Evaluation of chemical contamination of crops produced in greenhouse by irrigation with reclaimed water

Using reclaimed water for agricultural irrigation is increasing worldwide to compensate for water scarcity. The aim of this work was to evaluate the uptake of some of the most commonly detected organic contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) and pesticides in regenerated water in a field study. Furthermore, it was studied their distribution and accumulation in the different parts of a crop (soil, plant and fruit). Three crops (cucumber, pepper and melon) were grown under controlled agronomic conditions in a greenhouse. In order to make an accurate evaluation of the process, "regenerated blank water" was spiked with 70 chemicals (including antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, analgesics, anaesthetics, anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, pesticides) at environmental concentrations (∼1 μg/L) and used for continuous crop irrigation. After crop season, the average total concentration of contaminants detected in the soil samples ranged from 132 to 232 μg/kg d.w depending of the crops type. Between 7 and 10 different contaminants were found in the harvested fruits, up to levels of 27.8 μg/kg f.w. cucumber, 12.4 μg/kg f.w. melon and 7.8 μg/kg f.w pepper. In general, cucumber fruit showed higher accumulation levels of contaminants than pepper and melon for most target analytes. The accumulation rates followed the order: root (0.2 %) < stem/leaf (1-4 %) < fruit (1-6 %) < soil (17-30 %). The experimental data obtained in this study were also used to assess the risk associated with the reuse of reclaimed water for crop irrigation as well to identify those contaminants that, due to their physicochemical properties, show higher accumulation rates and environmental impact.

Exploring sorption of pesticides and PAHs in microplastics derived from plastic mulch films used in modern agriculture

The sorption and vector effect of microplastics on the transfer of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), as well as its impact on agriculture remain largely unexplored. This comparative study is first to investigate the sorption behavior of different pesticides and PAHs at environmentally realistic concentrations by model microplastics and microplastics derived from polyethylene mulch films. Sorption was found to be up to 90% higher in the case of microplastics derived from mulch films as opposed to pure polyethylene microspheres. For microplastics from mulch films, the sorption percentages for pesticides in media containing CaCl₂ were reported to be: pyridate (75.68% and 52.44%), fenazaquin (48.54% and 32.02%), pyridaben (45.04% and 56.70%), bifenthrin (74.27% and 25.88%), etofenprox (82.16% and 54.16%) and pyridalyl (97.00% and 29.74%) at 5 μg/L and 200 μg/L pesticide concentration levels respectively. For PAHs, the sorption amounts were: naphthalene (22.03% and 48.00%), fluorene (38.99% and 39.00%), anthracene (64.62% and 68.02%) and pyrene (75.65% and 86.38%) at 5 μg/L and 200 μg/L PAH concentration levels respectively. Sorption was influenced by the octanol-water partition coefficient (log K_ow) and ionic strength. Kinetics of the process in the case of sorption of pesticides were best explained by pseudo-first order kinetic model (R² between 0.90 and 0.98) while the best fitting isotherm model was Dubinin-Radushkevich (R² between 0.92 and 0.99). Results suggest the presence of surface level physi-sorption through a micropore volume filling mechanism and the role of hydrophobic and electrostatic forces. Pesticide desorption data in polyethylene mulch films indicate that pesticides with high log K_ow were almost completely retained in mulch films, while those with lower log K_ow were desorbed rapidly into the surrounding media. Our study highlights the role of microplastics from plastic mulch films as vectors for pesticide and PAH transport at environmentally realistic concentrations and the factors that influence it.

Long-term effects on the agroecosystem of using reclaimed water on commercial crops

The use of reclaimed water for crop irrigation has been proposed as a suitable alternative for farmers in the coastal areas of Mediterranean countries, which suffer from greater water scarcity. In this work we study the impact on the water-soil-plant continuum of using reclaimed water for commercial crops irrigated over a long period, as well as the human risks associated with consuming the vegetables produced. Forty-four CECs were identified in the reclaimed water used for crop irrigation. Of these, twenty-four CECs were identified in the irrigated soil samples analysed. Tramadol, ofloxacin, tonalide, gemfibrozil, atenolol, caffeine, and cetirizine were the pharmaceuticals detected at the highest levels in the water samples (between 11 and 44 μg/L). The CECs with the highest average soil concentrations were tramadol (14.6 μg/kg), followed by cetirizine (13.2 μg/kg) and clarithromycin (12.7 μg/kg). In the irrigated vegetable samples analysed over the study period, carbamazepine, lidocaine, and caffeine were only detected at levels from 0.1 to 1.7 μg/kg. The CEC accumulation rate detected in the edible parts of the vegetables permanently irrigated with reclaimed water was very low (~1 %), whereas it was 33 % in the soils. The results revealed that consuming fruits harvested from plants irrigated for a long period with reclaimed water does not represent a risk to human health, opening the door to a circular economy of water. Nevertheless, for crop irrigation, future studies need to be conducted over longer periods and in other matrices to provide more scientific data on the safety of using reclaimed water.

Fate, modeling, and human health risk of organic contaminants present in tomato plants irrigated with reclaimed water under real-world field conditions

Using reclaimed water to irrigate crops can be an important route for organic contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) to be introduced into agricultural production and thus find their way into the food chain. This work aims to establish accumulation models for the different parts of a crop (fruit/leaves/roots) and the soil of some of the most commonly detected CECs in reclaimed water, through field trials in greenhouses. For this, tomato plants were permanently irrigated under realistic agricultural conditions with a mixture of the selected compounds at approx. 1 μg/L. A total of 30 contaminants were analyzed belonging to different compound categories. A modified QuEChERS extraction method followed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was the procedure used. The study revealed the presence of 21 target contaminants in the tomatoes, and 18 CECs in the leaves, roots, and soil. The average total concentration of pesticides detected in the tomatoes was 3 μg/kg f.w., whereas the average total load of pharmaceuticals was 5.8 μg/kg f.w. after three months, at the time of crop harvesting. The levels of pharmaceutical products and pesticides in the non-edible tissues were up to 3.5 and 2.1 μg/kg f.w., respectively, in the leaves and up to 89.3 and 31.3 μg/kg f.w., respectively, in the roots. In the case of the soil samples, the pesticide concentration found after crop harvesting was below 11.4 μg/kg d.w., and less than 3.0 μg/kg d.w. for pharmaceuticals. Overall, the concentration levels of CECs detected in the tomatoes, which were permanently irrigated with contaminated reclaimed water, do not pose a risk to human health via dietary intake.

Monitoring of pesticide residues in crops irrigated with reclaimed water by a multiresidue method based on modified QuEChERS

In this study, we aimed to validate and apply a quick and easy extraction method for the simultaneous determination of 27 pesticide residues at trace levels in agricultural samples (soil, fruit, and leaf) to monitor the presence of these contaminants released from reclaimed water. The procedure was based on a salting-out extraction method with acidified acetonitrile, followed by a dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) clean-up step applying the C18 sorbent. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used for identification and quantification of the target analytes. This methodology provided recovery values higher than 70%, for all pesticides and matrices evaluated in the study, except for propamocarb in soil samples (35%). Repeatability and reproducibility results, calculated as relative standard deviations (RSD, %), ranged between 1% and 18% in both cases. No remarkable matrix effects were observed for vegetable samples, except for thiamethoxam in red cabbage, and hexythiazox in carrot and leaves (between 30 and 40%). Soil samples showed a moderate matrix effect (between 21 and 35%) for more than 80% of the compounds. Monitoring pesticide residues found in agricultural samples irrigated with contaminated reclaimed water under controlled conditions revealed the efficacy of the proposed method. Three common vegetables were grown to evaluate the different migration and distribution rates in crops and soil. Pesticide accumulation in the different parts of the crop (soil, fruit, and leaves) and the potential human exposure to pesticides through daily intake were also discussed.

