1
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Bergstrom CT, Ruxton GD. Feelings and flirtations foster long-term cooperation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2318584121. [PMID: 38252837 PMCID: PMC10835036 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2318584121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Graeme D Ruxton
- School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9AJ, United Kingdom
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2
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Bergstrom CT, Hanage WP. Human behavior and disease dynamics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2317211120. [PMID: 38150502 PMCID: PMC10769819 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2317211120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - William P. Hanage
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
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3
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Bergstrom CT, West JD. How publishers can fight misinformation in and about science and medicine. Nat Med 2023; 29:2174-2176. [PMID: 37420100 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-023-02411-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Jevin D West
- Center for an Informed Public, Information School, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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4
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Bergstrom CT, Ogbunugafor CB. Undue publicity for flawed fraud detector. Science 2023; 381:134. [PMID: 37440656 DOI: 10.1126/science.adi7104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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5
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Schrom E, Kinzig A, Forrest S, Graham AL, Levin SA, Bergstrom CT, Castillo-Chavez C, Collins JP, de Boer RJ, Doupé A, Ensafi R, Feldman S, Grenfell BT, Halderman JA, Huijben S, Maley C, Moses M, Perelson AS, Perrings C, Plotkin J, Rexford J, Tiwari M. Challenges in cybersecurity: Lessons from biological defense systems. Math Biosci 2023:109024. [PMID: 37270102 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2023.109024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Defending against novel, repeated, or unpredictable attacks, while avoiding attacks on the 'self', are the central problems of both mammalian immune systems and computer systems. Both systems have been studied in great detail, but with little exchange of information across the different disciplines. Here, we present a conceptual framework for structured comparisons across the fields of biological immunity and cybersecurity, by framing the context of defense, considering different (combinations of) defensive strategies, and evaluating defensive performance. Throughout this paper, we pose open questions for further exploration. We hope to spark the interdisciplinary discovery of general principles of optimal defense, which can be understood and applied in biological immunity, cybersecurity, and other defensive realms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Schrom
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States of America
| | - Ann Kinzig
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Forrest
- Biodesign Center for Biocomputation, Security and Society, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America; School of Computing and Augmented Intelligence, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America; Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, United States of America
| | - Andrea L Graham
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States of America; Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, United States of America
| | - Simon A Levin
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States of America.
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States of America
| | - Carlos Castillo-Chavez
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - James P Collins
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Rob J de Boer
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Adam Doupé
- School of Computing and Augmented Intelligence, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America; Center for Cybersecurity and Trusted Foundations, Global Security Initiative, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Roya Ensafi
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Computer Science and Engineering Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States of America
| | - Stuart Feldman
- Schmidt Futures, New York, NY 10011, United States of America
| | - Bryan T Grenfell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States of America; Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, United States of America
| | - J Alex Halderman
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Computer Science and Engineering Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States of America; Center for Computer Security and Society, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States of America
| | - Silvie Huijben
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Carlo Maley
- Arizona Cancer Evolution Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America; Biodesign Center for Biocomputation, Security and Society, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Melanie Moses
- Department of Computer Science, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, United States of America; Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, United States of America; Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, United States of America
| | - Alan S Perelson
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, United States of America; Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, United States of America
| | - Charles Perrings
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States of America
| | - Joshua Plotkin
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Rexford
- Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, United States of America
| | - Mohit Tiwari
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America
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6
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Bak-Coleman J, Bergstrom CT, Jacquet J, Mickens J, Tufekci Z, Roberts T. Create an IPCC-like body to harness benefits and combat harms of digital tech. Nature 2023; 617:462-464. [PMID: 37198305 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-023-01606-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
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7
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Wang YS, Lee CJ, West JD, Bergstrom CT, Erosheva EA. Gender-based homophily in collaborations across a heterogeneous scholarly landscape. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0283106. [PMID: 37018177 PMCID: PMC10075399 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0283106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this article, we investigate the role of gender in collaboration patterns by analyzing gender-based homophily-the tendency for researchers to co-author with individuals of the same gender. We develop and apply novel methodology to the corpus of JSTOR articles, a broad scholarly landscape, which we analyze at various levels of granularity. Most notably, for a precise analysis of gender homophily, we develop methodology which explicitly accounts for the fact that the data comprises heterogeneous intellectual communities and that not all authorships are exchangeable. In particular, we distinguish three phenomena which may affect the distribution of observed gender homophily in collaborations: a structural component that is due to demographics and non-gendered authorship norms of a scholarly community, a compositional component which is driven by varying gender representation across sub-disciplines and time, and a behavioral component which we define as the remainder of observed gender homophily after its structural and compositional components have been taken into account. Using minimal modeling assumptions, the methodology we develop allows us to test for behavioral homophily. We find that statistically significant behavioral homophily can be detected across the JSTOR corpus and show that this finding is robust to missing gender indicators in our data. In a secondary analysis, we show that the proportion of women representation in a field is positively associated with the probability of finding statistically significant behavioral homophily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Samuel Wang
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
| | - Carole J Lee
- Department of Philosophy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jevin D West
- Information School, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Elena A Erosheva
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
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8
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Bergstrom CT. Eight rules to combat medical misinformation. Nat Med 2022; 28:2468. [PMID: 36513887 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-02118-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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9
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Johnson PLF, Bergstrom CT, Regoes RR, Longini IM, Halloran ME, Antia R. Evolutionary consequences of delaying intervention for monkeypox. Lancet 2022; 400:1191-1193. [PMID: 36152668 PMCID: PMC9534010 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(22)01789-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip L F Johnson
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MA, 20742, USA.
