Seroprevalence of Brucellosis and Q-Fever in Southeast Ethiopian Pastoral Livestock

Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii and potential tick vectors infesting domestic ruminants and community perception of the disease in pastoral areas of south Omo zone, southern Ethiopia

Background

Q fever is a worldwide occurring neglected zoonotic disease with great economic importance. The etiological agent, Coxiella burnetii, is a bacterium usually associated with subclinical infections in livestock, but may also cause reproductive pathology and spontaneous abortions in artiodactyl species including goats, sheep and cattle which are deemed to be the primary reservoirs of this disease.

Aims

The present cross-sectional and questionnaire survey was undertaken in three districts of the South Omo zone with the aims to comprehend the community perception of livestock keepers and professionals about the disease, estimate the seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii) in cattle and small ruminants and to determine the species of potential tick vectors of C. burnetii infesting cattle, sheep and goats.

Methods

A standard questionnaire was used to assess the community perception of livestock keepers and animal health professionals in the area about Q fever. Sera samples were collected from 1350 ruminants comprising 450 cattle, 450 goats and 450 sheep to detect C. burnetii antibodies using the ELISA technique. Furthermore, a total of 279 cattle, 197 goats and 73 sheep were examined for the presence of ticks, and overall, 2720 ticks were collected (1299 from cattle, 1020 from goats and 401 from sheep) and identified to the species level using morphologically identification keys.

Results

Findings of the study indicated that 43% of animal owners were aware of the main symptoms of the disease while the remaining 57% did not notice these symptoms in their animals. Additionally, majority of animal health professionals 76.2% in the area reported they were familiar with the causative agent of Q fever, while 23.8% expressed uncertainty regarding the cause of coxiellosis. An overall seroprevalence of C. burnetii of 37.6% in cattle (37.4% in female and 37.8% in male cattle) and 28.7% in small ruminants was recorded (which is significantly higher in goats than in sheep). The study indicated statistically significantly higher seroprevalence of C. burnetii (49.8%) in cattle infested with ticks than in those cattle free of ticks (24.2%), with three times higher seropositivity (OR = 2.97, p = 0.000) as compared to those cattle free of ticks (24.2%). Similarly, statistically significantly higher seroprevalence of C. burnetii was recorded in both sheep and goats infested with ticks (43.6%) as compared to those animals without ticks (22.9%), with the former being twice as likely to test seropositive (OR = 2.15, p = 0.000). A total of nine different tick species were identified, namely Amblyomma variegatum (Am. variegatum) with 26.3% (342; 217 males, 101 females and 24 nymphs), Amblyomma cohaerens (Am. cohaerens) with 47.96% (370 males, 253 females), Amblyomma gemma (Am. gemma) with 4.00% (52; 29 males, 23 female), Rhipicephalus pulchellus (Rh. pulchellus) with 10.6% (138; 87 males, 51 females), Rhipicephalus pravus (Rh. pravus) with 0.2% (3; 2 males, 1 females), Rhipicephalus evertsi (Rh. evertsi) with 4.7% (61; 39 males, 22 females), Rhipicephalus praetextatus (Rh. praetextatus) with 0.8% (10; 7 males, 3 females), Rhipicephalus decoloratus (Rh decoloratus) with 2.9% (38; 4 males, 34 females) and Hyalomma truncatum (Hy. truncatum) with 2.5% (32 females).

Conclusion

The present study highlighted the significance of Q fever in ruminants and compiled information about the community perception of livestock keepers and veterinary professionals of the study areas. The role of ruminants and their ticks in the epidemiology of C. burnetii requires further research using molecular tools to better understand appropriate method of intervention that will help to reduce negative impacts on the productivities of livestock and the health of humans in Ethiopia.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Q fever and Rift Valley fever in pastoralists and their livestock in Afar, Ethiopia: A One Health approach

BACKGROUND

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, and Rift Valley fever virus are two under-researched zoonotic pathogens in Ethiopia. Potential outbreaks of these diseases, in light of the high dependency of nomadic pastoralists on their livestock, poses a risk to both human and animal health in addition to risking the pastoralists livelihoods. Our study aimed to determine the seroprevalence and associated risk factors for Q fever and Rift Valley fever in pastoral communities in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

This cross-sectional study screened pastoralists (n = 323) and their livestock (n = 1377) for IgG antibodies to Coxiella burnetii and Rift Valley fever virus. A seroprevalence for Q fever of 25.0% (95%CI 18.6-32.6) was found in pastoralists and 34.3% (95%CI 27.9-41.3) in livestock overall; with 51.9% in goats (95%CI 44.9-58.8), 39.9% in sheep (95%CI 24.6-51.2), 16.3% in camels (95%CI 10.4-24.6) and 8.8% in cattle (95%CI 5.0-15.0). For Rift Valley fever the seroprevalence in pastoralists was 6.1% (95%CI 3.3-11.0) and 3.9% (95%CI 2.6-5.7) in livestock overall; cattle had the highest seroprevalence (8.3%, 95%CI 3.3-19.2), followed by goats (2.7%; 95%CI 1.4-5.1), sheep (2.5%; 95%CI 1.0-5.9) and camels (1.8%; 95%CI 0.4-6.9). Human Q fever seropositivity was found to be associated with goat abortions (OR = 2.11, 95%CI 1.18-3.78, p = 0.011), while Rift Valley fever seropositivity in livestock was found to be associated with cattle abortions (OR = 2.52, 95%CI 1.05-6.08, p = 0.039).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides evidence for a notable exposure to both Q fever and Rift Valley fever in pastoralists and livestock in Afar. The outbreak potential of these pathogens warrants ongoing integrated human and animal surveillance requiring close collaboration of the human and animal health sectors with community representatives following a One Health approach.

Serological investigation of Coxiella burnetii infection (Query fever) in livestock in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia

Background and Aim

Query fever (Q fever) is an endemic zoonotic disease and ruminants are considered to be the primary source of infection in humans. It is caused by Coxiella burnetii which is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen with a worldwide distribution. This study estimated the prevalence of Q fever in livestock with a history of abortion in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.

Material and Methods

Sera from 341 camels, 326 sheep, and 121 goats of either sex from various locations (Makkah, Jeddah, AL-Taif, AL-Qunfudah, AL-Laith, and AL-Kamil) were examined using a Q fever indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

Among the 788 serum samples, 356 animals had anti-Coxiella burnetii immunoglobulin G antibodies with an overall seroprevalence of 45.4%. Significant differences were observed in seroprevalence between species and locations. Camels had the highest percentage of Q fever-positive sera, with a prevalence of 50.4%, followed by goats (44.6%) and sheep (36.8%), with a high significant difference between animals (p = 0.000). The prevalence was significantly higher in Makkah (65.4%) than in Jeddah (28.8%).

Conclusion

C. burnetii infection is prevalent in agricultural animals, especially camels maintained at livestock farms in Makkah province. Therefore, these animals considered as the main source of Q fever infections in Saudi Arabia, which is also a reason for the abortion in these animals. Therefore, there is an urgent need for further studies on Q fever infection with interventional approaches for prevention and control.

Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo, and Brucella species and associated reproductive disorders in cattle in southwest Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira Hardjo, and Brucella spp are recognized as the primary factors contributing to cattle reproductive issues. A cross-sectional study was conducted in southwest Ethiopia from October 2020 to October 2021 to assess the risk of reproductive disorders associated with L. Hardjo, Coxiella burnetii, and Brucella spp. Moreover, the study aimed to identify the factors associated with reproductive disorders. Using an indirect ELISA, antibodies against these pathogens were observed in serum samples collected from 461 cattle. We employed multivariable random effect logistic regression analysis to identify potential risk factors associated with reproductive disorders in cattle. The study areas showed a prevalence of 25.16 % (95 % CI: 21.20-29.12) for cattle reproductive disorders. The presence of Leptospira Hardjo (OR = 2.9, 95 % CI: 1.17-4.02) and Coxiella burnetii (OR = 3.0, 1.49-5.94) antibodies was associated to the occurrence of cattle reproductive disorders. Seropositivity to pathogens B. abortus, C. burnetii, and L. Hardjo, along with co-infection of all three, showed association with cattle abortion. The presence of L. Hardjo seropositivity and co-infection with C. burnetii were related to dystocia in cattle. Cattle with retained fetal membranes were associated with co-infection seropositivity to these pathogens. Additionally, B. abortus seropositivity was linked to cases of repeated breeding in cattle. Age, breeding practices, and dog access to cattle showed associations with reproductive disorders, with odds ratios of 2.3 (95 % CI: 2.03-4.69), 2.9 (95 % CI: 1.83-4.82), and 6.5 (95 % CI: 1.04-2.53) respectively. This research indicates that Brucella abortus, Coxiella burnetii, and Leptospira Hardjo, which are responsible for severe zoonotic diseases, have a substantial negative impact on cattle production by causing reproductive disorders. To address the transmission of these diseases, it is essential to implement effective mitigation strategies and enhance public awareness. Additional investigation is necessary to identify and understand the factors contributing to cattle reproductive disorders in the specified area.

Epidemiological investigation of Coxiella burnetii in cattle and its association with Ixodid tick infestation in different agro-ecological zones of Southwest Ethiopia

Coxiella burnetii is a serious zoonotic disease that causes significant economic losses in cattle production, including abortion, stillbirth, infertility, and reduced milk yield. However, little is known about the epidemiology of C. burnetii in Ethiopia. From November 2020 to November 2021, a cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of C. burnetii in cattle in various agro-ecologies of Southwest Ethiopia. Blood samples were collected from 461 cattle, and the serum samples were tested for the presence of C. burnetii antibodies using an indirect ELISA. To identify potential risk factors for C. burnetii seropositivity, a multivariable mixed-effect logistic regression analysis was used. The study found an overall seroprevalence of 8.68% (95% CI: 6.11-11.25) and 13.57% (95% CI: 9.56-17.58) at the animal and herd levels, respectively, in the study areas. The results of the study indicated that C. burnetii infection was a widespread disease in the study areas. C. burnetii seropositivity at the animal level was significantly associated with age (OR = 4.1, 95%CI: 1.47-10.92), herd size (OR = 3.9, 95%CI: 1.21-12.66), management system (OR = 9.7, 95%CI: 1.27-27.25), cattle access to dogs, cats, and mice (OR = 2.5, 95%CI: 1.21-5.28), accessibility of cattle to wild animals (OR = 4.2, 95%CI: 1.01-17.18), presence of ticks on cattle (OR = 2.3, 95%CI: 1.12-4.83), and history of abortion (OR = 3.8, 95%CI: 1.78-8.23). A herd level analysis identified several risk factors for C. burnetii infection, including the management system (OR = 3.8, 95%CI: 1.59-8.98), agro-ecology (OR = 2.8, 95%CI: 1.43-7.21), herd size (OR = 4.3, 95%CI: 1.69-9.76), and accessibility of cattle to dogs, cats, and mice (OR = 2.6, 95%CI: 1.18-3.96). Therefore, it is important to implement appropriate control methods and raise public awareness about C. burnetii zoonotic transmission. Moreover, further studies should be conducted to isolate and characterize C. burnetii as a cause of reproductive problems and in disease reservoirs such as ticks and wildlife in the study areas.