Determination study of contaminants of emerging concern at trace levels in agricultural soil. A pilot study

In this study, we aimed to develop and validate a quick, easy, and robust extraction method for the simultaneous determination of 30 organic contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) including some transformation products in soil samples. Three different extraction methods based on an ultrasonic cylindrical probe (UAE), a pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), and a QuEChERS method were compared. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used for identification and quantification of the target analytes. A modified QuEChERS method showed the best results in terms of extractability and accuracy. The extraction procedure developed provided adequate extraction performances (70% of the target analytes were recovered within a 70-99% range), with good repeatability and reproducibility (variations below 20%) and great sensitivity (LOQ < 0.1 ng/g in most cases). No matrix effects were observed for 70% of the compounds. Finally, the analytical methodology was applied in a pilot study where agricultural soil was irrigated with reclaimed water spiked with the contaminants under study. Of the 25 CECs added in irrigation water, a total of 13 pesticides and 5 pharmaceutical products were detected at concentration ranges from 0.1 to 1.2 ng/g (d.w) and from 0.1 to 2.0 ng/g (d.w), respectively.

Exploration of environmental contaminants in honeybees using GC-TOF-MS and GC-Orbitrap-MS

This study reports an analytical approach by gas chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) intended to be used for investigation of non-targeted environmental contaminants in honeybees. The approach involves a generic extraction and analysis with two GC-HRMS systems: time-of-flight and Orbitrap analyzers, GC-TOF-MS, and GC-Orbitrap-MS operated in electron-impact ionization (EI) mode. The workflow for screening of non-targeted contaminants consisted of initial peak detection by deconvolution and matching the first-stage mass spectra EI-MS with a nominal mass spectral library. To gain further confidence in the structural characterization of the contaminants under investigation, molecular formula of representative ions (molecular and fragment ions) was provided for those with an accurate mass scoring (error < 5 ppm). This methology was applied for screening environmental contaminants in 75 samples of adult honeybee. This approach has provided the tentative identification of environmental contaminants belonging to different chemical groups, among them, PAHs, phthalates and synthetic musks. Residues of veterinary treatments used in apiculture were also detected in the honeybee samples.

Non-target evaluation of contaminants in honey bees and pollen samples by gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry

This work presents a non-targeted screening approach for the detection and quantitation of contaminants in bees and pollen, collected from the same hive, by GC-EI-ToF-MS. It consists of a spectral library datasets search using a compound database followed by a manual investigation and analytical standard confirmation together with semi-quantitation purposes. Over 20% of the compounds found automatically by the library search could not be confirmed manually. This number of false positive detections was mainly a consequence of an inadequate ion ratio criterion (±30%), not considered in the automatic searching procedure. Eight compounds were detected in bees and pollen. They include insecticides/acaricides (chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, fluvalinate-tau, chlorfenvinphos, pyridaben, and propyl cresol) at a concentration range of 1-1207 μg kg^-1, herbicides (oxyfluorfen) at a concentration range of 212-1773 μg kg^-1 and a growth regulator hormone (methoprene). Some compounds were detected only in pollen; such as herbicides (clomazone), insecticides/acaricides and fungicides used to control Varroa mites as benzylbenzoate, bufencarb, allethrin, permethrin, eugenol and cyprodinil. Additional compounds were detected only in bees: flamprop-methyl, 2-methylphenol (2-49 μg kg^-1) and naphthalene (1-23 μg kg^-1). The proposed method presents important advantages as it can avoid the use of an unachievable number of analytical standards considered target compounds "a priori" but not present in the analyzed samples.

Multiresidue method for trace pesticide analysis in honeybee wax comb by GC-QqQ-MS

The aim of this analytical study is to develop an improved multi-residue methodology of high sensitivity and expanded scope for pesticide residue analysis in honeybee wax combs. The method was validated for 160 pesticide residues (including acaricides, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides) gas chromatography amenable and covering a wide variety of polarity and chemical structure. This method of analysis applied gas chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer for the quantitative analysis of pesticide residues. The extraction procedure applied was based QuEChERs method allowing acceptable recoveries for most of the pesticides (98%), within the range 60-120% with an associated precision (RSD) <20%, at concentration levels of MQL of 10µgkg^-1 for all pesticides with the exception of 3,5-dichloroaniline and chlordane (20µgkg^-1). The expanded uncertainty of the results was ±35% on average (coverage factor k=2 for a confidence level of 95%). The chromatographic multi-residue method was applied to determine levels of pesticide residues in 50 honeybee wax comb samples randomly collected from different apiaries in Spain. A total of 32 pesticide residues (14 insecticides/acaricides, 10 insecticides, 6 fungicides and 2 herbicides) were detected in the samples. The highest pesticide concentrations were found for those with insecticide-acaricide activity like acrinathrin, chlorfenvinphos, coumaphos and fluvalinate-tau, some of them are mainly applied in apiculture for controlling the honeybee parasite Varroa destructor. The total load of pesticide residues ranged from 69 to 1000µgkg^-1 for 40% of the analysed samples, 22% contained pesticide residues in the ranges of 1000-2000µgkg^-1, 24% between 2000 and 5000µgkg^-1 and 14% of the samples contained residues between 5000 and 9557µgkg^-1.

Screening of environmental contaminants in honey bee wax comb using gas chromatography-high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry

This study reports an analytical approach intended to be used for investigation of non-targeted environmental contaminants and to characterize the organic pollution pattern of bee wax comb samples. The method comprises a generic extraction followed by detection with gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS), operated in electron impact ionization (EI) mode. The screening approach for the investigation of non-targeted contaminants consisted of initial peak detection by deconvolution and matching the first-stage mass spectra EI-MS(1) with a nominal mass spectral library. To gain further confidence in the structural characterization of the contaminants under investigation, the molecular formula of representative ions (molecular ion when present in the EI spectrum) and, for at least other two fragment ions, was provided for those with an accurate mass scoring (mass error < 5 ppm). This methodology was applied for screening environmental contaminants in 50 samples of bee wax comb. This approach has allowed the tentative identification of some GC-amenable contaminants belonging to different chemical groups, among them, phthalates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), along with residues of veterinary treatments used in apiculture.

Post-acquisition data processing for the screening of transformation products of different organic contaminants. Two-year monitoring of river water using LC-ESI-QTOF-MS and GCxGC-EI-TOF-MS

This study describes a comprehensive strategy for detecting and elucidating the chemical structures of expected and unexpected transformation products (TPs) from chemicals found in river water and effluent wastewater samples, using liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (LC-ESI-QTOF-MS), with post-acquisition data processing and an automated search using an in-house database. The efficacy of the mass defect filtering (MDF) approach to screen metabolites from common biotransformation pathways was tested, and it was shown to be sufficiently sensitive and applicable for detecting metabolites in environmental samples. Four omeprazole metabolites and two venlafaxine metabolites were identified in river water samples. This paper reports the analytical results obtained during 2 years of monitoring, carried out at eight sampling points along the Henares River (Spain). Multiresidue monitoring, for targeted analysis, includes a group of 122 chemicals, amongst which are pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides and PAHs. For this purpose, two analytical methods were used based on direct injection with a LC-ESI-QTOF-MS system and stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) with bi-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with a time-of-flight spectrometer (GCxGC-EI-TOF-MS).

Simultaneous screening of targeted and non-targeted contaminants using an LC-QTOF-MS system and automated MS/MS library searching

Simultaneous high-resolution full-scan and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) analysis using time of flight mass spectrometry brings an answer for increasing demand of retrospective and non-targeted data analysis. Such analysis combined with spectral library searching is a promising tool for targeted and untargeted screening of small molecules. Despite considerable extension of the panel of compounds of tandem mass spectral libraries, the heterogeneity of spectral data poses a major challenge against the effective usage of spectral libraries. Performance evaluation of available LC-MS/MS libraries will significantly increase credibility in the search results. The present work was aimed to evaluate fluctuation of MS/MS pattern, in the peak intensities distribution together with mass accuracy measurements, and in consequence, performance compliant with ion ratio and mass error criteria as principles in identification processes for targeted and untargeted contaminants at trace levels. Matrix effect and ultra-trace levels of concentration (from 50 ng l(-1) to 1000 ng l(-1) were evaluated as potential source of inaccuracy in the performance of spectral matching. Matrix-matched samples and real samples were screened for proof of applicability. By manual review of data and application of ion ratio and ppm error criteria, false negatives were obtained; this number diminished when in-house library was used, while with on-line MS/MS databases 100% of positive samples were found. In our experience, intensity of peaks across spectra was highly correlated to the concentration effect and matrix complexity. In turn, analysis of spectra acquired at trace concentrations and in different matrices results in better performance in providing correct and reliable identification.