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Roland R Regoes
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ira M Longini
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - M Elizabeth Halloran
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Rustom Antia
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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10
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McGee RS, Homburger JR, Williams HE, Bergstrom CT, Zhou AY. Model-driven mitigation measures for reopening schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2108909118. [PMID: 34518375 PMCID: PMC8488607 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2108909118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Reopening schools is an urgent priority as the COVID-19 pandemic drags on. To explore the risks associated with returning to in-person learning and the value of mitigation measures, we developed stochastic, network-based models of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission in primary and secondary schools. We find that a number of mitigation measures, alone or in concert, may reduce risk to acceptable levels. Student cohorting, in which students are divided into two separate populations that attend in-person classes on alternating schedules, can reduce both the likelihood and the size of outbreaks. Proactive testing of teachers and staff can help catch introductions early, before they spread widely through the school. In secondary schools, where the students are more susceptible to infection and have different patterns of social interaction, control is more difficult. Especially in these settings, planners should also consider testing students once or twice weekly. Vaccinating teachers and staff protects these individuals and may have a protective effect on students as well. Other mitigations, including mask wearing, social distancing, and increased ventilation, remain a crucial component of any reopening plan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Alicia Y Zhou
- Scientific Affairs, Color Health, Burlingame, CA 94010
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11
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Bak-Coleman JB, Alfano M, Barfuss W, Bergstrom CT, Centeno MA, Couzin ID, Donges JF, Galesic M, Gersick AS, Jacquet J, Kao AB, Moran RE, Romanczuk P, Rubenstein DI, Tombak KJ, Van Bavel JJ, Weber EU. Stewardship of global collective behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2025764118. [PMID: 34155097 PMCID: PMC8271675 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2025764118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Collective behavior provides a framework for understanding how the actions and properties of groups emerge from the way individuals generate and share information. In humans, information flows were initially shaped by natural selection yet are increasingly structured by emerging communication technologies. Our larger, more complex social networks now transfer high-fidelity information over vast distances at low cost. The digital age and the rise of social media have accelerated changes to our social systems, with poorly understood functional consequences. This gap in our knowledge represents a principal challenge to scientific progress, democracy, and actions to address global crises. We argue that the study of collective behavior must rise to a "crisis discipline" just as medicine, conservation, and climate science have, with a focus on providing actionable insight to policymakers and regulators for the stewardship of social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Bak-Coleman
- Center for an Informed Public, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195;
- eScience Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Mark Alfano
- Ethics & Philosophy of Technology, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
- Institute of Philosophy, Australian Catholic University, Banyo Queensland 4014, Australia
| | - Wolfram Barfuss
- Earth System Analysis, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Member of the Leibniz Association, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
- Tübingen AI Center, University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Miguel A Centeno
- Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Iain D Couzin
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, 78315 Radolfzell am Bodensee, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Jonathan F Donges
- Earth System Analysis, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Member of the Leibniz Association, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 11419 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Andrew S Gersick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Jennifer Jacquet
- Department of Environmental Studies, New York University, New York, NY 10012
| | | | - Rachel E Moran
- Center for an Informed Public, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel I Rubenstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
| | - Kaia J Tombak
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10065
| | - Jay J Van Bavel
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003
| | - Elke U Weber
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
- Andlinger Center for Energy and Environment, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544
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12
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Abstract
Humans learn about the world by collectively acquiring information, filtering it, and sharing what we know. Misinformation undermines this process. The repercussions are extensive. Without reliable and accurate sources of information, we cannot hope to halt climate change, make reasoned democratic decisions, or control a global pandemic. Most analyses of misinformation focus on popular and social media, but the scientific enterprise faces a parallel set of problems-from hype and hyperbole to publication bias and citation misdirection, predatory publishing, and filter bubbles. In this perspective, we highlight these parallels and discuss future research directions and interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jevin D West
- Information School, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
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13
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Bergstrom CT, Huttegger SM, Zollman KJS. Signals without teleology. Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 2020; 84:101310. [PMID: 33032934 DOI: 10.1016/j.shpsc.2020.101310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
"Signals" are a conceptual apparatus in many scientific disciplines. Biologists inquire about the evolution of signals, economists talk about the signaling function of purchases and prices, and philosophers discuss the conditions under which signals acquire meaning. However, less attention has been paid to what is a signal. Most existing accounts are teleological in some way. This paper provides a definition of signals that avoids reference to form or purpose. Along the way we introduce novel notions of "information revealing" and "information concealing" moves in games. In the end, our account offers an alternative to teleological accounts of communication.