Coxiellosis in Livestock: Epidemiology, Public Health Significance, and Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii Infection in Ethiopia

Coxiellosis is a zoonotic disease that is prevalent globally and can pose significant challenges, especially in less developed countries like Ethiopia. Coxiella burnetii is responsible for causing an infection called Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in ruminants. Pneumonia and endocarditis are the only signs that characterize the acute and chronic forms of Q fever, respectively. Ruminants exhibit symptoms such as abortion during the later stages of pregnancy, impaired fertility, perinatal death, premature delivery, and reduced birth weight. C. burnetii infection typically spreads among healthy cattle via tick bites and exposure to infected cattle or their bodily secretions. The primary source of human infection is through the ingestion of contaminated milk and milk products, but transmission through aerosols and dust generated during livestock operations is also common. Cattle, sheep, camels and goats are the primary sources of human infection, and the bacterium can be found in various bodily fluids of infected animals. Several factors, including host characteristics, environmental conditions, and management practices, can potentially affect the occurrence of C. burnetii infection in livestock, such as cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. Coxiellosis is prevalent in Ethiopia's pastoral and mixed cattle management systems, as individuals frequently interact with cattle and are therefore more prone to exposure to the C. burnetii bacterium. Vaccination and biosecurity measures are effective techniques for managing C. burnetii infection. Therefore, it is crucial to implement appropriate mitigation strategies, raise awareness about the spread of C. burnetii infection, and conduct further studies on C. burnetii infection in high-risk groups.

Molecular detection of Coxiella spp. in ticks (Ixodidae and Argasidae) infesting domestic and wild animals: with notes on the epidemiology of tick-borne Coxiella burnetii in Asia

Tick-borne Coxiella spp. are emerging in novel regions infecting different hosts, but information regarding their occurrence is limited. The purpose of this study was the molecular screening of Coxiella spp. in various ticks infesting goats, sheep, camels, cattle, wild mice, and domestic fowls (Gallus gallus domesticus) in various districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Morphologically identified tick species were confirmed by obtaining their cox1 sequences and were molecularly screened for Coxiella spp. by sequencing GroEL fragments. Almost 345 out of 678 (50.9%) hosts were infested by nine tick species. Regarding the age groups, the hosts having an age >3 years were highly infested (192/345, 55.6%), while gender-wise infestation was higher in female hosts (237/345, 68.7%). In collected ticks, the nymphs were outnumbered (613/1,119, 54.8%), followed by adult females (293/1,119, 26.2%) and males (213/1,119, 19.7%). A total of 227 ticks were processed for molecular identification and detection of Coxiella spp. The obtained cox1 sequences of nine tick species such as Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma anatolicum, Haemaphysalis cornupunctata, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis danieli, Haemaphysalis montgomeryi, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, Rhipicephalus microplus, and Argas persicus showed maximum identities between 99.6% and 100% with the same species and in the phylogenetic tree, clustered to the corresponding species. All the tick species except Ha. danieli and R. microplus were found positive for Coxiella spp. (40/227, 17.6%), including Coxiella burnetii (15/40, 6.7%), Coxiella endosymbionts (14/40, 6.3%), and different Coxiella spp. (11/40, 4.9%). By the BLAST results, the GroEL fragments of Coxiella spp. showed maximum identity to C. burnetii, Coxiella endosymbionts, and Coxiella sp., and phylogenetically clustered to the corresponding species. This is the first comprehensive report regarding the genetic characterization of Coxiella spp. in Pakistan's ticks infesting domestic and wild hosts. Proper surveillance and management measures should be undertaken to avoid health risks.

Neglected zoonotic bacteria causes and associated risk factors of cattle abortion in different agro-ecological zones of southwest Ethiopia

Three zoonotic bacteria, Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira spp, and Brucella spp, cause cattle abortion and significant losses in the livestock sector. However, these infections were neglected diseases in Ethiopia. Between October 2020 and October 2021, a cross-sectional study was carried out in southwest Ethiopia to determine the prevalence of abortion and identify the major zoonotic bacterial causes and risk factors that contribute to abortion. Using an indirect ELISA, antibodies to Brucella abortus, Leptospira Hardjo, and Coxiella burnetii were detected in serum samples taken from 461 cattle. Potential risk factors for cattle abortion were found using a multivariable random effect logistic regression analysis. The prevalence of cattle abortion was found to be 22.56 % (95 % CI: 18.74-26.38) in the study areas. Leptospira Hardjo (OR=1.8, 95% CI: 1.04-3.00), Coxiella burnetii (OR=2.7, 95 % CI: 1.26-5.62), and Brucella abortus (OR=9.8, 95 % CI: 1.27-17.15) were all associated with the occurrence of abortion in cattle, as were their co-infections (OR=8.1, 95 % CI: 1.28-39.33). Other risk factors for cattle abortion included breed (OR=16.7, 95 % CI: 2.20-26.77), herd size (OR=2.5, 95 % CI: 1.16-4.68), breeding method (OR=2.3, 95 % CI: 1.33-3.90), and contact with dogs (OR=2.2, 95 % CI: 1.34-3.53). According to the findings of this study, Brucella abortus, Coxiella burnetii, and Leptospira Hardjo are serious zoonoses that cause significant production loss in cattle due to abortion. To prevent transmission of these zoonotic diseases, it is crucial to implement effective control measures and increase public awareness. The causes of cattle abortion in the study areas should also be isolated and characterized.

Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Sites of Central Highland of Ethiopia

Background

Brucellosis is a contagious, economically significant bacterial disease that affects animals worldwide and is one of the most neglected zoonotic diseases in the world. The disease poses a barrier to the trade of animals and animal products, represents a public health hazard, and is an impediment to free animal movement.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out from December 2019 to May 2020 in order to determine seroprevalence and identify potential risk factors for brucellosis in dairy cows in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia with recent cases of abortion. Purposive sampling was carried out on the farms and kebeles in question to screen for recent cases of abortion in dairy cows. For the purpose of performing serological testing, 352 blood samples from dairy cattle were obtained. The Rose Bengal Plate test was used to initially screen the serum samples, and the Complement Fixation test was utilized as a confirmatory test.

Results

Using combined RBPT and CFT tests, the overall seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis was 0.6% (95% CI: 0.16-2.09). Retained fetal membrane (OR = 32.74, p = 0.006), market-based stock replacement (OR = 16.55, p = 0.002), breeding method (OR = 7.58, p = 0.027), and late stage of abortion (OR = 14.74, p = 0.0002) are all significantly associated risk factors.

Conclusion

The present seroprevalence study revealed that brucellosis is prevalent at a lower rate among dairy cattle in the study areas. However, there is a possible risk of brucellosis transmission in dairy cattle and the exposed human population in research locations because no control measures were put in place there. Implementing a test and slaughter method with compensation for farmers is advised due to the low prevalence of bovine brucellosis in government-owned and small-holder farms.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) Exposure in Smallholder Dairy Cattle in Tanzania

Q fever is a zoonotic disease, resulting from infection with Coxiella burnetii. Infection in cattle can cause abortion and infertility, however, there is little epidemiological information regarding the disease in dairy cattle in Tanzania. Between July 2019 and October 2020, a serosurvey was conducted in six high dairy producing regions of Tanzania. Cattle sera were tested for antibodies to C. burnetii using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A mixed effect logistic regression model identified risk factors associated with C. burnetii seropositivity. A total of 79 out of 2049 dairy cattle tested positive with an overall seroprevalence of 3.9% (95% CI 3.06-4.78) across the six regions with the highest seroprevalence in Tanga region (8.21%, 95% CI 6.0-10.89). Risk factors associated with seropositivity included: extensive feeding management (OR 2.77, 95% CI 1.25-3.77), and low precipitation below 1000 mm (OR 2.76, 95% 1.37-7.21). The disease seroprevalence is relatively low in the high dairy cattle producing regions of Tanzania. Due to the zoonotic potential of the disease, future efforts should employ a "One Health" approach to understand the epidemiology, and for interdisciplinary control to reduce the impacts on animal and human health.

Seroprevalence Estimates of Q Fever and the Predictors for the Infection in Cattle, Sheep, and Goats in Nandi County, Kenya

Q fever is an important worldwide zoonotic disease that affects almost all domestic animals, wildlife, and humans. The infection has both socio-economic and public health significance. A cross-sectional study was carried out to investigate the estimates of seroprevalence of Q fever and to determine the predictors of the infection in cattle, sheep, and goats in six wards of Nandi County. A total of 1,140 blood samples were collected from 366 households. Samples were drawn from 725 cattle (64%), 283 sheep (25%), and 132 goats (11%). Multistage sampling method was adopted. Serum samples were analyzed for antibodies to Coxiella burnetii using the indirect ELISA test. Results showed an overall animal seroprevalence of 5.614% (64/1140) for Q fever. In cattle, the seroprevalence was 8.138% (59/725) with CI 95% (2.8-18.23), 1.413% (4/283) for sheep CI 95% (1.0-7.78), and 0.758% (1/132) goats CI 95% (0.14-7.27). From the findings, Q fever was more prevalent in cattle (OR 7.26) than in sheep and goats. Animal species (p value 0.015, CI 95% OR 7.26) was the only potential predictors in the three considered species for the presence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies. Sex, age, breed, and production system had no statistical significant association for Q fever infection since p value was >0.005. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that cattle, sheep, and goats are widely exposed to Q fever organisms, and hence, it is an important zoonosis in Nandi County. Therefore, to address this "silent" disease, there is an urgent call for both veterinarians and medical personnel to jointly address prevention and control strategy through enhanced surveillance, public sensitization, and awareness creation under the one health concept. There is also a need for enhanced capacity for the diagnosis of Q fever in both animals and humans in Nandi County.