Investigation of Galaxolide degradation products generated under oxidative and irradiation processes by liquid chromatography/hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Polycyclic musks have become a concern due to their bioaccumulation potential and ecotoxicological effects. The HHCB transformation product (TP) (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclopenta[γ]-2-benzopyran; HHCB-lactone) is the most stable intermediate generated and it is frequently detected in river waters. The aim of this work was the identification of relevant TPs generated from UV irradiation and ozone treatments.

METHODS

Identification of HHCB TPs was carried out by liquid chromatography/hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-QTOF-MS) and two-dimensional gas chromatography/electron impact time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-EI-TOF-MS). With LC/ESI-QTOF-MS, TPs were characterized by means of mass accuracy in both full-scan and MS/MS modes through information-dependent acquisition (IDA) and direct injection on-column. With stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE)-GC×GC-EI-TOF-MS, identification was based on the enhanced separation capacity and screening of unknowns through the acquisition of full-range mass spectra.

RESULTS

The effectiveness of these complementary techniques allowed a detailed evaluation of the main TPs. Eighteen TPs were elucidated based on mass accuracy, in both full-scan and MS/MS modes using LC/ESI-QTOF-MS with mass errors below 5 ppm and 10 ppm (mostly), respectively. Most of the TPs had not been analytically identified in previous studies. Separation of the enantiomeric species (R) and (S) of HHCB-lactone, and the identification of other relevant TPs, was performed using SBSE-GC×GC-EI-TOF-MS.

CONCLUSIONS

LC/ESI-QTOF-MS and GC×GC-EI-TOF-MS analysis provides the best alternative for TP identification of chemicals of concern, which have a wide range of polarities and isobaric compounds. A prediction of PBT (persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity) using the PBT Profiler program suggested a classification of 'very persistent' and 'very toxic' for most of the TPs identified.

Simultaneous measurement in mass and mass/mass mode for accurate qualitative and quantitative screening analysis of pharmaceuticals in river water

A new approach for the analysis of pharmaceuticals (target and non-target) in water by LC-QTOF-MS is described in this work. The study has been designed to assess the performance of the simultaneous quantitative screening of target compounds, and the qualitative analysis of non-target analytes, in just one run. The features of accurate mass full scan mass spectrometry together with high MS/MS spectral acquisition rates - by means of information dependent acquisition (IDA) - have demonstrated their potential application in this work. Applying this analytical strategy, an identification procedure is presented based on library searching for compounds which were not included a priori in the analytical method as target compounds, thus allowing their characterization by data processing of accurate mass measurements in MS and MS/MS mode. The non-target compounds identified in river water samples were ketorolac, trazodone, fluconazole, metformin and venlafaxine. Simultaneously, this strategy allowed for the identification of other compounds which were not included in the library by screening the highest intensity peaks detected in the samples and by analysis of the full scan TOF-MS, isotope pattern and MS/MS spectra - the example of loratadine (histaminergic) is described. The group of drugs of abuse selected as target compounds for evaluation included analgesics, opioids and psychostimulants. Satisfactory results regarding sensitivity and linearity of the developed method were obtained. Limits of detection for the selected target compounds were from 0.003 to 0.01 μg/L and 0.01 to 0.5 μg/L, in MS and MS/MS mode, respectively - by direct sample injection of 100 μL.

Occurrence and persistence of organic emerging contaminants and priority pollutants in five sewage treatment plants of Spain: two years pilot survey monitoring

This work summarized all results obtained during almost two-years of a monitoring programme carried out in five municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs) located in the north, centre and south-east of Spain. The study evaluated the occurrence and persistence of a group of 100 organic compounds belonging to several chemical groups (pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides and metabolites). The average removal efficiencies of the STPs studied varied from 20% (erythromycin) to 99% (acetaminophen). In analysed samples, we identified a large number of compounds at mean range concentrations between 7-59,495 ng/L and 5-32,720 ng/L for influent and effluent samples, respectively. This study also identified 20 of the mostly detected and persistent compounds in wastewater effluent, of which hydrochlorothiazide, atenolol, gemfibrozil, galaxolide and three metabolites (fenofibric acid, 4-AAA and 4-FAA), presented the highest average contribution percentages, in relation to the total load of contaminants for the different STPs effluent studied.

Photocatalytic degradation of the fungicide Fenhexamid in aqueous TiO(2) suspensions: identification of intermediates products and reaction pathways

Liquid-chromatography interfaced with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF/MS) was used to separate and characterize the transformation products arising from TiO(2)-photocatalytic degradation of the fungicide Fenhexamid (FEX) in aqueous solution under simulated solar irradiation. Prior to identification, irradiated solutions of FEX (10mgL(-1)) were concentrated by solid-phase extraction. Assignments of the mass spectra ions were aided by elemental composition calculations, comparison of structural analogues and available literature, and acquired knowledge regarding mass spectrometry of related heterocyclic compounds. The primary transformation intermediates identified were hydroxyl and/or keto-derivatives. Several positional isomers are typically produced as a consequence of the non-selectivity of the ()OH radical attack. Moreover, products resulted from the cleavage of the amide and NH-dichlorophenol bonds were formed. Finally, cyclic - benzo[d]oxazole intermediates are also formed through an intramolecular photocyclization process and cleavage of halogen - carbon bond. In the case of the hydroxy and/or keto-derivatives, the generic fragmentation scheme obtained from the interpretation of the ESI-TOF-MS data cannot be diagnostic to precisely localize the position of the entering substituent on the FEX molecule, and thus to characterize all its possible oxygenated derivatives by assigning a plausible structure with confidence. On the basis of identified products different pathways of photocatalytic degradation of FEX were proposed and discussed.

Evaluation of selected ubiquitous contaminants in the aquatic environment and their transformation products. A pilot study of their removal from a sewage treatment plant

A simple method using direct sample injection combined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry has been developed for the simultaneous analysis of six alkaloid compounds in environmental samples. The target list includes two psychostimulants (nicotine and caffeine), three metabolites (cotinine, nicotinic acid and paraxanthine) and a coffee chemical (trigonelline). The analytical method was evaluated in three different matrices (surface water, influent and effluent wastewater). The method developed showed an adequate sensitivity, below 0.6 μg L(-1) for wastewater and 0.1 μg L(-1) for river matrices, without any prior treatment of the samples. Finally, the methodology was applied to real samples for evaluation of their removal from a sewage treatment plant and their persistence/fate in the aquatic environment. All compounds studied in this work were detected at all sampling points collected along the Henares River. However, nicotinic acid was only detected three times in treated sewage samples at levels above its detection limit.

Pesticide residue analysis of fruit juices by LC-MS/MS direct injection. One year pilot survey

For this work, thirteen types of fruit juices (orange, pineapple, peach, apple, multifruit, mango, strawberry, tomato, pear, mandarin, grape, banana and grapefruit) were selected to develop an analytical method for the analysis of 53 pesticides by direct injection in LC-MS/MS. The preparation of the samples was very simple: an aliquot of the juice was centrifuged and it was ten-times diluted prior to analysis, which allowed reducing considerably the time and cost of the analyses. Besides, dilution of the samples permits reducing the amount of matrix going into the system, and thus, decreasing the matrix effects, so common in this type of commodities, opening the possibility to perform quantification with solvent based standards. Validation of the method was carried out in accordance with EU guidelines. Calibration curves covering three orders of magnitude were performed, and they were linear over the concentration range studied for all the matrices (from 0.1 to 100 μg L(-1)). Practical limits of quantification were in the low μg L(-1) range, far below the maximum residue levels (MRLs) of the EU regulations, which do not set specific MRLs for juices, and in this cases of processed food, MRLs of the raw product are applied. Repeatability of the instrumental method was studied in all matrices, obtaining good intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations (RSDs). The proposed method was applied to 106 real fruit juice samples purchased in different local markets during a one-year survey in order to validate the suitability for routine analysis. 43% of the analysed samples gave positive results (higher than the practical limits of quantification).