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14
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Abstract
Scientific research funding is allocated largely through a system of soliciting and ranking competitive grant proposals. In these competitions, the proposals themselves are not the deliverables that the funder seeks, but instead are used by the funder to screen for the most promising research ideas. Consequently, some of the funding program's impact on science is squandered because applying researchers must spend time writing proposals instead of doing science. To what extent does the community's aggregate investment in proposal preparation negate the scientific impact of the funding program? Are there alternative mechanisms for awarding funds that advance science more efficiently? We use the economic theory of contests to analyze how efficiently grant proposal competitions advance science, and compare them with recently proposed, partially randomized alternatives such as lotteries. We find that the effort researchers waste in writing proposals may be comparable to the total scientific value of the research that the funding supports, especially when only a few proposals can be funded. Moreover, when professional pressures motivate investigators to seek funding for reasons that extend beyond the value of the proposed science (e.g., promotion, prestige), the entire program can actually hamper scientific progress when the number of awards is small. We suggest that lost efficiency may be restored either by partial lotteries for funding or by funding researchers based on past scientific success instead of proposals for future work. Scientists waste substantial time writing grant proposals, potentially squandering much of the scientific value of funding programs. This Meta-Research Article shows that, unfortunately, grant-proposal competitions are inevitably inefficient when the number of awards is small, but efficiency can be restored by awarding funds through a modified lottery, or by weighting past research success more heavily in funding decisions. The grant proposal system compels researchers to devote substantial time to writing proposals that could have instead been used to do science. Here, we use the economic theory of contests to show that as fewer grants are funded, the value of the science that researchers forgo while preparing proposals can approach or exceed the value of the science that the funding program supports. As a result, much of the scientific impact of the funding program is squandered. Unfortunately, increased waste and reduced efficiency is inevitable in a grant proposal competition when the number of awards is small. How can scarce funds be allocated efficiently, then? As one alternative, we show that a partial lottery that selects proposals for funding randomly from among those that pass a qualifying standard can restore lost efficiency by reducing investigators' incentives to invest heavily in preparing proposals. Lotteries could also improve efficiency by compelling administrators to de-emphasize grant success as a primary measure of professional achievement. If lotteries are politically untenable, another remedy would be to fund researchers based on their previous research successes, although in such a way that avoids establishing barriers to entry for junior scientists or scientists from historically underrepresented demographic groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Gross
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Carl T. Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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15
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Fortunato S, Bergstrom CT, Börner K, Evans JA, Helbing D, Milojević S, Petersen AM, Radicchi F, Sinatra R, Uzzi B, Vespignani A, Waltman L, Wang D, Barabási AL. Science of science. Science 2018; 359:eaao0185. [PMID: 29496846 PMCID: PMC5949209 DOI: 10.1126/science.aao0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Identifying fundamental drivers of science and developing predictive models to capture its evolution are instrumental for the design of policies that can improve the scientific enterprise-for example, through enhanced career paths for scientists, better performance evaluation for organizations hosting research, discovery of novel effective funding vehicles, and even identification of promising regions along the scientific frontier. The science of science uses large-scale data on the production of science to search for universal and domain-specific patterns. Here, we review recent developments in this transdisciplinary field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santo Fortunato
- Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA.
- Indiana University Network Science Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA
| | - Katy Börner
- Indiana University Network Science Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA
- Cyberinfrastructure for Network Science Center, School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA
| | - James A Evans
- Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Dirk Helbing
- Computational Social Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Staša Milojević
- Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA
| | - Alexander M Petersen
- Ernest and Julio Gallo Management Program, School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, CA 95343, USA
| | - Filippo Radicchi
- Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408, USA
| | - Roberta Sinatra
- Center for Network Science, Central European University, Budapest 1052, Hungary
- Department of Mathematics, Central European University, Budapest 1051, Hungary
- Institute for Network Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Brian Uzzi
- Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Alessandro Vespignani
- Institute for Network Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Sociotechnical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- ISI Foundation, Turin 10133, Italy
| | - Ludo Waltman
- Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Dashun Wang
- Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Albert-László Barabási
- Center for Network Science, Central European University, Budapest 1052, Hungary.