Apparent prevalence of brucellosis, Q-fever and toxoplasmosis in aborted goat’s at North Shoa, Ethiopia

Abortion imposes great economical loss in productivity and by product of small ruminants. The present study was conducted to determine the rate of abortion and apparent prevalence of Brucellosis, Toxoplasmosis and Q-fever in aborted goats from June 2015 to August 2019 in North Shoa, Ethiopia. During consecutive years of clinical case study 503 does were entered to mating, of which100 (19.5 %) animals aborted. There were significant differences (p=0.013) in abortion among parities. A total of 35 serum samples were collected from aborted does within six months periods. All samples were screened initially with Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) for Brucellosis. All RBPT positive were further tested by i-ELISA. Also, serums were tasted to screen specific antibody against Q-fever and Toxoplasmosis using i-ELISA. Of total tested 64.7 % and 8.6 % of them were positive for Q-fever and Toxoplasmosis, respectively, but neither of them was positive for Brucellosis. The present clinical study revealed that abortion was the cause of kids’ loss and serological investigation of antibody against Q-fever and Toxoplasmosis showed that the agents were the major causes of abortion. Even though there was no positive reactor does to brucellosis, the result must be interpreted with care since absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. Beside of this, some samples collected from active cases were sero-negative for neither of tested antibodies; it indicated there was other cause/s of abortion in the study site. These interesting findings deserve further detail study by using more sensitive diagnostic test in order to examine the full extent of the problem in small ruminant populations. Also, an awareness-raising campaign should be launched to educate farm workers and professionals about proper preventive and control measures for such zoonotic diseases

Animal Brucellosis: Seropositivity rates, Isolation and Molecular Detection in Southern and Central Ethiopia

INTRODUCTION

Brucellosis is a neglected bacterial zoonosis with serious veterinary and public health importance throughout the world. A cross-sectional study on animal brucellosis was conducted aiming to estimate seroprevalence and molecular detection.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected from a total of 4274 individual animals (cattle, small ruminants and camel) from 241 herds/flocks for serology and PCR. Serum samples were tested using multispecies I-ELISA. Blood clots from seropositive animals were also tested for brucellosis via PCR. Additionally, 13 vaginal swab samples were collected from animals (2 from bovine and 11 from small ruminants) with recent abortion history for bacterial isolation and molecular detection.

RESULTS

The overall individual animal and herd level seroprevalence was 3.95% (169/4274) and 18.26% (44/241) respectively. The animal level seroprevalence at species level was 1.58% (47/2982), 8.89% (97/1091) and 12.44% (25/201) in bovine, small ruminants (sheep and goat) and camel, respectively. Herd level seroprevalence were 5.43% (10/184), 52.08% (25/48) and 100% (9/9) in bovine, small ruminant and camel, respectively. The animal level seroprevalence of bovine from intensive and extensive systems was 1.10% (31/2808) and 2.87% (5/174) respectively. Blood clots tested for brucellosis via PCR were negative by RT-PCR. Brucella species was isolated from 6/13 (46.15%) vaginal swab samples cultured on Brucella selective agar, and shown to be B. melitensis using Real-Time PCR.

CONCLUSION

Overall, seropositivity for camels was higher than what has been reported previously. Also, there was a notable difference in this study in cattle seroprevalence when comparing extensive with intensive systems, with the extensive system having much greater seropositivity.

Seroprevalence and Molecular Evidence of Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels of Pakistan

Coxiellosis is a zoonosis in animals caused by Coxiella burnetii. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 920 (591 female and 329 male) randomly selected camels (Camelus dromedarius) of different age groups from 13 districts representative of the three different ecological zones in the Province Punjab, Pakistan to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of coxiellosis. The blood samples were collected and tested for anti-C. burnetti antibodies using indirect multispecies ELISA. Real-time PCR was used for the detection of C. burnetii DNA to determine the prevalence in heparinized blood pools. Out of 920 investigated camels, anti-C. burnetii antibodies were detected in 288 samples (31.3%) (95% CI: 28.3–34.4%). The highest (78.6%) and lowest (1.8%) seroprevalence were detected in Rahimyar Khan (southern Punjab) and in Jhang (central Punjab), respectively. Potential risk factors associated with seropositivity of the Q fever in camels included desert area (42.5%; OR = 2.78, 95% CI 1.12–3.21) summer season (35.7%; OR = 2.3, 95% CI: 1.31–3.2), sex (female) (39.1; OR = 2.35, 95% CI: 1.34–2.98), tick infestation (51.3%;OR = 2.81, 95% CI: 1.34–3.02), age (>10 years; 46.4%; OR = 1.56, 95% CI: 0.33–2.05) and herd size (38.5%; OR = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.76–1.54). Coxiella burnetii DNA was amplified in 12 (20%) and 1 (10%) of 60 ELISA-negative and 10 suspected camels, respectively. DNA could not be detected in ELISA positive blood pools. This study emphasizes the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of coxiellosis as well as its potential to spill over to animals and humans in contact with these camel herds.

Geographical distribution of ixodid ticks and tick-borne pathogens of domestic animals in Ethiopia: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

In Ethiopia, ixodid ticks and associated tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are of great importance from both a veterinary and public health point of view. This review aimed at compiling available published data on the distribution of ixodid tick species and TBPs in the country.

METHODS

A standard review approach was employed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline. Published peer-reviewed articles and theses/dissertations reporting on ixodid ticks and TBPs in Ethiopia were searched using different keywords in many electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, African Journals OnLine, and institutional repositories. Articles were screened based on inclusion and exclusion criteria using the PRISMA flowchart. Data were retrieved from eligible articles and recorded in a preformed data record sheet. Descriptive statistics were employed to present data using graphs. QGIS (Quantum GIS) software version 3.4.5 was used to show the distribution of ixodid tick species and TBPs.

RESULTS

Overall, 35 articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in this review. Of these, 24 articles report only on ixodid ticks of domestic animals, six articles report only on TBPs in livestock or ticks, and five articles report on both ticks and TBPs in either animals or ticks. Of these studies, 54% were in the Oromia region, while only 3% of studies were in the Benishangul-Gumuz region. The Gambela region lacked studies on ticks and TBPs. At least 19 ixodid tick species have been recorded from different domestic animals including cattle, small ruminants, donkeys, horses, camels, dogs, and cats. Morphological characterization appears to be the sole method of tick species identification in the country. The distribution and abundance of specific tick species depend on geographical locations and agroecological factors. Sixteen molecularly confirmed TBPs have been identified in animal and tick tissue using molecular methods from only four administrative regions, despite the wide distribution of ticks. Among TBPs, five Anaplasma, two Ehrlichia, two Rickettsia, five Theileria, two Babesia, and one Coxiella species are the major pathogens in both livestock and humans.

CONCLUSIONS

Many ixodid ticks circulate in a wide geographical zone of Ethiopia. However, the limited reports on TBPs at the country level in general, and the absence of either tick or TBP reports around the border region with neighboring countries in particular, highlights the need for further study.

Bovine Brucellosis: Epidemiology, Public Health Implications, and Status of Brucellosis in Ethiopia

Brucellosis is a globally distributed zoonotic disease that causes serious problems in developing countries such as Ethiopia. Brucella abortus is the primary cause of brucellosis in cattle, and Brucella melitensis and Brucella suis also occasionally cause Brucella infection in cattle. Abortion and the retained fetal membrane are typical signs in females, whereas orchitis and bursitis are the known signs in male cattle. Brucellosis is typically transmitted to healthy cattle by direct or indirect contact with diseased cattle or their discharges. Humans can acquire brucellosis through the consumption of unpasteurized milk or milk products, and through contact with diseased cattle or their discharges. The occurrence of bovine brucellosis is affected by different factors related to the management system, host, and environmental factors. In Ethiopia, the occurrence of brucellosis is high in pastoral and mixed cattle management systems, wherever humans live closely with cattle and so have a higher probability of picking up the Brucella organism. The most suitable technique in the management of Brucella infection is the vaccination of young female cattle. Brucella abortus can also be eradicated by the isolation of diseased cattle, administration of immunizing agents, and test-and-slaughter methods. Therefore, it is important to implement applicable management techniques and to increase public awareness about the transmission of brucellosis, and further research should be conducted on brucellosis in high-risk groups.

Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis and Associated Risk Factors in Western Ethiopia

Background

Brucellosis is a contagious bacterial disease, which affects domestic animals, humans, and wildlife in Ethiopia and other countries.

Methods

A cross-sectional study design using a simple random sampling technique was conducted in Diga, Guto, Gida, and Sibu Sire districts of East Wollega Zone, Western Oromia, from November 2019 to July 2020 to determine the prevalence of bovine brucellosis and identify associated risk factors. A lottery method was used during serum collection and risk factors identified during interview.

Results

A total of 1152 serum samples were collected from cattle of 6 months age and above. Serum samples were tested by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA). An overall seroprevalence of brucellosis was 1.82% (21/1152). Statically significant variation (P<0.05) in seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis was recorded among potential risk factors such as breed [P≤0.05; OR:8.905; CI:1.568–50.573], parity [P≤0.05; OR:0.017; CI:0.042–5.195], retained fetal membrane [P≤0.001; OR:0.018; CI:0.00–2.169], and abortion history [P≤0.001; OR:0.030; CI:0.004–0.212]. Conversely, seroprevalence variations in sex, district, villages, body condition score, and age were statistically insignificant (P>0.05).

Conclusion

The current study revealed bovine brucellosis is posing a threat to livestock with no strict control and prevention scheme in place. Therefore, public awareness creation about the zoonotic importance of the disease is crucial and the Government should establish legislation, support, control, and prevention of the disease recommended.

Prevalence and risk factors of human brucellosis and malaria among patients with fever in malaria-endemic areas, attending health institutes in Awra and Gulina district, Afar Region, Ethiopia

Background

Brucellosis is an important neglected bacterial zoonotic disease that has been affecting animals and humans for decades. Malaria has been considered major cause of illness in tropical areas, including Ethiopia. This study aimed to identify prevalence and risk factors of human brucellosis and malaria among patients with fever in malaria-endemic areas attending health institutes in Awra and Gulina district, Afar Region, Ethiopia.

Methods

A purposive cross-sectional study was conducted among febrile patients who attended health institutes in Awra and Gulina district of Afar region from February to May 2019. 3–5 ml blood samples were collected, thick and thin blood films were prepared and examined for malaria; serum was separated and tested for anti-Brucella using Rose Bengal Plate Test, and the seropositives were subjected to ELISA. Data were entered using EpiData3.1 and analyses were performed using Stata SE 14.