Method development and validation for determination of thiosultap sodium, thiocyclam, and nereistoxin in pepper matrix

This work reports a method for extraction and analysis of thiosultap sodium, thiocyclam, and nereistoxin in pepper. Different extraction methods were tested to attain the best recoveries. The final extraction method combines acetonitrile extraction in an acidic medium with ultrasonic extraction followed by a cleanup step with anhydrous MgSO(4). The analyses were performed on a Linear Ion Trap Quadrupole LC-MS/MS in negative mode for thiosultap sodium and in positive mode for thiocyclam and nereistoxin. Recovery studies carried out on peppers spiked at different fortification levels (20 and 200 μg∙kg(-1)) yielded average recoveries in the range 58-87% with RSD (%) values below 20%. Calibration curves covering two orders of magnitude were performed and they were linear over the concentration range studied (0.001-0.5 mg∙l(-1)). Instrumental detection limits were in the low μg∙kg(-1) range. Stability studies of thiosultap sodium in water were performed by evaluating a 100-μg∙l(-1) solution of this compound in water. It was analyzed over 7 days, after which more than 80% degradation of thiosultap sodium could be observed.

Occurrence of emerging contaminants, priority substances (2008/105/CE) and heavy metals in treated wastewater and groundwater at Depurbaix facility (Barcelona, Spain)

The presence of 170 pharmaceuticals, personal care products, priority substances according to the 2008/105EU Directive and four metals (Cd, Ni, Hg, Pb) have been investigated at the Llobregat delta, south of Barcelona (Spain). In the area, reclaimed water is destined to satisfy environmental uses, irrigation and the construction of a hydraulic barrier against seawater intrusion in the deep aquifer of the delta. A monitoring survey was undertaken of water samples from a tertiary wastewater treatment plant (Depurbaix), treated waste water with an additional treatment of ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and UV disinfection (WWATP, for the hydraulic barrier injection). Groundwater samples from the aquifer receiving recharge were also investigated. The pharmaceutical group of substances was detected in sampled waters at concentrations rarely exceeding a few microg/L, among the compounds Caffeine, Nicotine and Galaxolide (musk fragrance) were found to be present in more than 60% of the samples. Diuron was the only priority substance detected. The four metals were always present in a variable concentration. After the WWATP treatment the majority of analytes are removed from tertiary treated wastewater or their concentration is reduced below 0.1 microg/L. Monitoring revealed a widespread occurrence of analysed compounds in groundwater. Among them Codeine (analgesic), Ibuprofen (anti-inflammatory), Iopamidol, Iopromide (contrast agent) and Paraxanthine (metabolite of caffeine) have only been detected in groundwater, and are not present in water currently being injected in the deep aquifer.

Electro-oxidation of reverse osmosis concentrates generated in tertiary water treatment

This work investigates the application of the electro-oxidation technology provided with boron doped diamond (BDD), an electrode material which has shown outstanding properties in oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds, for the treatment of reverse osmosis (RO) concentrates generated in tertiary wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). Chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium and several anions were measured during the electro-oxidation process, and the influence of the applied current density (20-200A/m(2)) was analysed on process kinetics. Analytical assessment showed that several emerging pollutants (pharmaceuticals, personal care products, stimulants, etc.) were presented both in the effluent of the secondary WWTP as well as in the RO concentrate. For this reason, a group of 10 emerging pollutants, those found with higher concentrations, was selected in order to test whether electro-oxidation can be also applied for their mitigation. In the removal of emerging pollutants the electrical current density in the range 20-100A/m(2) did not show influence likely due to the mass transfer resistance developed in the process when the oxidized solutes are present in such low concentrations. Their removal rates were fitted to first order expressions, and the apparent kinetic constants for the anodic oxidation of each compound were calculated. Finally, the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) has been checked; concluding that after selecting the appropriate operational conditions the attained concentration is lower than the standards for drinking water established in European and EPA regulations.

Development and validation of a LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins, dyes and pesticides in spices

Based on several alerts from European countries over the last years concerning spices, we have been encouraged to establish an accurate method for the determination of dyes, aflatoxins and pesticides in various types of spices using reversed-phase (RP) liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry interfaced with electrospray (LC-ESI-MS/MS). A simple sample treatment procedure entailing the use of an extraction step with acetonitrile without further cleanup has been developed. A C18 column with an aqueous ammonium formate/methanol mixture as the mobile phase was used, and gradient elution was performed. Mass spectral acquisition was done in positive ion mode by applying multiple reaction monitoring of at least two fragmentation transitions per compound to provide a high degree of selectivity. The method was in-house validated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, repeatability, recovery and selectivity on six kinds of spices. Satisfactory results in the majority of the cases were obtained for all analytes and matrices, with practical limits of quantitation acceptable for routine monitoring purposes. Extraction recoveries for most of the compounds ranged from 60% to 140% at spiking levels of 0.05 and 0.5 mg kg(-1). The applicability of the method for the simultaneous determination of dyes, aflatoxins and pesticides in several types of spices was demonstrated, and the method successfully applied to a limited number of products from the local market.

Application of photo-fenton as a tertiary treatment of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewater

This work focuses on the treatment of real effluents from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (RE) with solar photo-Fenton (5 mg and 20 mg L(-1) Fe, pH approximately 3 and 50 mg L(-1) initial H(2)O(2) concentration) at pilot plant scale. In some experiments RE was spiked with 15 different (acetaminophen, antipyrine, atrazine, caffeine, carbamazepine, diclofenac, flumequine, hydroxybiphenyl, ibuprofen, isoproturon, ketorolac, ofloxacin, progesterone, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan) emerging contaminants (ECs) at 100 and 5 microg L(-1) each which were added directly into RE prior to treatment. All experiments showed successful degradation of ECs in real effluents from different municipal wastewater treatment plants at low iron concentration (5 mg L(-1)). Although the most degradation took place during the Fenton process, photo-Fenton was necessary to degrade all ECs below their limit of detection (LOD). In the case of the RE containing 52 ECs (determined by HPLC-QTRAP-MS), four of them could not be degraded to their LOD and were still present, although at extremely low concentrations (nicotine 47 ng L(-1), cotinine 11 ng L(-1), chlorfenvinphos 99 ng L(-1), and caffeine 8 ng L(-1)). ECs were easily degraded by (*)OH without substantial competition with the organic content of the RE.

Degradation of fifteen emerging contaminants at microg L(-1) initial concentrations by mild solar photo-Fenton in MWTP effluents

The degradation of 15 emerging contaminants (ECs) at low concentrations in simulated and real effluent of municipal wastewater treatment plant with photo-Fenton at unchanged pH and Fe=5 mg L(-1) in a pilot-scale solar CPC reactor was studied. The degradation of those 15 compounds (Acetaminophen, Antipyrine, Atrazine, Caffeine, Carbamazepine, Diclofenac, Flumequine, Hydroxybiphenyl, Ibuprofen, Isoproturon, Ketorolac, Ofloxacin, Progesterone, Sulfamethoxazole and Triclosan), each with an initial concentration of 100 microg L(-1), was found to depend on the presence of CO(3)(2-) and HCO(3)(-) (hydroxyl radicals scavengers) and on the type of water (simulated water, simulated effluent wastewater and real effluent wastewater), but is relatively independent of pH, the type of acid used for release of hydroxyl radicals scavengers and the initial H(2)O(2) concentration used. Toxicity tests with Vibrio fisheri showed that degradation of the compounds in real effluent wastewater led to toxicity increase.

Removal of pharmaceuticals and kinetics of mineralization by O(3)/H(2)O(2) in a biotreated municipal wastewater

The ozonation of an effluent from the secondary clarifier of two Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants was performed by using alkaline ozone and a combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide. Alkaline ozonation achieved only a moderate degree of mineralization, essentially concentrated during the first few minutes; but the addition of hydrogen peroxide eventually led to a complete mineralization. The evolution of total organic carbon (TOC) as a measure of the extent of mineralization and the concentration of dissolved ozone were analyzed and linked in a kinetic model whose parameter represented the product of the exposure to hydroxyl radicals and the kinetic constant of indirect ozonation. This rate parameter yielded the highest values during the first part of O(3)/H(2)O(2) runs. The kinetic constant for the decomposition of ozone at the end of the run was also measured and computed for the non-oxidizable water matrix and yielded essentially the same values regardless of whether or not hydrogen peroxide was used. A group of 33 organic compounds, mainly pharmaceuticals and some relevant metabolites present in the wastewater effluents, were evaluated before and after the ozonation process using a liquid chromatography-hybrid triple-quadrupole linear ion trap system (LC-QqLIT-MS). The results demonstrate that the ozonation degrades these compounds with efficiencies of over 99% in most cases, even under low mineralization conditions in alkaline ozonation.