- Institute for Network Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Center for Cancer Systems Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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16
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Abstract
Science is facing a “replication crisis” in which many experimental findings cannot be replicated and are likely to be false. Does this imply that many scientific facts are false as well? To find out, we explore the process by which a claim becomes fact. We model the community’s confidence in a claim as a Markov process with successive published results shifting the degree of belief. Publication bias in favor of positive findings influences the distribution of published results. We find that unless a sufficient fraction of negative results are published, false claims frequently can become canonized as fact. Data-dredging, p-hacking, and similar behaviors exacerbate the problem. Should negative results become easier to publish as a claim approaches acceptance as a fact, however, true and false claims would be more readily distinguished. To the degree that the model reflects the real world, there may be serious concerns about the validity of purported facts in some disciplines. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21451.001
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tali Magidson
- Department of Computer Science, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Kevin Gross
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, United States
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
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17
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Meacham F, T Bergstrom C. Adaptive behavior can produce maladaptive anxiety due to individual differences in experience. EMPH 2016; 2016:270-85. [PMID: 27530544 PMCID: PMC5490257 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eow024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frazer Meacham
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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18
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Bergstrom CT, Meacham F. Depression and anxiety: maladaptive byproducts of adaptive mechanisms. Evol Med Public Health 2016; 2016:214-8. [PMID: 27378798 PMCID: PMC4972939 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eow019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98125, USA
| | - Frazer Meacham
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98125, USA
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98125-1800.
| | - Brian R Wasik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, 235 Hungerford Hill Road, Ithaca, NY, 14853
| | - Richard E Lenski
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, Biomedical Physical Sciences Building, 567 Wilson R., East Lansing, MI, 48824-4320, USA
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20
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Abstract
Theoretical ideas have a rich history in many areas of biology, and new theories and mathematical models have much to offer in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenying Shou
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Arup K Chakraborty
- Departments of Chemical Engineering, Physics, Chemistry and Biological Engineering, and the Institute for Medical Engineering & Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
| | - Frances K Skinner
- Toronto Western Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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21
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Tanaka MM, Althouse BM, Bergstrom CT. Timing of antimicrobial use influences the evolution of antimicrobial resistance during disease epidemics. Evol Med Public Health 2014; 2014:150-61. [PMID: 25376480 PMCID: PMC4246056 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eou027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
How can antimicrobial drugs be deployed optimally during infectious disease epidemics? Our mathematical models show it is optimal to delay treatment to maximize successful treatments. In formulating policy, however, this must be balanced against the risk of incorrectly predicting the peak of an epidemic. Background: Although the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance have been well studied for endemic infections, comparably little is understood for epidemic infections such as influenza. The availability of antimicrobial treatments for epidemic diseases raises the urgent question of how to deploy treatments to achieve maximum benefit despite resistance evolution. Recent simulation studies have shown that the number of cases prevented by antimicrobials can be maximized by delaying the use of treatments during an epidemic. Those studies focus on indirect effects of antimicrobial use: preventing disease among untreated individuals. Here, we identify and examine direct effects of antimicrobial use: the number of successfully treated cases. Methodology: We develop mathematical models to study how the schedule of antiviral use influences the success or failure of subsequent use due to the spread of resistant strains. Results: Direct effects are maximized by postponing drug use, even with unlimited stockpiles of drugs. This occurs because the early use of antimicrobials disproportionately drives emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance, leading to subsequent treatment failure. However, for antimicrobials with low effect on transmission, the relative benefit of delaying antimicrobial deployment is greatly reduced and can only be reaped if the trajectory of the epidemic can be accurately estimated early. Conclusions and implications: Health planners face uncertainties during epidemics, including the possibility of early containment. Hence, despite the optimal deployment time near the epidemic peak, it will often be preferable to initiate widespread antimicrobial use as early as possible, particularly if the drug is ineffective in reducing transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark M Tanaka
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia; Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Rd., Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA; Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA
| | - Benjamin M Althouse
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia; Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Rd., Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA; Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington NSW 2052, Australia; Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Rd., Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA; Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA
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22
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Carroll SP, Jørgensen PS, Kinnison MT, Bergstrom CT, Denison RF, Gluckman P, Smith TB, Strauss SY, Tabashnik BE. Applying evolutionary biology to address global challenges. Science 2014; 346:1245993. [PMID: 25213376 PMCID: PMC4245030 DOI: 10.1126/science.1245993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Two categories of evolutionary challenges result from escalating human impacts on the planet. The first arises from cancers, pathogens, and pests that evolve too quickly and the second, from the inability of many valued species to adapt quickly enough. Applied evolutionary biology provides a suite of strategies to address these global challenges that threaten human health, food security, and biodiversity. This Review highlights both progress and gaps in genetic, developmental, and environmental manipulations across the life sciences that either target the rate and direction of evolution or reduce the mismatch between organisms and human-altered environments. Increased development and application of these underused tools will be vital in meeting current and future targets for sustainable development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott P Carroll