Results

A total of 444 febrile individuals (59.5% female) of age ranging from 2 to 83 years (mean = 26.1, SD =  ± 11.8) were participated in this study. The overall seroprevalence of brucellosis was 31.5% (95% CI; 27.4–36.0%) by RBPT and 15.8% (95% CI; 12.7–19.7%) by ELISA, as well as the prevalence of malaria (P. falciparum) was 4.3% (95% CI; 2.7–6.6%) among febrile patients. Malaria was more common in males (7.2% 95% CI; 4.2–12.1%) than in female (2.3% 95% CI; 1.0–5.0%, p = 0.01) and in non-married than in married (7.6% 95% CI; 4.1–13.6% vs. 2.9% 95% CI; 1.5–5.4%, p = 0.02). Being male (AOR = 2.41, 95%CI: 1.36–4.26, p < 0.002), drinking raw milk (AOR = 26.68, 95%CI: 3.22- 221.13, p = 0.002) and boiled milk (AOR = 17.52, 95%CI: 2.06—149.04, p = 0.009) and touching aborted fetus/discharges without protective (AOR = 2.56, 95%CI: 1.01–6.528.50, p = 0.048) were independently associated with brucellosis among febrile patients.

Conclusion

The prevalence of brucellosis in fever patients in this study area is higher than malaria. Consumption of raw milk and contact with animal discharge can cause significant risk of Brucella infection. So, brucellosis disease must be sought in the differential diagnosis, like ELISA test that can be used to differentiate from other febrile diseases like malaria.

Integrated human-animal sero-surveillance of Brucellosis in the pastoral Afar and Somali regions of Ethiopia

Background

Brucellosis is widespread in Ethiopia with variable reported prevalence depending on the geographical area, husbandry practices and animal species. However, there is limited information on the disease prevalence amongst pastoral communities, whose life is intricately linked with their livestock.

Methodology

We conducted an integrated human-animal brucellosis sero-surveillance study in two adjacent pastoral regions, Afar and Somali region (SRS). This cross-sectional study included 13 woredas (districts) and 650 households. Blood samples were collected from people and livestock species (cattle, camel, goats and sheep). Sera were analyzed with C-ELISA for camels and shoats (sheep and goats), with I-ELISA for cattle and IgG ELISA for humans. Descriptive and inferential statistics analyses were performed.

Results

A total of 5469 sera were tested by ELISA. Prevalence of livestock was 9.0% in Afar and 8.6% in SRS (ranging from 0.6 to 20.2% at woreda level). In humans, prevalence was 48.3% in Afar and 34.9% in SRS (ranging from 0.0 to 74.5% at woreda level). 68.4% of all households in Afar and 57.5% of households in SRS had at least one animal reactor. Overall, 4.1% of animals had a history of abortion. The proportion of animals with abortion history was higher in seropositive animals than in seronegative animals. Risk factor analysis showed that female animals were significantly at higher risk of being reactors (p = 0.013). Among the species, cattle had the least risk of being reactors (p = 0.014). In humans, there was a clear regional association of disease prevalence (p = 0.002). The older the people, the highest the odds of being seropositive.

Conclusion

Brucellosis is widespread in humans and animals in pastoral communities of Afar and SRS with the existence of geographical hotspots. No clear association was seen between human and particular livestock species prevalence, hence there was no indication as whether B. abortus or B. melitensis are circulating in these areas, which warrants further molecular research prior to embarking on a national control programs. Such programs will need to be tailored to the pastoral context.

Brucellosis is a neglected disease of livestock that can be transmitted to people through consumption of raw animal products and direct contact with animal birth material. Although prevalent in Ethiopia, there is limited information on the disease prevalence amongst pastoral communities, whose life is intricately linked with their livestock. We therefore, conducted a disease surveillance in people and their livestock in Afar and Somali region (SRS), two pastoral regions of Ethiopia. The study included 13 districts and 650 households. A total of 5469 blood samples were collected from people and livestock species (cattle, camel, sheep and goats) and analyzed using commercial brucellosis ELISA assays. Livestock brucellosis prevalence was 9% in Afar and 8.6% in SRS (ranging from 0.6 to 20.2% at woreda level). In humans, prevalence was 48.3% in Afar and 34.9% in SRS (ranging from 0 to 74.5% at woreda level). 68.4% of all households in Afar and 57.5% of households in SRS had at least one positive animal. This study showed that the disease is widespread in human and their livestock in pastoral communities of Afar and SRS with the existence of geographical hotspots. Results will advise on tailored surveillance programs in pastoral communities.

Molecular Detection of Zoonotic Pathogens in the Blood and Tissues of Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Central Desert of Iran

Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) play a major economic role in many countries in Africa and Asia. Although they are resistant to harsh environmental conditions, they are susceptible to a wide range of zoonotic agents. This study aimed to provide an overview on the prevalence of selected zoonotic pathogens in blood and tissues of camels in central Iran. Blood, liver, portal lymph node, and brain were collected from 100 apparently healthy camels at a slaughterhouse in Qom city to assess the presence of DNA of Brucella spp., Trypanosoma spp., Coxiellaburnetii, and Bartonella spp. PCR products were sequenced bidirectionally and phylogenetic analyses were performed. Eleven percent of camels tested positive for Brucellaabortus (3%) and Trypanosomaevansi (8%). Coxiellaburnetii and Bartonella spp. DNA was not detected. Our data demonstrate that camels from Iran contribute to the epidemiology of some zoonotic pathogens. Performing proper control strategies, such as vaccination of camels and humans in contact with them, test-and-slaughter policy, and education of the general population is necessary for minimizing the risk of zoonotic infection.

Knowledge, attitude, and practices to zoonotic disease risks from livestock birth products among smallholder communities in Ethiopia

Many causes of abortion in livestock are due to zoonotic pathogens that pose serious infection risks for humans. Carefully designed, empirical One Health research allows to untangle the complexity around these risks and guides the development of practical health education guidelines and best prevention practices for veterinary public health interventions. To support this, the study presented here aimed at understanding knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) on zoonotic risks from livestock birth products among rural communities in Ethiopia. From July 2018 to February 2019, a cross-sectional study design was conducted with 327 randomly selected farmers and pastoralists in five districts in three regions in Ethiopia. The structured questionnaire consisted of 48 items to evaluate knowledge (24), attitude (9), and prevention practices (15) related to zoonotic diseases risks from livestock birth products. A unidimensional two-parameter logistic (2-PL) Item Response Theory (IRT) model was used for zoonotic disease risk KAP scale construction and evaluation. The 2-PL IRT model was fitted to determine the probability of a person to appropriately respond to an item with a provided zoonotic disease KAP level. We then examined differential item functioning (DIF) concerning to five important covariates. The attitude subscale had the highest total mean score (37.3, ± 28.92%) and the knowledge subscale had the lowest mean score (22.4, ± 33.6%) among the three subscales. The mixed model regression analysis indicated that region was the only apparent factor explaining differences in zoonotic diseases knowledge, attitude, and practice total mean scores. The knowledge and attitude subscales had good internal consistency with a Cronbach's α at 0.83 and 0.81, respectively, whereas the practice subscale had lower internal consistency with 0.51. There was a positive association between responding to knowledge questions correctly and a positive attitude (r2 = 0.44, p < 0.0001) and self-reported good practice (r2 = 0.307, p < 0.0001). The differential item functioning test showed that 19 of 37 (51.35%) and 12 of 37 (32.43%) items of the retained KAPs survey items had non-uniform and uniform DIF linked to at least one covariate respectively and all the covariates were related with DIF in at least one item. This study found substantial knowledge gaps, a low level of the desired attitude, and high-risk behavioural practices regarding zoonotic disease from livestock birth products. Consequently, livestock keepers are likely exposed to pathogens and thus these practices are an important contributing factor for zoonotic disease infection in people.

Geographical Variation in Coxiella burnetii Seroprevalence in Dairy Farms Located in South-Western Ethiopia: Understanding the Broader Community Risk

Q fever is a zoonotic disease that is caused by Coxiella burnetii and leads to abortion and infertility in ruminants and debilitating disease in humans. Jimma zone, including Jimma town, located in the Oromia region of Ethiopia, was affected by an outbreak of abortions in ruminants related to Q fever infection between 2013 and 2015. This study aimed to investigate the geo-clustering of C. burnetii seroprevalence in dairy farms of Jimma town and identify the environmental risk factors associated with seroprevalence distribution. A total of 227 cattle were tested for antibodies against C. burnetii in 25 farms. We explored the clustering of C. burnetii seroprevalence using semivariograms. A geostatistical regression-based model was implemented to quantify the risk factors and to predict the geographical variation in C. burnetii seroprevalence at unsampled locations in Jimma town using OpenBugs. Our results demonstrated that the risk of exposure in dairy cattle varied across the landscape of Jimma town and was associated with environmental risk factors. The predictive map of C. burnetii seroprevalence showed that communities in the eastern part of Jimma town had the highest risk of exposure. Our results can inform community-level investigations of human seroprevalence in the high-risk areas to the east of Jimma.

Causes and Flock Level Risk Factors of Sheep and Goat Abortion in Three Agroecology Zones in Ethiopia

A cross-sectional survey was conducted to estimate the incidence of small ruminant abortion and identify its major causes and potential risk factors in goat and sheep flocks in three agroecology and production systems of Ethiopia. Information on pregnancy outcomes and management risk factors were collected for 299 goat and 242 sheep flocks. Blood samples were collected from 133 sheep and 90 goat flocks and tested for Coxiella burnetii, Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, and Toxoplasma gondii. A causal diagram outlined relationships between potential predictor variables and abortion in the flock. The effect of management and exposure to infectious causes on the number of abortions in the flock across agroecology was tested using zero-inflated negative binomial regression. Results showed that 142 (58.68%) goats and 53 (17.73%) sheep flocks reported abortions in the 12 months before the survey. The mean annual flock abortion percentages were 16.1% (±26.23) for does and 12.6% (±23.5) for ewes. Farmers perceived infectious diseases, extreme weather conditions, feed shortage, physical traumas, and plant poisoning as the most important causes of abortion. A higher proportion of abortion was recorded during the short rainy season (March to May) and start of the short dry and cold season (June to August) in the lowland mixed crop-livestock and pastoral agroecology and production system, respectively. Overall, 65.41% sheep and 92.22% goat flocks tested positive for one or more abortion causing agents, namely, C. burnetti, C. abortus, Brucella spp., and T. gondii; mixed infection was found in 31.58% sheep and 63.33% goat flocks. Spending the night in a traditional house and providing supplementary feed for pregnant dams were important management factors which significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased the risk of abortion by 2.63 and 4.55 times, respectively. However, the presence of other livestock species and dogs in the household and exposure of the flock to Brucella spp. or anyone of the four tested infectious agents significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the risk of abortion in sheep and goat flocks. In general, abortion is a challenge for small ruminant production in the study area especially in lowland agroecology and calls for improvement in husbandry practices, health care and biosecurity practices.