Photodegradation of malachite green under natural sunlight irradiation: kinetic and toxicity of the transformation products

This article describes the photolytic degradation of malachite green (MG), a cationic triphenylmethane dye used worldwide as a fungicide and antiseptic in the aquaculture industry. Photolysis experiments were performed by direct exposure of a solution of MG in water to natural sunlight. The main transformation products (TPs) generated during the process were identified by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The 28 TPs identified with this strategy indicate that MG undergoes three main reactions, N-demethylation, hydroxylation and cleavage of the conjugated structure forming benzophenone derivatives. These processes involve hydroxyl radical attack on the phenyl ring, the N,N-dimethylamine group and the central carbon atom. The Vibrio fischeri acute toxicity test showed that the solution remains toxic after MG has completely disappeared. This toxicity could be assigned, at least in part, to the formation of 4-(dimethylamine)benzophenone, which has an EC(50,30 min) of 0.061 mg l(-1), and is considered "very toxic to aquatic organisms" by current EU legislation.

Evaluation of ozone-based treatment processes for wastewater containing microcontaminants using LC-QTRAP-MS and LC-TOF/MS

This article describes the development of an enhanced liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method for the analysis of a selected group of 57 organic contaminants in wastewater. This group comprises 39 pharmaceuticals belonging to different therapeutical classes and 10 of their most frequent metabolites. Six pesticides and two disinfectants were also included. The LC-MS method was developed using a hybrid quadrupole/linear ion trap (Q TRAP) analyzer operating in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode (in both positive and negative electrospray ionization) in combination with a time-of flight (TOF) mass analyser. The application of both techniques provided very good results in terms of accurate quantification and unequivocal identification. Quantification was based on the use of a linearly accelerating (LINAC) high-pressure collision cell, which enable the analysis of a high number of compounds with enough acquisition data points for an optimal peak definition in SRM. Unequivocal identification was provided by the acquisition of at least two SRM transitions and by obtaining accurate mass measurements of the identified compounds with errors lower than 2 ppm. As an alternative for compounds where a second transition cannot be detected by Q-Trap-MS, the application of survey scans in enhanced product ion (EPI) was evaluated. The analytical performance of the method was evaluated in effluent wastewater samples. Linearity of response over three orders of magnitude was demonstrated (R2>0.99 for most compounds). Matrix effects resulting in suppression of the response were frequently observed, between 2-50% for most of compounds, except 4-DAA and 4-AA, which exhibit higher values (68%). Signal enhancement was also detected in 16 compounds. Method limits of detection (LOD) were between 0.1-50 ng L(-1). Finally, the methodology was successfully applied to the evaluation of the efficiency of two ozone-based treatments applied to the effluent from the secondary clarifier of a municipal wastewater treatment facility. Preliminary results are presented demonstrating that ozonation of wastewaters degrade pharmaceuticals with a high efficiency. Removals higher than 90% were reached for most of target analytes.

Application of high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with a quadrupole/linear ion trap instrument for the analysis of pesticide residues in olive oil

This article describes the development of an enhanced liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method for the analysis of pesticides in olive oil. One hundred pesticides belonging to different classes and that are currently used in agriculture have been included in this method. The LC-MS method was developed using a hybrid quadrupole/linear ion trap (QqQ(LIT)) analyzer. Key features of this technique are the rapid scan acquisition times, high specificity and high sensitivity it enables when the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode or the linear ion-trap operational mode is employed. The application of 5 ms dwell times using a linearly accelerating (LINAC) high-pressure collision cell enabled the analysis of a high number of pesticides, with enough data points acquired for optimal peak definition in MRM operation mode and for satisfactory quantitative determinations to be made. The method quantifies over a linear dynamic range of LOQs (0.03-10 microg kg(-1)) up to 500 microg kg(-1). Matrix effects were evaluated by comparing the slopes of matrix-matched and solvent-based calibration curves. Weak suppression or enhancement of signals was observed (<15% for most-80-of the pesticides). A study to assess the identification criteria based on the MRM ratio was carried out by comparing the variations observed in standard vs matrix (in terms of coefficient of variation, CV%) and within the linear range of concentrations studied. The CV was lower than 15% when the response observed in solvent was compared to that in olive oil. The limit of detection was < or =10 microg kg(-1) for five of the selected pesticides, < or =5 microg kg(-1) for 14, and < or =1 microg kg(-1) for 81 pesticides. For pesticides where additional structural information was necessary for confirmatory purposes-in particular at low concentrations, since the second transition could not be detected-survey scans for enhanced product ion (EPI) and MS3 were developed.

Determination of pesticides in milk-based infant formulas by pressurized liquid extraction followed by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

An efficient and selective automated analytical method for the determination and quantification of a selected group of 12 organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticides in milk-based infant formulas has been developed. The samples were extracted by pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and analysed using GC-MS/MS. The use of alumina as the fat retainer in the PLE extraction cell, together with the application of an injector temperature program during the GC injection process, avoided typical matrix interferences without the application of additional cleanup steps. Mean recoveries of between 70 and 110% were achieved for most of the compounds, except for chlorpyrifos methyl (50%), vinclozoline (48%), fenitrothion (56%) and procymidone (53%), with relative standard deviations ranging from 9 to 17%. Low limits of quantification were obtained for the studied compounds, from 0.01 to 2.6 microg kg(-1), thus guaranteeing their accurate determination within the rigorous requirements established for baby food. The validated method was applied to a pilot monitoring study in Spain. Twenty five samples of different brands of powdered infant formulas were obtained from supermarkets. Positive findings of endosulfan I, endosulfan II, fenitrothion, chlorpyrifos ethyl and bifenthrin were detected at concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 5.03 microg kg(-1).

Toxicity evaluation with Vibrio fischeri test of organic chemicals used in aquaculture

The evaluation of acute toxicity by Vibrio fischeri test for different organic chemicals (antibiotics, pesticides, therapeutants, herbicides) commonly applied in aquaculture and a degradation product of surfactants, 4-nonylphenol, is presented in this work. Simazine, atrazine, emamectin benzoate and leucomalachite green have no toxic effects on V. fischeri at the concentration tested (up to 6mgl(-1)) which correspond to the maximum water solubility. Ciprofloxacin, terbutryn and deltamethrin, caused inhibition effects of 28%, 22% and 30% at concentrations up to 5mgl(-1). Toxic effects were not observed in the case of flumequine and oxolinic acid at the maximum concentration tested (0.189mgl(-1)). According to the toxicity categories established in the EU legislation, ciprofloxacin, terbutryn and deltamethrin could be considered non-harmful for V. fischeri. Malachite green and 4-nonylphenol are "very toxic to aquatic organisms" (EC(50,30min)=0.031mgl(-1) and 0.48mgl(-1), respectively). Carbaryl is "toxic to aquatic organisms" (2.4mgl(-1)). and glyphosate is harmful to V. fischeri (EC(50,30min)=44.2mgl(-1)). The matrix effect was evaluated comparing the toxicity measurements of the target compounds solubilized in seawater and distilled water. Malachite green, 4-nonylphenol and glyphosate, showed higher toxicity in distilled water than in seawater. Carbaryl was more toxic in seawater. All the compounds tested in seawater were not harmful at concentrations of ngl(-1) (10 and 50). However, 4-nonlylphenol and malachite green may act as toxic compounds in the environment at a low ppb level, since both may be detected in water at this concentration level.