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Institute for Contemporary Evolution, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Peter Søgaard Jørgensen
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Michael T Kinnison
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - R Ford Denison
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55108, USA
| | - Peter Gluckman
- Centre for Human Evolution, Adaptation and Disease, Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Thomas B Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, 90095-1496, CA
| | - Sharon Y Strauss
- Department of Evolution and Ecology and Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, CA 95616, USA
| | - Bruce E Tabashnik
- Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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Abstract
Costly signalling theory is commonly invoked as an explanation for how honest communication can be stable when interests conflict. However, the signal costs predicted by costly signalling models often turn out to be unrealistically high. These models generally assume that signal cost is determinate. Here, we consider the case where signal cost is instead stochastic. We examine both discrete and continuous signalling games and show that, under reasonable assumptions, stochasticity in signal costs can decrease the average cost at equilibrium for all individuals. This effect of stochasticity for decreasing signal costs is a fundamental mechanism that probably acts in a wide variety of circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frazer Meacham
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, PO Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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25
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Abstract
Gender disparities appear to be decreasing in academia according to a number of metrics, such as grant funding, hiring, acceptance at scholarly journals, and productivity, and it might be tempting to think that gender inequity will soon be a problem of the past. However, a large-scale analysis based on over eight million papers across the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities reveals a number of understated and persistent ways in which gender inequities remain. For instance, even where raw publication counts seem to be equal between genders, close inspection reveals that, in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions. Moreover, women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers. Academics should be aware of the subtle ways that gender disparities can occur in scholarly authorship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jevin D West
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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26
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Vilhena DA, Harris EB, Bergstrom CT, Maliska ME, Ward PD, Sidor CA, Strömberg CAE, Wilson GP. Bivalve network reveals latitudinal selectivity gradient at the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. Sci Rep 2013. [PMCID: PMC3646391 DOI: 10.1038/srep01790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Biogeographic patterns of survival help constrain the causal factors responsible for mass extinction. To test whether biogeography influenced end-Cretaceous (K-Pg) extinction patterns, we used a network approach to delimit biogeographic units (BUs) above the species level in a global Maastrichtian database of 329 bivalve genera. Geographic range is thought to buffer taxa from extinction, but the number of BUs a taxon occurred in superseded geographic range as an extinction predictor. Geographically, we found a latitudinal selectivity gradient for geographic range in the K-Pg, such that higher latitude BUs had lower extinction than expected given the geographic ranges of the genera, implying that (i) high latitude BUs were more resistant to extinction, (ii) the intensity of the K-Pg kill mechanism declined with distance from the tropics, or (iii) both. Our results highlight the importance of macroecological structure in constraining causal mechanisms of extinction and estimating extinction risk of taxa.
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27
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West JD, Jensen MC, Dandrea RJ, Gordon GJ, Bergstrom CT. Author-level Eigenfactor metrics: Evaluating the influence of authors, institutions, and countries within the social science research network community. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/asi.22790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jevin D. West
- Department of Biology; University of Washington; Box 351800; Seattle; WA; 98195
| | | | - Ralph J. Dandrea
- ITX Corporation; 1169 Pittsford-Victor Road; Pittsford; NY; 14534
| | - Gregory J. Gordon
- C/o Social Sciences Research Network; 2171 Monroe Avenue, Suite 203; Rochester; NY; 14618
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28
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Abstract
Costly signalling theory has become a common explanation for honest communication when interests conflict. In this paper, we provide an alternative explanation for partially honest communication that does not require significant signal costs. We show that this alternative is at least as plausible as traditional costly signalling, and we suggest a number of experiments that might be used to distinguish the two theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J S Zollman
- Department of Philosophy, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3890, USA.
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29
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Cowan NJ, Chastain EJ, Vilhena DA, Freudenberg JS, Bergstrom CT. Nodal dynamics, not degree distributions, determine the structural controllability of complex networks. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38398. [PMID: 22761682 PMCID: PMC3382243 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Structural controllability has been proposed as an analytical framework for making predictions regarding the control of complex networks across myriad disciplines in the physical and life sciences (Liu et al., Nature:473(7346):167–173, 2011). Although the integration of control theory and network analysis is important, we argue that the application of the structural controllability framework to most if not all real-world networks leads to the conclusion that a single control input, applied to the power dominating set, is all that is needed for structural controllability. This result is consistent with the well-known fact that controllability and its dual observability are generic properties of systems. We argue that more important than issues of structural controllability are the questions of whether a system is almost uncontrollable, whether it is almost unobservable, and whether it possesses almost pole-zero cancellations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah J Cowan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.