Sero-prevalence of brucellosis, Q-fever and Rift Valley fever in humans and livestock in Somali Region, Ethiopia

Information on zoonotic diseases in humans and livestock are limited in pastoral/agro-pastoral communities in Ethiopia. A multi-stage cross sectional cluster design study was implemented with the aim to establish the seroprevalence of zoonotic diseases including brucellosis, Q-fever and Rift Valley fever (RVF) in humans and livestock in Adadle Woreda of the Somali Region, Ethiopia. Blood samples were collected from humans and livestock and tested by relevant serological tests. For brucellosis, Rose Bengal test (RBT) and indirect ELISA was used for screening and confirmatory diagnosis respectively. Indirect and competitive ELISA were also used for Q-fever and RVF respectively. The individual seropositivity of Q-fever in livestock was 9.6% (95% CI 5.9-15.1) in cattle, 55.7% (95% CI 46.0-65.0) in camels, 48.8% (95% CI 42.5-55.0) in goats, and 28.9% (95% CI 25.0-33.2) in sheep. In humans, seropositivity of Q-fever was 27.0% (95% CI 20.4-34.0), with prevalence in males of 28.9% vs 24.2% in females (OR = 1.3; 95% CI 0.6-2.5). Camel seropositivity of Q-fever was significantly associated with age (OR = 8.1; 95% CI 2.8-23.7). The individual apparent seroprevalence of RVF was 13.2% (95% CI 8.7-18.8) in humans, 17.9% (95% CI 11.0-27.8) in cattle, 42.6% (95% CI 34.8-50.7) in camels, 6.3% (95% CI 3.3-11.6) in goats and 7.4% (95% CI 4.7-11.5) in sheep. Camels had the highest seropositivity of both Q-fever and RVF. Only a weak correlation was observed between human and livestock seropositivity for both Q-fever and RVF. Only cattle and camels were seropositive for brucellosis by iELISA. The individual seroprevalence of brucellosis was 2.8(0.9-6.4) in humans, 1.5% (95% CI 0.2-5.2) in cattle and 0.6% (95% CI 0.0-3.2) in camels. This study showed the importance of zoonoses in Somali Region and is the first published study to describe RVF exposure in humans and livestock in the country. Even though human exposure to RVF virus was reported, public health sector of Somali Region has not given attention to such zoonoses. Collaboration between public and animal health sectors for further investigation on these zoonoses using the One Health concept is indispensable.

Seroprevalence of and risk factors for Q fever in dairy and slaughterhouse cattle of Jimma town, South Western Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Q fever is a zoonotic disease, caused by Gram negative bacterium C. burnetii, which imparts significant socio-economic burden due to production and reproductive loss (abortion, stillbirth, and infertility) in ruminants and debilitating clinical disease in human populations. While sheep and goats are considered the primary reservoirs of infection to humans, infection can also result from exposure to cattle. Recent studies indicate that in Ethiopia Q fever is a disease of growing public health interest. The top cattle producing region in Ethiopia is the Oromia region and Jimma is the zone that ranks first in the population of cattle within Oromia. While in Jimma zone livestock production plays an important role in people's livelihoods and nutrition, to date, there is no available report on seroprevalence of Q fever in cattle. This is particularly important due to the low dairy farm biosecurity in Jimma town. This study aimed to evaluate the potential risk for public health from cattle production; a specific objective of this study included the estimation of the seroprevalence of C. burnetii infection and its potential risk factors in dairy cattle and cattle for slaughter in Jimma Town.

RESULTS

The seroprevalence of C. burnetii in cattle present at dairy farms was significantly lower compared to cattle presented at slaughterhouse [6.17% (95% CI: 3.41-10.13) and 11.79% (95% CI: 7.63-17.17), respectively; (P = 0.04)]. As the age of dairy cattle increase by 1 year, they were 1.51 more likely to be positive of C. burnetii [OR = 1.51 (95%CI: 1.30-1.75; (P = 0.000)]. Cattle managed in semi-intensive production systems were 8.08 more likely to be C. burnetii seropositive compared to intensively managed dairy cattle [OR = 8.08 (95%CI: 1.03-63.68); P = 0.047]. Dairy cattle with access to nuisance animals like dogs, cats and mice were 5.65 more likely to be C. burnetii seropositive compared to dairy cattle without access to these animals. On the other hand, dairy cattle that have no tick infestation are 93% less likely to be seropositive for C. burnetii [OR = 0.07 (95%CI: 0.01-0.74); P = 0.027]. Concerning farm-level data, farms of larger herd sizes were 1.03 more likely to be C. burnetii seropositive than small herd farms [OR = 1.03 (95%CI: 0.99-1.06)]. The result from slaughterhouse indicates that as the age of cattle increase by 1 year their chance of being C. burnetii seropositive increases by 2.27 [OR = 2.27 (95%CI: 1.93-2.68); p = 0.000].

CONCLUSION

Considering its zoonotic and economic burden the seroprevalence of Q fever recorded in this study is of eminent public health concern with a farm-level and slaughterhouse seroprevalence of 6.17 and 11.79% respectively. Based on modifiable risk factors identified in this study, Q fever management plans better be focused on health education and awareness campaigns for abattoir workers and dairy farm workers. Dairy farm Q fever management plans should contemplate improved dairy herd biosecurity with regards to cattle tick infestation, keeping different livestock species segregated and avoiding mixing of herd with others with unknown health status.

Seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever in cattle from Ibarapa area, Oyo State, South-western Nigeria

Introduction

a cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever among cattle in a rural setting in Oyo State, Nigeria.

Methods

one hundred and fourty nine serum samples (24 males; 125 female) from 16 cattle herds were collected and screened. The Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) and competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (cELISA) were used for brucellosis while indirect Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (iELISA) was used for Q-fever. Further, a checklist was used to collect data on cattle sampled. Data were analyzed using STATA 12.

Results

serum analysis revealed that 11.4% (17/149) and 6.7% (10/149) were seropositive by RBPT and cELISA respectively for brucellosis, while 23.5% (35/149) were seropositive by iELISA for Q-fever. A significant association was detected between cattle age (OR=27.7; 95% CI: 2.34-449.86), herd size (OR=10.53; 95% CI: 1.85-60.53) and seropositivity to Brucella infection. Also, there was a significant association between breed (OR=6.69; 95% CI: 1.7-28.74), herd size (OR=4.25; 95% CI: 1.31-13.85) of cattle and seropositivity to Coxiella burnetii infection. Importantly, the only significant associated factor to cattle herd seropositivity to Brucella and C. burnetii infections was the method of handling aborted foetuses.

Conclusion

the study revealed that brucellosis and Q-fever are prevalent among cattle in the study area. Thus, there is a need for further studies to provide better insight into the epidemiology of both diseases and particularly Q-fever. This becomes imperative in the study area and generally in Nigeria given the dearth of information about the diseases in pastoralist communities who are at grave risk of infection at the human-animal-ecosystem interface.

Detection of Coxiella burnetii antibodies in sheep and cattle on a veterinary campus in St. Kitts: Implications for one health in the Caribbean region

Coxiella burnetii is a ubiquitous zoonotic bacterium reported worldwide that causes Q-fever. Infections result in profound economic losses to livestock producers by causing abortions and low birth weights. Current information about the disease in the Caribbean region is scarce. With multiple small islands and territories, it is often considered that the bacterium is absent or circulates at a low prevalence. Our study aimed to determine whether sheep and cattle housed at a veterinary campus in St Kitts had previous exposure to C. burnetii. Blood samples were taken from cattle (n = 63; 72% of the herd) and sheep (n = 133; 71% of the flock). Antibodies to C. burnetii were detected by a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IDvet® ELISA) test. The seroprevalence was estimated at 26.3% (95% CI: 19.1–34.7%) in sheep and 0% (95% CI: 0–5.7%) in cattle. Sheep importation to St. Kitts is very rare, thus, these results suggest that C. burnetii is present on the island. The seronegativity of all the cattle highlights the absence of the bacterium on the veterinary campus. The high seroprevalence in sheep, however, has potentially important implications for animal health and public health as well as for wildlife conservation. Further investigation about animal seroprevalence and human exposure are warranted in St. Kitts and in the Caribbean region.

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Seroprevalence in sheep from a veterinary university was 26.3%

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No cattle from the university were seropositive

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Risk for human and animal health is likely to be important in St. Kitts

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There is a need to investigate the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in Caribbean region

Brucellosis in ruminants and pastoralists in Borena, Southern Ethiopia

Brucellosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease that has important veterinary and public health consequences as well as economic impact in sub Saharan Africa including Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted in four selected districts of Borena Pastoral setting in Southern Ethiopia from October 2017 to February 2018 to estimate the prevalence of brucellosis and assess associated risk factors in cattle, sheep, goats and occupationally associated humans. A total of 750 cattle, 882 sheep and goats and 341 human subjects were screened for evidence of brucellosis using the Rose Bengal Test (RBT) with positive results confirmed by Competitive-ELISA(c-ELISA). Structured questionnaires were used for collection of metadata from individual animals, herders and animal attendants to test the association between explanatory and outcome variables. The overall animal level prevalence was 2.4% (95% confidence interval, CI: 1.4-3.7) in cattle, 3.2% (95% CI: 2.1-4.6) in sheep and goats, and 2.6% (95% CI: 1.2-5) in humans occupationally linked to livestock production systems. Herd size, parity, and history of abortion were risk factors associated with Brucella seropositivity (P<0.05) in cattle whereas in sheep and goats the results showed that district, age group, flock size, and history of abortion were significantly associated risk factors with Brucella seropositivity (P<0.05). Assisting calving and presence of seropositive animals in a household (P<0.05) were significantly associated with Brucella seropositivity in humans. Evidence of brucellosis in various animal species and the associated human population illustrates the need for a coordinated One Health approach to controlling brucellosis so as to improve public health and livestock productivity.