Fast separation liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the confirmation and quantitative analysis of avermectin residues in food

A new residue analytical method for the confirmation and quantification of avermectin residues in food is described in this article. This method allows a fast analysis for the determination of avermectin residues, abamectin (ABM), ivermectin (IVM), emamectin benzoate (EMA) and doramectin (DOR) by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Separation was performed using a short column of 1.8 microm particle size. The hybrid quadrupole/linear ion trap (QqQ(LIT)) system via the linearly accelerating (LINAC) high-pressure collision cell, allows the MS detection in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode operating in fast scan acquisition times. The effect of reduced dwell times on mass spectral quality and sensitivity is evaluated in this study. For quantitative purposes, the influence of dwell time on S/N ratio and peak area was observed. ABM, IVM, EMA and DOR show an increased trend of peak area and S/N ratio, when dwell times are of 50 ms against 10-20 ms, suited when the number of compounds to be analyzed is higher. The sensitivity achieved by using the LC-MS/MS system is enough for the confirmation of avermectin residues in the selected commodities (salmon muscle and pepper) at trace concentration levels (sub-microg/kg and microg/kg) and therefore a sample pre-concentration step was not necessary. The instrumental limits of quantification (ILQ) are in the range of 0.15-5 ppb. Samples were extracted by solid-liquid extraction (SLE) procedure using acetonitrile, and cleaned-up using alumina. The average recoveries obtained were acceptable (80-95%). The calibration curves were linear over the working range from ILQs to 500 microg/kg. For the quantitative analysis, matrix-matched calibration and dilution of SLE extracts was proven as reliable alternative to compensate matrix-effects and for its feasible application in routine analysis.

Pilot survey monitoring pharmaceuticals and related compounds in a sewage treatment plant located on the Mediterranean coast

A one-year monitoring study was performed to evaluate the occurrence, persistence and fate of a group of 14 organic compounds in a sewage treatment plant (STP) located in the south of Spain. These results are part of a more extensive study, financed by the Spanish Ministry of Research with the aim to evaluate the traceability of new pollutants on the Mediterranean coast and to determine the removal efficiency of sewage treatment plants (STP) for these pollutants. The compounds which have been analyzed include pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic categories (ibuprofen, acetaminophen, dipyrone, diclofenac, carbamazepine and codeine), pesticides (chlorfenvinfos and permethrin), caffeine, triclosan, bisphenol A and three of their more relevant metabolites (1,7-dimethylxanthine, carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide and 2,7/2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). An SPE/GC-MS multi-residue analytical method was developed and validated to facilitate simultaneous determination of these compounds in both influent and effluent wastewater. The method provided mean recoveries higher than 75%, with the exception of 2,7/2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, dipyrone and permethrin which exhibited recoveries lower than 22%. The overall variability of the method was below 14%. The method detection limit (LOD) was between 1 and 100 ng l(-1) and precision, which was calculated as relative standard deviation (RSD), ranged from 1.8% to 11.2%. The application of the proposed method has allowed the identification of all the target compounds at mean concentrations which ranged from 0.12 to 134 microg l(-1) in the influent and from 0.09 to 18.0 microg l(-1) in the effluent. The removal efficiencies of the STP for these compounds varied from 20% (carbamazepine) to 99% (acetaminophen), but in all cases resulted insufficient in order to avoid their presence in treated water and subsequently in the environment.

Feasibility of LC/TOFMS and elemental database searching as a spectral library for pesticides in food

Traditionally, the screening of unknown pesticides in food has been accomplished by GC/MS methods using conventional library-searching routines. However, many of the new polar and thermally labile pesticides are more readily and easily analysed by LC/MS methods and no searchable libraries currently exist (with the exception of some user libraries, which are limited). Therefore, there is a need for LC/MS libraries that can detect pesticides and their degradation products. This paper reports an identification scheme using a combination of LC/MS time-of-flight (accurate mass) and an Access database of 350 pesticides that are amenable to positive ion electrospray. The approach differs from conventional library searching of fragment ions. The concept consists of three parts: (1) initial screening of possible pesticides in actual market-place fruit extracts (apple and orange) using accurate mass and generating an accurate mass via an automatic ion-extraction routine, (2) searching the Access database manually for screening identification of a pesticide, and (3) identification of the suspected compound by accurate mass of at least one fragment ion and comparison of retention time with an actual standard. Imazalil and iprodione were identified in apples and thiabendazole in oranges using this database approach.

Application of gas chromatography-hybrid chemical ionization mass spectrometry to the analysis of diclofenac in wastewater samples

Hybrid chemical ionization (HCI), a new and useful alternative to conventional chemical ionization mass spectrometry, has been applied to the analysis of the pharmaceutical diclofenac in wastewater samples. This technique takes advantage of the high versatility of ion trap (IT) spectrometers combined with external ionization sources. In hybrid configuration, reagent ions are generated in the external source through electron ionisation (EI) of a reagent gas. These reagent ions are then drawn into the ion trap and only those selected are allowed to react with analytes eluting from the GC column. These ion-molecule reactions create analyte ions which are held in the ion trap. In this study ion-molecule reactions between C(3)F(5)(+) cations, generated from perfluorotributylamine (FC43), and diclofenac molecules have been investigated. The observed reaction products were [M+C(3)F(5)-H(2)O](+) adduct ions, which result from the initial electrophilic addition of C(3)F(5)(+) cations to the diclofenac molecule followed by the rapid loss of H(2)O. Further fragmentation of these ions by MS/MS yielded enough daughter ions for a reliable identification of diclofenac in complex matrices. The GC-HCI-MS/MS method applied to wastewater samples provided highly enhanced selectivity and sensibility, with a detection limit in real samples of 3.0 ng/L, for a solid-phase extraction (SPE) pre-concentration factor of 400. Other performance characteristics of the method, such as linearity and precision were also satisfactory. Finally, the method was successfully applied to the analysis of wastewater samples taken from the effluent of an urban sewage treatment plant (STP).

Photolysis and photocatalysis of bisphenol A: identification of degradation products by liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC/ESI/ToF/MS)

Bisphenol A is a commonly known endocrine-disrupting compound detected in environmental water samples. The persistence of this compound has been studied by photolysis and photocatalysis studies. In this work, several experiments were performed in order to identify the degradation products under various conditions and in different types of matrices (deionized and waste water). These studies included the influence of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), commonly present in drinking water, on the generation of chlorine by-products of bisphenol A. The effect of catalyses in solar degradation studies was evaluated as well. The identification of the degradation products was accomplished by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC-ToF-MS), which provided highly selective information about elemental compositions. Accurate mass measurements for three main degradation products permitted the postulation of proposed empirical formula in this study. Some of the degradation products were formed in waste water matrices, thus suggesting their potential presence in environmental conditions and in drinking water.

LC-MS analysis and environmental risk of lipid regulators

This article presents a review of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric (LC-MS) methods applied to the determination of lipid-regulating agents, "fibrate" and "statin" classes, and some of their metabolites (clofibric acid and fenofibric acid) in environmental samples. Concentration levels of this therapeutical group have been reported in the ppt to ppb range for different compartments (wastewater, surface water and sediments) in several monitoring studies. Part of this article is dedicated to hazard assessment of lipid-regulating agents according to the approaches of the European Union (EU) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for identifying persistent, bioaccumulable and toxic (PBT) substances. The pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic activities of these pharmaceuticals are well known and, based on this information, the derivation of the potential long-term effects, which may be induced on eco-organisms at low concentration levels, is discussed. Studies of environmental risk assessment (ERA) for lipid regulators carried out through the framework of the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products (EMEA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are presented.

Application of time-of-flight mass spectrometry to the analysis of phototransformation products of diclofenac in water under natural sunlight

Exact mass capabilities of time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry along with other mass spectrometric techniques have been evaluated to elucidate a complete range of dichlofenac phototransformation products. Photolysis experiments with diclofenac in water under direct solar irradiation were performed to characterise the main phototransformation products generated and to determine their stability. Photolysis experiments were performed in both demineralised water and reconstructed standard freshwater. Samples were extracted before analysis by solid phase extraction (SPE) with Oasis HLB and MAX cartridges. Separation and identification of the transformation products were accomplished by the combined use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOFMS). Both techniques provided complementary information that enabled the identification of 13 phototransformation products. Six of them were identified by GC/MS through the structural information provided by the full scan mass spectra obtained under electron impact (EI) ionisation and the confirmation of the molecular mass provided by positive chemical ionisation (PCI) analyses. Accurate mass measurements obtained by LC/TOFMS provided the elucidation of seven polar transformation products. The low mass error observed (<2 ppm) enabled the assignment of highly probable empirical formulas as well as identification of a process dimerisation route. The photoproducts identified demonstrated that photolysis of diclofenac occurs by two main routes. One is the consequence of the initial photocyclisation of diclofenac into carbazole derivatives. The other route goes through the initial decarboxilation of diclofenac and further oxidation of the alkyl-chain, which are typical photolytic process reactions. The main photoproduct identified was 8-chloro-9H-carbazole-1yl-acetic acid.

