated transcription factor that demonstrates persistent expression into adulthood in mesenchymal stromal cells. However, its biologic function in human adult lung-resident mesenchymal stromal cells (LR-MSCs) remain to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that FOXF1 expression acts as a restraint on the migratory function of LR-MSCs via its role as a novel transcriptional repressor of autocrine motility-stimulating factor Autotaxin (ATX). Fibrotic human LR-MSCs demonstrated lower expression of FOXF1 mRNA and protein, compared to non-fibrotic controls. RNAi-mediated FOXF1 silencing in LR-MSCs was associated with upregulation of key genes regulating proliferation, migration, and inflammatory responses and significantly higher migration were confirmed in FOXF1-silenced LR-MSCs by Boyden chamber. ATX is a secreted lysophospholipase D largely responsible for extracellular lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) production, and was among the top ten upregulated genes upon Affymetrix analysis. FOXF1-silenced LR-MSCs demonstrated increased ATX activity, while mFoxf1 overexpression diminished ATX expression and activity. The FOXF1 silencing-induced increase in LR-MSC migration was abrogated by genetic and pharmacologic targeting of ATX and LPA1 receptor. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses identified three putative FOXF1 binding sites in the 1.5 kb ATX promoter which demonstrated transcriptional repression of ATX expression. Together these findings identify FOXF1 as a novel transcriptional repressor of ATX and demonstrate that loss of FOXF1 promotes LR-MSC migration via the ATX/LPA/LPA1 signaling axis.

Lipid Phosphate Phosphatases and Cancer

Lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) are a group of three enzymes (LPP1–3) that belong to a phospholipid phosphatase (PLPP) family. The LPPs dephosphorylate a wide spectrum of bioactive lipid phosphates, among which lysophosphatidate (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) are two important extracellular signaling molecules. The LPPs are integral membrane proteins, which are localized on plasma membranes and intracellular membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi network. LPPs regulate signaling transduction in cancer cells and demonstrate different effects in cancer progression through the breakdown of extracellular LPA and S1P and other intracellular substrates. This review is intended to summarize an up-to-date understanding about the functions of LPPs in cancers.

Lysophosphatidic Acid Regulates the Differentiation of Th2 Cells and Its Antagonist Suppresses Allergic Airway Inflammation

BACKGROUND

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a prototypic member of a large family of lysophospholipids, has been recently shown to play a role in immune responses to respiratory diseases. The involvement of LPA in allergic airway inflammation has been reported, but the mechanism remains unclear.

OBJECT

We analyzed the biological activity of LPA in vitro and in vivo and investigated its role in allergic inflammation in mice using an LPA receptor 2 (LPA2) antagonist.

METHODS

We used a murine model with acute allergic inflammation, in which mice are sensitized and challenged with house dust mite, and analyzed airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), pathological findings, Th2 cytokines, and IL-33 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung homogenates. The effect of LPA on Th2 differentiation and cytokine production was examined in vitro using naive CD4+ T cells isolated from splenocytes. We also investigated in vivo the effects of LPA on intranasal administration in mice.

RESULTS

The LPA2 antagonist suppressed the increase of AHR, the number of total cells, and eosinophils in BALF and lung tissue. It also decreased the production of IL-13 in BALF and IL-33 and CCL2 in the lung. LPA promoted Th2 cell differentiation and IL-13 production by Th2 cells in vitro. Nasal administration of LPA significantly increased the number of total cells and IL-13 in BALF via regulating the production of IL-33 and CCL-2-derived infiltrating macrophages.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that LPA plays an important role in allergic airway inflammation and that the blockade of LPA2 might have therapeutic potential for bronchial asthma.