Coxiella burnetii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) from Algeria: Seroprevalence, molecular characterization, and ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) vectors

Q fever is a widespread zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii that most commonly infects not only a variety of mammals but also arthropods and in particularly ticks. The aim of this study was to detect C. burnetii infection in camels including ixodid ticks using serological and molecular assays. Between July 2018 to June 2019, blood samples from 184 male and female camels (Camelus dromedarius) were collected from 3 regions of South-East Algeria and serum samples were tested for antibodies against Coxiella burnetii using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The positive sera and a total of 60 ticks were tested by quantitative PCR (qPCR) for detection of C. burnetii with primers and probes specific to the transposon-like repetitive region (IS1111 gene). Positive samples were genotyped by amplification and sequencing of partial sequences based on the IS1111 gene. The seroprevalence of antibodies against C. burnetii was 75.5%. Statistical analysis pointed out three potential risk factors associated with Q fever infection: geographic location, age class and season. No positive DNA of camel blood sample was observed. However, five Hyalomma dromedarii, one H. impeltatum and one H. excavatum tick species were detected positive for Coxiella burnetii DNA by qPCR, with an overall prevalence rate of 11.66% (7/60). The revealed Algerian strains by phylogenetic and comparative analysis of the IS1111 nucleotide sequences were clustered with several pathogenic C. burnetii strains isolated from ticks, human, and cattle located in Tunisia, Greece and in some Mediterranean countries, respectively. The study results clearly indicate that camels and their ticks in Algeria may play an important role as a reservoir for C. burnetii and can be considered as a significant source of Q fever transmission to other animal species and humans.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for chlamydiosis, coxiellosis and brucellosis in sheep and goats in Borana pastoral area, southern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Abortion is considered an important disease problem of small ruminants in Borana pastoral area. A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and risk factors of chlamydiosis, coxiellosis (Q-fever) and brucellosis in small ruminants in selected districts of Borana zone.

RESULTS

A total of 506 sheep and goats were tested using serological tests. Fifty (9.88%; 95% CI: 7.42, 12.82), 144 (28.46%; 95% CI: 24.56, 32.61) and none (0.00%; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.59) of them were positive for chlamydiosis, coxiellosis and brucellosis, respectively. History of abortion was recorded in 136 (32.00%; CI: 27.59, 36.67) of sheep and goats in the study area. The logistic regression analysis, however, showed that statistically significant difference ccurred among districts and between the species of small ruminants. The prevalence odd of antibodies against C. abortus was significantly lower in Miyo, Dire and Teltelle districts compared to Dillo. The odd of infection with this bacterium was lower in sheep than goats. Similarly the odd of infection with C. burnettii was significantly higher in Dillo district than the rest of the districts studied, higher in goats than sheep and higher in adult animals than young ones.

CONCLUSION

High prevalence of abortion is observed in sheep and goats in the study area. High seropositivity of C. burnetii and C. abortus in both sheep and goats tested implies risks of human infection by both diseases. Thus, attention needs to be paid to further study of both diseases in animals and humans in the area.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for C. burentii infection in camels in Egypt

Q fever caused by Coxiella burentii, gram negative obligate intracellular bacterium. The disease has been reported in wide range of animals especially ruminants. The available data about the prevalence of Q fever in camels in Egypt are limited. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of C. burnetii among camels and identify the risk factors associated with infection. A total 315 serum samples were collected from three governorates in Egypt during 2018 and examined by an indirect Enzyme linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). The obtained results were subsequent analyzed by chi-square and logistic regression. Generally, the seroprevalence of C. burnetii among camels was 22 %. The results revealed that the seroprevalence of C. burnetii increased in aged female camels in comparison with young one and was higher also in female with history of abortion (OR = 4.6, 95%CI: 2.46-8.76). The infection was significantly increased during autumn season (OR = 9.3, 95%CI: 4.23-20.5). Besides, camels in contact with small ruminants showed high level of infection (OR = 1.12, 95%CI: 0.65-1.93) or camel with heavy tick infestation (OR = 1.08, 95%CI: 0.60-1.92). Our report confirms that the seroprevalence of C. burnetii among camels in Egypt and appropriate control measures should be taken to reduce the transmission of infection to other animal species or human.

The sero-epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) across livestock species and herding contexts in Laikipia County, Kenya

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Query fever (Q fever), is among the most highly infectious zoonotic pathogens transmitted among livestock, with chronic effects challenging to veterinary and medical detection and care systems. Transmission among domestic livestock species can vary regionally due to herd management practices that determine which livestock species are raised, whether or not livestock are in contact with wildlife, and the susceptibility of these livestock to infection. To explore how different livestock management practices are associated with the risk of infection in multispecies environments, we carried out a comparative study of three types of herd management systems in the central Kenyan county of Laikipia: agro-commercial, mixed conservancy/commercial, and smallholder ranches. We tested C. burnetii antibody seroprevalence in four common livestock species. Across all management types, the highest seroprevalence was in camels (20%), followed by goats (18%), sheep (13%), and cattle (6%). We observed a lower odds of testing seropositive for young compared to adult animals (adjusted OR = 0.44 [95% CI 0.24, 0.76]), and for males compared to females (adjusted OR = 0.52 [95% CI 0.33, 0.80]). Animals from mixed conservancy/commercial and smallholder operations had a higher odds of testing seropositive compared to animals from agro-commercial ranches (adjusted OR = 5.17 [95% CI 2.71, 10.44] and adjusted OR = 2.21 [95% CI 1.17, 4.43] respectively). These data suggest that herd management practices might affect the transmission dynamics of C. burnetiiin arid African ecosystems like those seen in Kenya where several transmission modes are possible, risk of drought has promoted new livestock species such as camels, and multiple wildlife species may co-occur with livestock on the landscape. Further longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle the mechanisms underlying these patterns, and further explore transmission patterns between wildlife, domestic animal, and human populations.

Sero-prevalence and community awareness on the risks associated with Livestock and Human brucellosis in selected districts of Fafan Zone of Ethiopian-Somali National Regional State

A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the sero-prevalence, potential risk factors for transmission and spread of brucellosis in livestock and human in Jigjiga and Gursum Woredas of Fafan Zone in Ethiopian-Somali. Two Kebeles were purposively selected from each Worada based on accessibility and willingness of livestock owners. For serology, a total of 268 cattle, 108 sheep, 172 goats, 183 camels, 211 humans were included. For questionnaire, 99 volunteers were recruited. Blood samples were collected from livestock and human. The serum was subjected to Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT) to detect Brucella antibody. Out of the total 731 livestock examined, 3.0% were positive for Brucella antibodies using RBPT. Highest sero-prevalence was recorded in camels (4.9%) followed by goat (2.9%), cattle (2.6%), and sheep (0.9%). Using CFT, 0.4% of animals were found positive for brucellosis. A sero-prevalence of 1.7% was recorded in goats using CFT but no in other animal species. From the 211 human serum samples, 5 (2.4%) were positive for Brucella infection using RBPT. One (0.4%) was confirmed by CFT. Questioner survey revealed, almost all respondents (98%) were not aware about zoonotic risks of brucellosis. Cattle and camel milking were mainly performed by housewives. Although 97-99% of respondent had habits of cooked meat consumption, the majorities (99%) consume raw milk. In the pastoral community, the observed sero-prevalence of human brucellosis along with the practices of animal husbandry and animal food consumption habits, might give an insight that brucellosis could pose a public health hazard.

Brucellosis in the Addis Ababa dairy cattle: the myths and the realities

Background

Bovine brucellosis is considered as an important disease among livestock and people in sub-Saharan African countries including Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2016 to May 2017 to estimate the prevalence and associated risk factors, and to assess knowledge-attitude and practices (KAP) of farm workers about bovine brucellosis in Addis Ababa dairy farms.

Results

A total of 1550 cattle from 127 dairy farms were serially tested using the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT), Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbant Assay (c-ELISA) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT). Forty-three (2.77%) of the collected sera were positive by the RBPT and only one of these was positive by c-ELISA (0.06%) and none was positive by CFT. The knowledge of farm workers towards the disease was very low and risk factors associated with Brucella infection were apparent in the study area.

Conclusion

Seropositivity for Brucella spp. was found in only a very small percentage by c-ELISA test, although risk factors for transmitting Brucella infection were present. The results suggest that bovine brucellosis is currently not a generalized problem in dairy cattle of Addis Ababa. Since this favorable disease situation is not the result of informed policy, there is no guarantee that it will continue unchanged. Setting clear policy in control of the disease and implementing “One Health” are the most constructive approaches recommended.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-018-1709-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Coxiella burnetii in Tunisian dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius): Seroprevalence, associated risk factors and seasonal dynamics

Q fever, caused by Coxiella burnetii, is a zoonotic disease responsible of abortion in ruminants. Few studies have investigated the prevalence of this infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius). The present report aimed to highlight the epidemiological status and identify the risk factors associated with C. burnetii infection in one-humped dromedary that is the most productive livestock species in arid areas. A total of 534 sera of healthy camels were collected in eight governorates from southern and central Tunisia. Samples were tested by an indirect Enzyme linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Results were analyzed using the Chi-square test and logistic regression. Overall, 237 camels (44%, 95%CI: 0.40-0.49) were seropositive to C. burnetii. Statistical analysis pointed out four potential risk factors associated with infection. A meaningful high seropositivity was observed in female camels with a previous history of abortion (70%) (OR = 4.186, 95%CI: 2.05-8.51). Seroprevalence was higher in aged camels (>10 years-old) (48%) (OR = 2.91, 95%CI: 1.37-6.17). Besides, camels, intended for meat production from small herds showed a high level of infection (52%) (OR = 2.43, 95%CI: 1.3-4.5). Coxiellosis evolved in dromedary herds throughout the year, however infection was significantly important in autumn (60%) (OR = 4.13, 95%CI: 1.86-9.17) and winter (56%) (OR = 5.52, 95%CI: 2.50-12.16). Bioclimatic stage, gender, tick infestation and contact with other ruminants were not risk factors in camel's infection by C. burnetii. Our reports confirm that Tunisian one-humped dromedaries had been exposed to this bacterium and could contribute to its dissemination among farmers and other livestock animals. Furthers studies are required to evaluate the prevalence of Q fever among people professionally exposed like farmers, veterinarians and slaughterhouse workers.