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30
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Antolin MF, Jenkins KP, Bergstrom CT, Crespi BJ, De S, Hancock A, Hanley KA, Meagher TR, Moreno-Estrada A, Nesse RM, Omenn GS, Stearns SC. Evolution and medicine in undergraduate education: a prescription for all biology students. Evolution 2012; 66:1991-2006. [PMID: 22671563 PMCID: PMC7202235 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01552.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The interface between evolutionary biology and the biomedical sciences promises to advance understanding of the origins of genetic and infectious diseases in humans, potentially leading to improved medical diagnostics, therapies, and public health practices. The biomedical sciences also provide unparalleled examples for evolutionary biologists to explore. However, gaps persist between evolution and medicine, for historical reasons and because they are often perceived as having disparate goals. Evolutionary biologists have a role in building a bridge between the disciplines by presenting evolutionary biology in the context of human health and medical practice to undergraduates, including premedical and preprofessional students. We suggest that students will find medical examples of evolution engaging. By making the connections between evolution and medicine clear at the undergraduate level, the stage is set for future health providers and biomedical scientists to work productively in this synthetic area. Here, we frame key evolutionary concepts in terms of human health, so that biomedical examples may be more easily incorporated into evolution courses or more specialized courses on evolutionary medicine. Our goal is to aid in building the scientific foundation in evolutionary biology for all students, and to encourage evolutionary biologists to join in the integration of evolution and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Antolin
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA.
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31
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Affiliation(s)
- Jevin D West
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA.
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32
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Abstract
Evolutionary biology provides an essential perspective on the determinants of health and disease, believe Peter Gluckman and Carl Bergstrom. It needs to be further integrated into medical research and teaching
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D Gluckman
- Centre for Human Evolution, Adaptation and Disease, and the National Research Centre for Growth and Development, Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
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33
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Hendry AP, Kinnison MT, Heino M, Day T, Smith TB, Fitt G, Bergstrom CT, Oakeshott J, Jørgensen PS, Zalucki MP, Gilchrist G, Southerton S, Sih A, Strauss S, Denison RF, Carroll SP. Evolutionary principles and their practical application. Evol Appl 2011; 4:159-83. [PMID: 25567966 PMCID: PMC3352551 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00165.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary principles are now routinely incorporated into medicine and agriculture. Examples include the design of treatments that slow the evolution of resistance by weeds, pests, and pathogens, and the design of breeding programs that maximize crop yield or quality. Evolutionary principles are also increasingly incorporated into conservation biology, natural resource management, and environmental science. Examples include the protection of small and isolated populations from inbreeding depression, the identification of key traits involved in adaptation to climate change, the design of harvesting regimes that minimize unwanted life-history evolution, and the setting of conservation priorities based on populations, species, or communities that harbor the greatest evolutionary diversity and potential. The adoption of evolutionary principles has proceeded somewhat independently in these different fields, even though the underlying fundamental concepts are the same. We explore these fundamental concepts under four main themes: variation, selection, connectivity, and eco-evolutionary dynamics. Within each theme, we present several key evolutionary principles and illustrate their use in addressing applied problems. We hope that the resulting primer of evolutionary concepts and their practical utility helps to advance a unified multidisciplinary field of applied evolutionary biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Hendry
- Redpath Museum and Department of Biology, McGill University Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Mikko Heino
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen Bergen, Norway ; International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Laxenburg, Austria ; Institute of Marine Research Bergen, Norway
| | - Troy Day
- Departments of Mathematics and Statistics and Biology, Queen's University Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas B Smith
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Gary Fitt
- CSIRO Entomology and Cotton Catchment Communities CRC, Long Pocket Laboratories Indooroopilly, Qld, Australia
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
| | - John Oakeshott
- CSIRO Entomology, Black Mountain Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Peter S Jørgensen
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Myron P Zalucki
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - George Gilchrist
- Division of Environmental Biology, National Science Foundation Arlington, VA, USA
| | | | - Andrew Sih
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California Davis, CA, USA
| | - Sharon Strauss
- Section of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, CA, USA
| | - Robert F Denison
- Ecology Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota Saint Paul, MN, USA
| | - Scott P Carroll
- Institute for Contemporary Evolution Davis, CA, USA ; Department of Entomology, University of California Davis, CA, USA
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34
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Abstract
Limited time and budgets have created a legitimate need for quantitative measures of scholarly work. The well-known journal impact factor is the leading measure of this sort; here we describe an alternative approach based on the full structure of the scholarly citation network. The Eigenfactor Metrics—Eigenfactor Score and Article Influence Score—use an iterative ranking scheme similar to Google’s PageRank algorithm. By this approach, citations from top journals are weighted more heavily than citations from lower-tier publications. Here we describe these metrics and the rankings that they provide.