Matching unknown empirical formulas to chemical structure using LC/MS TOF accurate mass and database searching: example of unknown pesticides on tomato skins

Traditionally, the screening of unknown pesticides in food has been accomplished by GC/MS methods using conventional library searching routines. However, many of the new polar and thermally labile pesticides and their degradates are more readily and easily analyzed by LC/MS methods and no searchable libraries currently exist (with the exception of some user libraries, which are limited). Therefore, there is a need for LC/MS approaches to detect unknown non-target pesticides in food. This report develops an identification scheme using a combination of LC/MS time-of-flight (accurate mass) and LC/MS ion trap MS (MS/MS) with searching of empirical formulas generated through accurate mass and a ChemIndex database or Merck Index database. The approach is different than conventional library searching of fragment ions. The concept here consists of four parts. First is the initial detection of a possible unknown pesticide in actual market-place vegetable extracts (tomato skins) using accurate mass and generating empirical formulas. Second is searching either the Merck Index database on CD (10,000 compounds) or the ChemIndex (77,000 compounds) for possible structures. Third is MS/MS of the unknown pesticide in the tomato-skin extract followed by fragment ion identification using chemical drawing software and comparison with accurate-mass ion fragments. Fourth is the verification with authentic standards, if available. Three examples of unknown, non-target pesticides are shown using a tomato-skin extract from an actual market place sample. Limitations of the approach are discussed including the use of A + 2 isotope signatures, extended databases, lack of authentic standards, and natural product unknowns in food extracts.

Analysis by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry and acute toxicity evaluation for beta-blockers and lipid-regulating agents in wastewater samples

This paper describes a multiresidue method for the extraction and determination of two therapeutic groups of pharmaceuticals, lipid-regulating agents (clofibric acid, bezafibrate, gemfibrocil, fenofibrate) and beta-blockers (atenolol, sotalol, metoprolol, betaxolol) in waters by solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS-MS). Recoveries obtained from spiked HPLC water, as well as, from spiked real samples (sewage treatment plants influent and effluents, river and tap water) were all above 60%, with the exception of betaxolol with a 52% recovery. The quantitative MS analysis was performed using a multiple reaction monitoring. The LC-MS-MS method gave detection limits ranging from 0.017 to 1.25 microg/l in spiked effluent. Precision of the method, calculated as relative standard deviation, ranged from 3.7 to 18.5%. Individual and combined effects on Daphnia magna were evaluated for both therapeutic groups. Individual effects in culture medium showed these compounds as not harmful and not toxic, an exception is fenofibrate that was found to be harmful, but at high, in the environment unrealistic concentrations (EC50 of 50 mg/l). Combined effect in wastewater showed synergistic toxic effects at low concentration level (2 microg/l).

Comparative study of analytical methods involving gas chromatography–mass spectrometry after derivatization and gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of selected endocrine disrupting compounds in wastewaters

Two GC-MS methods, based on the application of N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide-derivatization-GC-MS (selected-ion monitoring) and GC-MS-MS without derivatization, respectively, were optimised and applied to the determination of a group of five selected endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewaters. Both methods included solid-phase extraction with Oasis HLB cartridges allowing an enrichment factor for wastewater samples of 100-fold. The investigated EDCs were estrone, 17beta-estradiol, 17alpha-ethynylestradiol, 4-tert-octylphenol and bisphenol A. Results obtained from the validation studies yielded comparable results in both cases. Recoveries in spiked wastewaters at 50 ng/l were higher than 90% for all the compounds, except for 4-tert-octylphenol (75%). Repeatability and reproducibility were adequate, varying from 1.6 to 14%, except for estrone which reproducibility was 28% when the derivatization-GC-MS method was applied. Limits of detection calculated ranged from 2.5 to 27.5 ng/l with differences between both methods from 1.1 (estrone) to 10.4 (bisphenol A) times. Both methods were successfully applied to the analysis of the target compounds in sewage treatment plant influents and effluents. Traces of bisphenol A, 4-tert-octylphenol, estrone and 17beta-estradiol were detected at concentration levels ranging from 13.3 to 1105.2 ng/l.

Combined toxicity effects of MTBE and pesticides measured with Vibrio fischeri and Daphnia magna bioassays

Methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), a fuel oxygenate that is added to gasoline, commonly contaminates aquatic systems, many of which are already contaminated with pesticides. The toxic effects (EC(50) value) of several pure pesticides (Diuron, Linuron, Dichlofluanid, Sea nine, Irgarol and tributyltin (TBT)) were measured and compared with the EC(50) value of the pesticide mixed with MTBE, using the Vibrio fischeri and Daphnia magna acute toxicity assays. The interaction between chemicals was evaluated in terms of the effects of mixing on the EC(50) value (i.e. the concentration (mg/L) of a compound or mixture that is required to produce a 50% change in a toxic response parameter) and the time required to generate the toxic response. Presence of MTBE enhanced the EC(50) value of several pesticides (Diuron, Dichlofluanid, TBT and Linuron) and/or the toxic response manifested more rapidly than with pure pesticides. Toxicity enhancements were quite substantial in many cases. For example, the presence of MTBE increased the toxicity of Diuron by more than 50% when tested with the V. fischeri assay (5, 15 and 30 min exposure). Also, the toxic response manifested itself within 5 min whereas without the MTBE the same response arose in 30 min. Presence of MTBE increased the toxicity of Dichlofluanid by 30% when measured with the D. magna assay. Toxicities of only two pesticides (Sea nine and Irgarol) were not raised by the presence of MTBE.

Photocatalytic treatment of diuron by solar photocatalysis: evaluation of main intermediates and toxicity

The technical feasibility, mechanisms, and performance of degradation of aqueous diuron (22 mg/L) have been studied at pilot scale in two well-defined photocatalytic systems of special interest because natural UV light can be used: heterogeneous photocatalysis with titanium dioxide and homogeneous photocatalysis by photo-Fenton. Equivalent pilot-scale (made up of Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPCs) specially designed for solar photocatalytic applications) and field conditions used for both allowed adequate comparison of the degree of mineralization and toxicity achieved as well as the transformation products generated en route to mineralization by both systems. Total disappearance of diuron is attained by both phototreatments in 45 min. 100% of chlorine was recovered as chloride, but total recovery of nitrogen as inorganic ions was not attained. 90% of mineralization was reached after 200 min of photocatalytic treatment, but toxicity measured by two different bioassays (Daphnia magna and a Microalga) was reduced to below the threshold (EC50%) in a shorter time. Transformation products evaluated by LC-IT-MS by direct injection of the samples were the same in both cases. The main differences between the two processes were in the amount of transformation products (DPs) generated, not in the DPs detected, which were always the same.

Photo-Fenton treatment of water containing natural phenolic pollutants

Phenolic compounds are known to be present in high concentrations in various types of agro-industrial wastes. As they are highly biorecalcitrant, the possibility of treatment by advanced oxidation processes should be investigated. In this work, six model phenolic compounds (vanillin, protocatechuic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid and L-tyrosine) were chosen for a demonstration of degradation by photo-Fenton reaction, under artificial light in laboratory experiments in Vienna and under sunlight in pilot-plant experiments at the Plataforma Solar de Almería in Spain. All compounds were completely mineralised. No non-degradable intermediates were produced, either in experiments with single substances or in a more complex matrix of a mixture of phenolic compounds. The expected selectivity of the photo-Fenton reaction for aromatic compounds was proven by comparison of the decrease in total organic carbon with the removal of total phenolic content.