Knowledge and perception of pastoral community members about brucellosis as a cause of abortion in animals and its zoonotic importance in Amibara district, Afar Region, Ethiopia

Sero-epidemiological studies of brucellosis in the Afar Region showed that the disease is prevalent in livestock. However, there is little information regarding the pastoral community members’ awareness about brucellosis as a cause of abortion in animals and its zoonotic importance. In this study, we assessed knowledge and perception of pastoral community members about brucellosis as a cause of abortion in animals and its zoonotic importance in Amibara district, Afar Region, Ethiopia. Between October and December 2016, a total of 475 study participants (age range 18–80 years, mean age 35.9 years) were interviewed about abortion in their animals, its causes, and diseases that can be transmitted to humans through consumption of raw milk. Almost all (97.7%) of the study participants reported that abortion in animals, especially in goats, is a major problem in the area, and they mentioned that disease (44.6%), drought (58.4%) and fly bites (29.5%) as the main causes of abortion. The study participantsalso thought that malaria (42.9%) and bovine tuberculosis (19.3%) can be transmitted to humans through consuming raw milk. Five respondents (4.2%) mentioned brucellosis (locally known as “hahayita”) as a disease that can be transmitted through frequent consumption of raw milk. The majority (91.9%) mentioned malaria as a cause of febrile illness in humans and 16 (4.4%) participants mentioned brucellosis as a cause of febrile illness. Some participants also mentioned brucellosis as a cause of joint swelling (hygroma) in cattle. In conclusion, the pastoral community members in the present study area lack clear understanding about brucellosis as one of the diseases that cause abortion in their animals and its zoonotic importance. There is a need to create awareness about the zoonotic and animal health importance of brucellosis through various means such as community health extension/veterinary workers and community leaders.

Community-based prevalence of typhoid fever, typhus, brucellosis and malaria among symptomatic individuals in Afar Region, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

In sub-Saharan Africa, where there is the scarcity of proper diagnostic tools, febrile illness related symptoms are often misdiagnosed as malaria. Information on causative agents of febrile illness related symptoms among pastoral communities in Ethiopia have rarely been described.

METHODS

In this a community based cross-sectional survey, we assessed the prevalence of typhoid fever, typhus, brucellosis and malaria among individuals with a set of given symptoms in Amibara district, Afar Region, Ethiopia. Blood samples were collected from 650 study participants, and examined by Widal and Weilfelix direct card agglutination test (DCAT) as well as test tube based titration test for Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi) and Rickettsia infections. Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT) were used to screen Brucella infection. Thin and thick blood smears were used to diagnosis malaria.

RESULTS

Out of 630 sera screened by DCAT, 83 (13.2%) were reactive to H and/or O antigens for S. Typhi infection. Among these, 46 (55.4%) were reactive by the titration test at the cut off value ≥ 1:80. The combined sero-prevalence for S. Typhi by the two tests was 7.3% (46/630). The seroprevalence for Rickettsia infection was 26.2% (165/630) by DCAT and 53.3% (88/165) by the titration test at the cut off value ≥ 1:80. The combined sero-prevalence for Rickettsia infection by the two tests was 14.0% (88/630). The sero-prevalence for Brucella infection was 12.7% (80/630) by RBPT, of which 28/80 (35%) were positive by CFT. The combined sero-prevalence for Brucella infection by the two tests was 4.4% (28/630). Out 650 suspected individuals for malaria, 16 (2.5%) were found positive for P. falciparum infection.

CONCLUSION

In this study, typhoid fever, typhus, brucellosis and malaria were observed among symptomatic individuals. The study also highlighted that brucellosis cases can be misdiagnosed as malaria or other disease based solely on clinical diagnosis. Therefore, efforts are needed to improve disease awareness and laboratory services for the diagnosis of brucellosis and other zoonotic diseases to identify other causes of febrile illness in this pastoral setting.

Cross-sectional survey of brucellosis and associated risk factors in the livestock-wildlife interface area of Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional survey was carried out to investigate the seroprevalence of ovine and bovine brucellosis in the livestock-wildlife interface area of Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. Furthermore, producer's knowledge about brucellosis and its zoonotic potential was assessed using a structured questionnaire. A total of 268 cattle and 246 goat sera were collected from 50 herds and 46 flocks and subjected to Rose Bengal test (RBT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in parallel to detect anti-Brucella species antibodies. Positive reactions were further confirmed with compliment fixation test (CFT). Flock and herd level seroprevalence rate was 12.8% (95% CI 4.8-25.7) and 32.0% (95% CI 19.5-46.7) in goats and cattle, respectively. An overall animal-level seroprevalence of 4.5% (95% CI 2.25-7.86) and 9.7% (95% CI 6.44-13.89) was recorded for goats and cattle, respectively. Seroprevalence showed an increasing trend with age, where adult cattle > 2 years. Goats (> 1 year) recorded relatively higher seroprevalence, but the differences were not statistically significant. Similarly, female cattle and goats recorded a relatively higher seroprevalence, 11 and 5.6%, respectively, compared to males but the difference was not significant. However, a significant (P < 0.01) variation of seroprevalence was noted for parity (bovine), higher in animals in second parity, and abortion history, in both species, higher in animals that experienced abortion. Interviews revealed lack of awareness about brucellosis and food safety related to the zoonotic potential from consuming raw animal products (milk and meat). Ninety-eight percent of respondents did not consider handling abortion material is risky, and only a very low proportion (8%, n = 50) was able to mention limited zoonotic diseases (anthrax and Taenia cysticercosis) could be transmissible to people. The study indicated that brucellosis is endemic in domestic animals in the interface area and calls for further broad epidemiological investigation of the disease in livestock, human and wildlife following 'one health' unified research approaches beside enhancing public awareness.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in Algeria

Query (Q) fever is a globally distributed zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii, a bacterial agent for which ruminants are the most prevalent natural reservoir. Data regarding Q fever infection in camels in Algeria are limited. Therefore, a survey to detect seroprevalence of C. burnetii antibodies was conducted among healthy camel populations in a vast area in southeastern Algeria to determine distribution of the Q fever causative organism and to identify risk factors associated with infection. Between January and March 2016, blood samples were collected from 184 camels and serum samples were subsequently analysed using a commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kit. At the time of blood collection, a questionnaire investigating 13 potential predisposing factors associated with C. burnetii seropositivity was completed for every dromedary camel and herd. Results were analysed by a chi-square (χ2) test and multivariate logistic regression. The seroprevalence of C. burnetii at the animal level was 71.2% (95% CI: 65.2-78.3) and 85.3% (95% CI: 72.8-97.8) at the herd level. At the animal level, differences in seroprevalence were observed because of herd size, animal age, animal sex, presence of ticks and contact with other herds. A multivariable logistic regression model identified three main risk factors associated with individual seropositivity: (1) age class > 11 years (OR = 8.81, 95% CI: 2.55-30.41), (2) herd size > 50 head (OR = 4.46, 95% CI: 1.01-19.59) and (3) infestation with ticks (OR 2.2; 95% CI: 1.1-4.5). This study of seroprevalence of C. burnetii infection in camels in Algeria revealed a high seroprevalence of Q fever in camel populations in southeastern Algeria and provided strong evidence that Q fever represents an economic, public health and veterinary concern. Appropriate measures should be taken to prevent the spread of C. burnetii and to reduce the risk of Q fever in farm animals and humans in this agro-ecologically and strategically important region of North Africa.

Major vectors and vector-borne diseases in small ruminants in Ethiopia: A systematic review

Vector-borne diseases are among major health constraints of small ruminant in Ethiopia. While various studies on single vector-borne diseases or presence of vectors have been conducted, no summarized evidence is available on the occurrence of these diseases and the related vectors. This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive summary on major vectors and vector-borne diseases in small ruminants in Ethiopia. Search for published and unpublished literature was conducted between 8th of January and 25th of June 2015. The search was both manual and electronic. The databases used in electronic search were PubMed, Web of Science, CAB Direct and AJOL. For most of the vector-borne diseases, the summary was limited to narrative synthesis due to lack of sufficient data. Meta-analysis was computed for trypanosomosis and dermatophilosis while meta-regression and sensitivity analysis was done only for trypanososmosis due to lack of sufficient reports on dermatophilosis. Owing emphasis to their vector role, ticks and flies were summarized narratively at genera/species level. In line with inclusion criteria, out of 106 initially identified research reports 43 peer-reviewed articles passed the quality assessment. Data on 7 vector-borne diseases were extracted at species and region level from each source. Accordingly, the pooled prevalence estimate of trypanosomosis was 3.7% with 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.8, 4.9), while that of dermatophilosis was 3.1% (95% CI: 1.6, 6.0). The in-between study variance noted for trypanosomosis was statistically significant (p<0.05). Among the three covariates considered for meta-regression, only one (species) fitted the final model significantly (p<0.05) and explained 65.44% of the between studies variance (R²). The prevalence in sheep (5.5%) increased nearly by 34% compared to goats (2.9%). The parasitic presence in blood was documented for babesiosis (3.7% in goats); and anaplasmosis (3.9% in sheep). Serological evidence was retrieved for bluetongue ranging from 34.1% to 46.67% in sheep, and coxiellosis was 10.4% in goats. There was also molecular evidence on the presence of theileriosis in sheep (93%, n=160) and goats (1.9%, n=265). Regarding vectors of veterinary importance, 14 species of ticks in five genera, four species of Glossina and 4 genera of biting flies were reported. Despite the evidence on presence of various vectors including ticks, flies, mosquitoes and midges, studies on vector-borne diseases in Ethiopia are surprisingly rare, especially considering risks related to climate change, which is likely to affect distribution of vectors. Thus better evidence on the current situation is urgently needed in order to prevent spread and to model future distribution scenarios.

Seroprevalence of brucellosis among cattle slaughtered in three municipal abattoirs of Gombe state, Northeastern Nigeria

AIM

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis among cattle slaughtered at three municipal abattoirs of Gombe State, Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 200 blood samples collected from slaughtered cattle of different breeds (Sokoto Gudali - 50, White Fulani - 102, Red bororo - 34, and Crossbreeds - 14), sex (males - 19 and females - 181), and from different locations (Billiri - 30, Yamaltu Deba - 50, and Gombe - 120) were screened for brucellosis using rose bengal plate test (RBPT), serum agglutination test (SAT), and microtiter agglutination test (MAT).