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Abstract
Communication and information are central concepts in evolutionary biology. In fact, it is hard to find an area of biology where these concepts are not used. However, quantifying the information transferred in biological interactions has been difficult. How much information is transferred when the first spring rainfall hits a dormant seed, or when a chick begs for food from its parent? One measure that is commonly used in such cases is fitness value: by how much, on average, an individual's fitness would increase if it behaved optimally with the new information, compared to its average fitness without the information. Another measure, often used to describe neural responses to sensory stimuli, is the mutual information-a measure of reduction in uncertainty, as introduced by Shannon in communication theory. However, mutual information has generally not been considered to be an appropriate measure for describing developmental or behavioral responses at the organismal level, because it is blind to function; it does not distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information. In this paper we show that there is in fact a surprisingly tight connection between these two measures in the important context of evolution in an uncertain environment. In this case, a useful measure of fitness benefit is the increase in the long-term growth rate, or the fold increase in number of surviving lineages. We show that in many cases the fitness value of a developmental cue, when measured this way, is exactly equal to the reduction in uncertainty about the environment, as described by the mutual information.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA
| | - Michael Lachmann
- Max Planck Inst. for Evol. Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
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36
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Abstract
Change is a fundamental ingredient of interaction patterns in biology, technology, the economy, and science itself: Interactions within and between organisms change; transportation patterns by air, land, and sea all change; the global financial flow changes; and the frontiers of scientific research change. Networks and clustering methods have become important tools to comprehend instances of these large-scale structures, but without methods to distinguish between real trends and noisy data, these approaches are not useful for studying how networks change. Only if we can assign significance to the partitioning of single networks can we distinguish meaningful structural changes from random fluctuations. Here we show that bootstrap resampling accompanied by significance clustering provides a solution to this problem. To connect changing structures with the changing function of networks, we highlight and summarize the significant structural changes with alluvial diagrams and realize de Solla Price's vision of mapping change in science: studying the citation pattern between about 7000 scientific journals over the past decade, we find that neuroscience has transformed from an interdisciplinary specialty to a mature and stand-alone discipline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rosvall
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
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37
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Nesse RM, Bergstrom CT, Ellison PT, Flier JS, Gluckman P, Govindaraju DR, Niethammer D, Omenn GS, Perlman RL, Schwartz MD, Thomas MG, Stearns SC, Valle D. Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Making evolutionary biology a basic science for medicine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107 Suppl 1:1800-7. [PMID: 19918069 PMCID: PMC2868284 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0906224106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
New applications of evolutionary biology in medicine are being discovered at an accelerating rate, but few physicians have sufficient educational background to use them fully. This article summarizes suggestions from several groups that have considered how evolutionary biology can be useful in medicine, what physicians should learn about it, and when and how they should learn it. Our general conclusion is that evolutionary biology is a crucial basic science for medicine. In addition to looking at established evolutionary methods and topics, such as population genetics and pathogen evolution, we highlight questions about why natural selection leaves bodies vulnerable to disease. Knowledge about evolution provides physicians with an integrative framework that links otherwise disparate bits of knowledge. It replaces the prevalent view of bodies as machines with a biological view of bodies shaped by evolutionary processes. Like other basic sciences, evolutionary biology needs to be taught both before and during medical school. Most introductory biology courses are insufficient to establish competency in evolutionary biology. Premedical students need evolution courses, possibly ones that emphasize medically relevant aspects. In medical school, evolutionary biology should be taught as one of the basic medical sciences. This will require a course that reviews basic principles and specific medical applications, followed by an integrated presentation of evolutionary aspects that apply to each disease and organ system. Evolutionary biology is not just another topic vying for inclusion in the curriculum; it is an essential foundation for a biological understanding of health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randolph M Nesse
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Michigan, Room 3018, East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48104, USA.
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Pitzer VE, Olsen SJ, Bergstrom CT, Dowell SF, Lipsitch M. Little evidence for genetic susceptibility to influenza A (H5N1) from family clustering data. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 13:1074-6. [PMID: 18214184 PMCID: PMC2878232 DOI: 10.3201/eid1307.061538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The apparent clustering of human cases of influenza A (H5N1) among blood relatives has been considered as evidence of genetic variation in susceptibility. We show that, by chance alone, a high proportion of clusters are expected to be limited to blood relatives when infection is a rare event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia E Pitzer
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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41
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Abstract
To comprehend the multipartite organization of large-scale biological and social systems, we introduce an information theoretic approach that reveals community structure in weighted and directed networks. We use the probability flow of random walks on a network as a proxy for information flows in the real system and decompose the network into modules by compressing a description of the probability flow. The result is a map that both simplifies and highlights the regularities in the structure and their relationships. We illustrate the method by making a map of scientific communication as captured in the citation patterns of >6,000 journals. We discover a multicentric organization with fields that vary dramatically in size and degree of integration into the network of science. Along the backbone of the network-including physics, chemistry, molecular biology, and medicine-information flows bidirectionally, but the map reveals a directional pattern of citation from the applied fields to the basic sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rosvall
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA.