Toxicity assays: a way for evaluating AOPs efficiency

The technical feasibility and performance of photocatalytic degradation of aqueous methomyl (50 mg/L) have been studied at pilot scale in two well-defined systems of special interest because natural-solar UV light can be used: heterogeneous photocatalysis with titanium dioxide and homogeneous photocatalysis by photo-Fenton. The pilot plant is made up of compound parabolic collectors specially designed for solar photocatalytic applications. Experimental conditions allowed pesticide disappearance, degree of mineralisation and toxicity achieved in the two photocatalytic systems to be compared. Total disappearance of methomyl is attained by photo-Fenton in 60 min and by TiO2 in 100 min. Hundred percent of nitrogen and sulphur are recovered as ammonium and sulphate. By contrast, complete mineralisation of total organic carbon (TOC) is not achieved even after quite a long time (more than 300 min). Three different bioassays (Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia magna and a Microalga) have been used for testing the progress of toxicity during treatment. All remained toxic down to very low-pesticide concentrations and in some bioassays were still toxic after total disappearance of the pesticide. Only if treatment is maintained throughout enough mineralisation (i.e. TOC disappearance), the toxicity is reduced to below the threshold (EC50%).

Toxicity of single and mixed contaminants in seawater measured with acute toxicity bioassays

Different types of organic pollutants commonly detected in seawater have been evaluated by acute toxicity bioassays. Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia magna, and Selenastrum capricornotum were selected to test toxic effects of individual compounds and mixtures of these compounds, obtaining EC50 values in the range of 0.001 to 28.9 mg/l. In the case of mixtures, synergistic toxic responses were seen for a clear majority of the cases (>60%). Mixtures containing methyl-tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) exhibit accelerated processes that result in a change in concentration required to produce a toxic effect; for example, in the case of mixtures containing MTBE and Diuron and Dichlofluanid.

Determination of traces of five antifouling agents in water by gas chromatography with positive/negative chemical ionisation and tandem mass spectrometric detection

A highly selective and sensitive gas chromatography-mass spectrometry methodology has been developed for the determination of five antifouling compounds, currently licensed for use in marine antifouling paints. The procedure uses an ion trap mass spectrometer provided with an external ion source that allows the combined use, in the same analysis, of positive (PCI) and negative (NCI) chemical ionisation and tandem mass spectrometric fragmentation (MS-MS). Ionisation and fragmentation processes were optimised individually for each compound, thus, permitting maximum sensitivity and selectivity to be obtained. A complete validation study, including those aspects that affect both correct quantification and unequivocal confirmation, demonstrated the good performance of the proposed method. Detection limits obtained were lower than 0.005 microg l(-1), except for Irgarol 1051 (0.050 microg l(-1)). The method was applied to real seawater samples from different

Degradation of imidacloprid in water by photo-Fenton and TiO2 photocatalysis at a solar pilot plant: a comparative study

The technical feasibility, mechanisms, and performance of degradation of aqueous imidacloprid have been studied at pilot scale in two well-defined photocatalytic systems of special interest because natural UV light can be used: heterogeneous photocatalysis with titanium dioxide and homogeneous photocatalysis by photo-Fenton. Equivalent pilot-scale and field conditions used for both allowed adequate comparison of the degree of mineralization and toxicity achieved as well as the transformation products generated in route to mineralization by both systems. Ninety-five percent of mineralization (<2.0 mg/L) was reached after 250 min of photocatalytic treatment with Fenton and 450 min with TiO2, meaning that TOC disappears 2.4 times faster with photo-Fenton photocatalytic treatment than with TiO2. The Daphnia Magna test for final residual TOC does not reveal anytoxic behavior. Transformation products evaluated by GC-MS/AED after two SPE procedures and LC-IC were the same in both cases. The main differences between the two processes are in the amount of transformation products (TPs) generated, not in the TPs detected which were always the same. At the end of both processes low concentration (<0.1 mg/L) of 2 pyrrolidinone (transformation product) remains in the dissolution and around 1 mg/L of formate in the case of photo-Fenton.

Occurrence of antifouling biocides in the Spanish Mediterranean marine environment

A compilation of the results of a monitoring program of the recently used antifouling pesticides diuron (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), Irgarol 1051 (2-methylthio-4-tertiary-butylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-teiazine), seanine 211 (4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothazolin-3-one), chlorothalonil (2,4,5,6-tetrachloro-isophthalonitrile), dichlofluanid (N'-dimethyl-N-phenylsulphanamide), TCMTB ((2-thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole), and three degradation products demethyldiuron (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methylurea),3,4-dichlorophenylurea and 2-methylthio-4-tert-butylamino-s-triazine (Irgarol degradation product) that was carried out between April 1996 and February 2000 in enclosed seawaters from Catalonia and Almería (Spanish Mediterranean coast) is reported. Nine points were sampled along the Catalan coast: Barcelona Olympic port, Masnou, Blanes, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Cambrils and Salou marinas as well as the Cambrils and Tarragona fishing harbors and in marinas and ports from Almeria: Aguadulce port, Almería port, Almerimar fishing harbour and Almerimar marina. The analytical methodologies were based on Solid Phase Extraction followed by liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC) coupled to a mass spectrometry (MS) or -Diode Array Detector. The main pollutants found in the sampled points were diuron and Irgarol 1051 that were detected at concentrations up to 2.19 micrograms l-1 and 0.33 microgram l-1, respectively. On the other hand, seanine 211 was found at the highest concentration (up to 3.7 micrograms l-1) during the summer of 1999. Low concentrations of dichlofluanid and the above mentioned degradation products were detected for the first time in the Spanish coasts. Chlorothalonil, TCMTB were not found at concentrations higher than 1 and 20 ng l-1 respectively which were the limit of determination (LOD) of the method for these compounds. In general the contamination at the different marinas is higher at the end of spring and in summer where the boating activity is also higher. This paper shows for the first time that the contamination by the new antifouling pesticides in Spanish coastline, basically marinas and fishing harbours, is permanent along the whole calendar year. So, preventive actions by the harbour authorities will be needed in the near future in order to monitor and control the levels and effects of the new antifouling biocides in the marine environment.

Gas chromatographic determination of pesticides in vegetable samples by sequential positive and negative chemical ionization and tandem mass spectrometric fragmentation using an ion trap analyser

A selective and sensitive chromatographic method is described for the determination of nine organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides in vegetable samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The proposed method combines the use of positive and negative chemical ionisation and tandem mass spectrometric fragmentation, resulting in a significant increase in selectivity and allowing the simultaneous confirmation and quantification of trace levels of pesticides in complex vegetable matrices. Parameters relative to ionisation and fragmentation processes were optimised to obtain maximum sensitivity. Repeatability and reproducibility studies yielded relative standard deviations lower than 25% in all cases. Identification criteria, such as retention time and relative abundance of characteristic product ions, were also evaluated in order to guarantee the correct identification of the target compounds. The method was applied to real vegetable samples to demonstrate its use in routine analysis.

Multiresidue method for the analysis of five antifouling agents in marine and coastal waters by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with large-volume injection

A simple multiresidue method has been developed for the determination of five pesticides, commonly used as active ingredients in antifouling paints, in seawater samples. The pesticides studied were: chlorothalonil (2,4,5,6-tetrachloroisophthalonitrile), dichlofluanid (N-dimethyl-N-phenylsulphamide), Sea-Nine 211 (4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothazolin-3-one), Irgarol 1051 (2-methylthio-4-tert.-butylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine) and TCMTB (2-thiocyanomethylthiobenzothiazole). The analytes were extracted from 200 ml water samples, using solid-phase extraction. A copolymer with hydrophilic-lipophilic balance was used as sorbent yielding good recoveries (82-95%) for most compounds except dichlofluanid and Sea-Nine 211 (<60%). Large volume injection (10 microl) gas chromatography and electron impact ionization MS (selected ion monitoring mode) detection enabled these compounds to be identified and quantified at the 1.2-3.0 ng/l level. Analysis of samples performed in three marinas in Almería (Spain) revealed the presence of Irgarol 1051 in all the cases, at concentration levels between 25 and 450 ng/l.