RESULTS

Of the 200 serum samples analyzed, 7 (3.5%), 10 (5.0%) and 18 (9.0%) were positive by RBPT, SAT and MAT, respectively. The results showed no statistically significant association between sex and seropositivity to bovine brucellosis. However, seropositivity of bovine brucellosis was higher in females than in males. Similarly, no statistically significant association was observed between breed and occurrence of bovine brucellosis. Moreover, the prevalence of brucellosis was higher in Sokoto Gudali as compared with the other breeds. Based on the study locations, higher seroprevalence was observed in animals screened from Billiri as compared with those from other locations (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The presence of Brucella abortus antigen in the sera of slaughtered cattle in Gombe state poses a significant public health risk. Therefore, it is important to carry out further epidemiological studies on fulani herdsmen and cattle herds in the study area, in order to explore the risk factors associated with the occurrence and perpetuation of brucellosis among cattle herds, ascertain the prevalence and status of the disease among both farms and nomadic herds.

Brucellosis Seropositivity in Animals and Humans in Ethiopia: A Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The objectives of this study were to assess the heterogeneities of estimates and to estimate the seroprevalence of brucellosis in animals and humans in Ethiopia.

METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Data from 70 studies covering 75879 animals and 2223 humans were extracted. Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT) in series were the most frequently used serological tests. A random effects model was used to calculate pooled prevalence estimates. The overall True Prevalence of brucellosis seropositivity in goats and sheep were estimated at 5.3% (95%CI = 3.5, 7.5) and 2.7% (95%CI = 1.8, 3.4), respectively, and 2.9% for each of camels and cattle. The prevalence was higher in post-pubertal than in pre-pubertal animals (OR = 3.1, 95% CI = 2.6, 3.7) and in the pastoral than in the mixed crop-livestock production system (OR = 2.8, 95%CI = 2.5, 3.2). The incidence rates of brucellosis in humans of pastoral and sedentary system origins were estimated at 160 and 28 per 100 000 person years, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The seroprevalence of brucellosis is higher in goats than in other species. Its occurrence is evocative of its importance in the country in general and in the pastoral system in particular. Public awareness creation could reduce the transmission of Brucella spp. from animals to humans and the potential of livestock vaccination as a means of control of brucellosis needs to be assessed.

Serological, molecular detection and potential risk factors associated with camel brucellosis in Pakistan

Brucellosis is one of the most important zoonoses in developing countries and was considered the most widespread zoonosis in the world. Brucellosis was reported in camels and has been reported from all camel-keeping countries.The present study was performed in three districts (Jhang, Chiniot, and Bhakkar) of Punjab province of Pakistan. A total of 200 camel (Camelus bactrianus) sera were collected using random and multistage cluster sampling from different areas. Fifty samples were collected from one organized governmental farm. One hundred fifty samples were collected randomly from nomadic/pastoral production systems. All sera were tested with Rose Bengal plate agglutination test (RBPT) and confirmed by ELISA. Genomic DNA was extracted from all serum samples and tested by real-time PCR. Various potential risk factors (season, rearing with other animals, and abortion or orchitis history) recorded through questionnaires were statistically analyzed by Chi-square test.In total, 5 % of investigated sera were positive by RBPT. Only 2 % of the camel sera were CELISA positive. Brucella abortus DNA was detected in 1.5 % of the investigated animals. Season, rearing of camels with other ruminants, abortion, and orchitis history were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05) disease for determinants.Camel brucellosis is a zoonotic disease in the Pakistani Punjab with various risk factors maintaining and perpetuating its spread. Therefore, there is a need for implementing control measures and raising public health awareness in prevention of brucellosis in Pakistan.

Apparent seroprevalence, isolation and identification of risk factors for brucellosis among dairy cattle in Goa, India

Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonotic infection affecting livestock and human beings. The disease has been reported worldwide except in few countries where it has been eradicated. The prevalence of brucellosis among cattle from 11 farms having a history of abortions was studied. A total of 481 samples comprising of blood, milk, vaginal swabs, vaginal discharges, placental tissues and fetal tissues were collected from 296 animals. Clinical samples were processed for the isolation of Brucella. Serum samples (n=296) were tested by Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and indirect ELISA. A total of 90 (30.40%) and 123 (41.55%) samples were positive by RBPT and indirect ELISA, respectively. Also 27.02% samples were positive by both the tests. Brucella isolates (n= 8) were recovered from clinical samples using Brucella selective media. All the isolates demonstrated PCR amplification for the bcsp31 and IS711 genes. Amplification of Brucella abortus specific primer was demonstrated by all the isolates in AMOS PCR indicating isolates to be of either B. abortus biotype 1, 2 or 4. Risk factors for transmission of brucellosis among cattle population were studied by field surveys. It was observed that lack of awareness about brucellosis (OR=8.739, P=0.138) and inadequate floor space (OR=0.278, P=0.128) were crucial risk factors for transmission of bovine brucellosis.

The Use of Guidelines for Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Tanzania: A Lesson from Kilimanjaro Clinicians

Background:

Evaluations of the guidelines for the management of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTI) Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Tanzania is scant.

Aim:

The aim of the study was to assess the usefulness of the current Tanzanian treatment guideline for the management lower respiratory tract infection.

Subjects and Methods:

A descriptive cross sectional study in 11 hospitals of different levels in the Kilimanjaro region Data were collected from May 2012 to July 2012 by semi-structured interview for clinicians using 2 dummy cases for practical assessment. Data were analyzed by STATA v11 (StataCorp, TX, USA). Qualitative narratives from the interviews were translated, transcribed then coded by colors into meaningful themes.

Results:

A variety of principles for diagnosing and managing LRTI were demonstrated by 53 clinicians of Kilimanjaro. For the awareness, 67.9% (36/53) clinicians knew their responsibility to use Standard Treatment Guideline for managing LRTI. The content derived from Standard Treatment Guideline could be cited by 11.3% of clinicians (6/53) however they all showed concern of gaps in the guideline. Previous training in the management of patients with LRTI was reported by 25.9% (14/53), majority were pulmonary TB related. Correct microorganisms causing different forms of LRTI were mentioned by 11.3% (6/53). Exact cause of Atypical pneumonia and Q fever as an example was stated by 13.0% (7/53) from whom the need of developing the guideline for LRTI was explicitly elaborated.

Conclusion:

The current guidelines have not been used effectively for the management of LRTI in Tanzania. There is a need to review its content for the current practical use.

Q fever is an old and neglected zoonotic disease in Kenya: a systematic review

Background

Q fever is a neglected zoonosis caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. The knowledge of the epidemiology of Q fever in Kenya is limited with no attention to control and prevention programs. The purpose of this review is to understand the situation of Q fever in human and animal populations in Kenya in the past 60 years, and help identify future research priorities for the country.

Methods

Databases were searched for national and international scientific studies or reports on Q fever. We included studies and reports published between 1950 and 2015 if they reported on Q fever prevalence, incidence, and infection control programs in Kenya. Data were extracted with respect to studies on prevalence of Coxiella infections, study design, study region, the study populations involved, and sorted according to the year of the study.

Results

We identified 15 studies and reports which qualified for data extraction. Human seroprevalence studies revealed evidence of C. burnetii infections ranging from 3 to 35.8 % in all regions in which surveys were made and two Q fever outbreak episodes. Coxiella burnetii infections found in cattle 7.4–51.1 %, sheep 6.7–20 %, camels 20–46 %, and goats 20–46 % revealed variation based on ecoregions and the year of study. Farming and lack of protective clothing were associated with increased seropositivity among humans. However, high quality data is lacking on Q fever awareness, underlying cultural-economic factors influencing C. burnetii infection, and how the pathogen cycles may be embedded in livestock production and management systems in the economically and ecologically different Kenyan regions. We found no studies on national disease incidence estimates or disease surveillance and control efforts.

Conclusion

Coxiella burnetii infections are common in human and in a wide range of animal populations but are still unrecognized and underestimated thus presenting a significant human and animal health threat in Kenya. The factors influencing pathogen transmission, persistence and spread are poorly understood. Integrated disease surveillance and prevention/control programs are needed in Kenya.

Occurrence and Genotyping of Coxiella burnetii in Ixodid Ticks in Oromia, Ethiopia

This study was conducted from September 2011 to March 2014 to address the occurrence and genotypes of Coxiella burnetii using molecular methods in ticks collected from domestic animals in Ethiopia. Ticks were tested for C. burnetii by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) targeting two different genes followed by multispacer sequence typing (MST). An overall prevalence of 6.4% (54/842) of C. burnetii was recorded. C. burnetii was detected in 28.6% (14/49) of Amblyomma gemma, 25% (31/124) of Rhipicephalus pulchellus, 7.1% (1/14) of Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, 3.2% (2/62) of Am. variegatum, 3.1% (4/128) of Am. cohaerens, 1.6% (1/63) of Rh. praetextatus, and 0.6% (1/153) of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus. Significantly higher overall frequencies of C. burnetii DNA were observed in Am. gemma and Rh. pulchellus than in other tick species (Mantel-Haenszel [MH], P < 0.0001). The overall frequency of C. burnetii was significantly higher (MH, P < 0.0001) in ticks from southeastern districts (Arero, Moyale, and Yabelo) than that from other districts. This study demonstrated the presence of C. burnetii genotype MST 18 in ticks in southeastern districts and genotype MST 20 in ticks in central districts. This study highlights the importance of ticks in the epidemiology of C. burnetii in Ethiopia.

Identification of novel Coxiella burnetii genotypes from Ethiopian ticks

Background

Coxiella burnetii, the etiologic agent of Q fever, is a highly infectious zoonotic bacterium. Genetic information about the strains of this worldwide distributed agent circulating on the African continent is limited. The aim of the present study was the genetic characterization of C. burnetii DNA samples detected in ticks collected from Ethiopian cattle and their comparison with other genotypes found previously in other parts of the world.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A total of 296 tick samples were screened by real-time PCR targeting the IS1111 region of C. burnetii genome and from the 32 positive samples, 8 cases with sufficient C. burnetii DNA load (Amblyomma cohaerens, n = 6; A. variegatum, n = 2) were characterized by multispacer sequence typing (MST) and multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). One novel sequence type (ST), the proposed ST52, was identified by MST. The MLVA-6 discriminated the proposed ST52 into two newly identified MLVA genotypes: type 24 or AH was detected in both Amblyomma species while type 26 or AI was found only in A. cohaerens.

Conclusions/Significance

Both the MST and MLVA genotypes of the present work are closely related to previously described genotypes found primarily in cattle samples from different parts of the globe. This finding is congruent with the source hosts of the analyzed Ethiopian ticks, as these were also collected from cattle. The present study provides genotype information of C. burnetii from this seldom studied East-African region as well as further evidence for the presumed host-specific adaptation of this agent.