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42
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Abstract
To understand the structure of a large-scale biological, social, or technological network, it can be helpful to decompose the network into smaller subunits or modules. In this article, we develop an information-theoretic foundation for the concept of modularity in networks. We identify the modules of which the network is composed by finding an optimal compression of its topology, capitalizing on regularities in its structure. We explain the advantages of this approach and illustrate them by partitioning a number of real-world and model networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rosvall
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA.
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43
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Abstract
To understand the structure of a large-scale biological, social, or technological network, it can be helpful to decompose the network into smaller subunits or modules. In this article, we develop an information-theoretic foundation for the concept of modularity in networks. We identify the modules of which the network is composed by finding an optimal compression of its topology, capitalizing on regularities in its structure. We explain the advantages of this approach and illustrate them by partitioning a number of real-world and model networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rosvall
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800, USA.
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Donaldson MC, Lachmann M, Bergstrom CT. The evolution of functionally referential meaning in a structured world. J Theor Biol 2007; 246:225-33. [PMID: 17280687 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2006] [Revised: 12/08/2006] [Accepted: 12/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Animal communication systems serve to transfer both motivational information--about the intentions or emotional state of the signaler--and referential information--about external objects. Although most animal calls seem to deal primarily with motivational information, those with a substantial referential component are particularly interesting because they invite comparison with words in human language. We present a game-theoretic model of the evolution of communication in a "structured world", where some situations may be more similar to one another than others, and therefore require similar responses. We find that breaking the symmetry in this way creates the possibility for a diverse array of evolutionarily stable communication systems. When the number of signals is limited, as in alarm calling, the system tends to evolve to group together situations which require similar responses. We use this observation to make some predictions about the situations in which primarily motivational or referential communication systems will evolve.
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45
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Abstract
It is generally believed that the first organisms did not age, and that aging thus evolved at some point in the history of life. When and why this transition occurred is a fundamental question in evolutionary biology. Recent reports of aging in bacteria suggest that aging predates the emergence of eukaryotes and originated in simple unicellular organisms. Here we use simple models to study why such organisms would evolve aging. These models show that the differentiation between an aging parent and a rejuvenated offspring readily evolves as a strategy to cope with damage that accumulates due to vital activities. We use measurements of the age-specific performance of individual bacteria to test the assumptions of the model, and find evidence that they are fulfilled. The mechanism that leads to aging is expected to operate in a wide range of organisms, suggesting that aging evolved early and repeatedly in the history of life. Aging might thus be a more fundamental aspect of cellular organisms than assumed so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ackermann
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETHZ, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.
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46
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Abstract
Containing an emerging influenza H5N1 pandemic in its earliest stages may be feasible, but containing multiple introductions of a pandemic-capable strain would be more difficult. Mills and colleagues argue that multiple introductions are likely, especially if risk of a pandemic is high.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marc Lipsitch
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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47
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Bergstrom CT, Antia R. How do adaptive immune systems control pathogens while avoiding autoimmunity? Trends Ecol Evol 2005; 21:22-8. [PMID: 16701466 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2005.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2005] [Revised: 09/19/2005] [Accepted: 11/08/2005] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Immune systems face a daunting control challenge. On the one hand, they need to minimize damage from pathogens, without wasting energy and resources, but on the other must avoid initiating or perpetuating autoimmune responses. Finally, because pathogens interfere with immune function, immune systems must be robust against sabotage. We describe here how these challenges are met by two immune systems, the intracellular RNA interference system and the vertebrate CD8 T-cell response. We extrapolate from these two systems to propose principles for strategically robust control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl T Bergstrom
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
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Genereux DP, Miner BE, Bergstrom CT, Laird CD. A population-epigenetic model to infer site-specific methylation rates from double-stranded DNA methylation patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:5802-7. [PMID: 15827124 PMCID: PMC556300 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0502036102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2004] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytosine methylation is an epigenetic mechanism in eukaryotes that is often associated with stable transcriptional silencing, such as in X-chromosome inactivation and genomic imprinting. Aberrant methylation patterns occur in several inherited human diseases and in many cancers. To understand how methylated and unmethylated states of cytosine residues are transmitted during DNA replication, we develop a population-epigenetic model of DNA methylation dynamics. The model is informed by our observation that de novo methylation can occur on the daughter strand while leaving the opposing cytosine unmethylated, as revealed by the patterns of methylation on the two complementary strands of individual DNA molecules. Under our model, we can infer site-specific rates of both maintenance and de novo methylation, values that determine the fidelity of methylation inheritance, from double-stranded methylation data. This approach can be used for populations of cells obtained from individuals without the need for cell culture. We use our method to infer cytosine methylation rates at several sites within the promoter of the human gene FMR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane P Genereux
- Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution in the Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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