Hexane Fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Root Extract Inhibits Angiogenesis and Endothelial Cell-Induced Erlotinib Resistance in Lung Cancer Cells

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-angiogenic effects of the hexane fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica root extract (HAT) and its influence on the development of erlotinib resistance in human lung cancer cells. HAT significantly reduced the migration, invasion, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The phosphorylation levels of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and its downstream molecules were decreased via HAT, indicating its anti-angiogenic potential in endothelial cells (ECs). A docking analysis demonstrated that β-sitosterol and lupeol, representative components of HAT, exhibit a high affinity for binding to VEGFR2. In addition, conditioned media from HAT-pretreated H1299 human lung cancer cells attenuated cancer-cell-induced chemotaxis of HUVECs, which was attributed to the decreased expression of angiogenic and chemotactic factors in H1299 cells. Interestingly, co-culture of erlotinib-sensitive PC9 human lung cancer cells with HUVECs induced erlotinib resistance in PC9 cells. However, co-culture with HAT-pretreated HUVECs partially restored the sensitivity of PC9 cells to erlotinib. HAT inhibited the development of erlotinib resistance by attenuating hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) production by ECs. Taken together, our results demonstrate that HAT exerts its anticancer effects by regulating the crosstalk between ECs and lung cancer cells.

First Contiguous Genome Assembly of Japanese Lady Bell (Adenophora triphylla) and Insights into Development of Different Leaf Types

Adenophora triphylla is an important medicinal and food plant found in East Asia. This plant is rich in secondary metabolites such as triterpenoid saponin, and its leaves can develop into different types, such as round and linear, depending on the origin of germination even within the same species. Despite this, few studies have comprehensively characterized the development processes of different leaf types and triterpenoid saponin pathways in this plant. Herein, we provide the first report of a high-quality genome assembly of A. triphylla based on a combination of Oxford Nanopore Technologies and Illumina sequencing methods. Its genome size was estimated to be 2.6 Gb, and the assembled genome finalized as 2.48 Gb, containing 57,729 protein-coding genes. Genome completeness was assessed as 95.6% using the Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs score. The evolutionary divergence of A. triphylla was investigated using the genomes of five plant species, including two other species in the Campanulaceae family. The species A. triphylla diverged approximately 51-118 million years ago from the other four plants, and 579 expanded/contracted gene families were clustered in the Gene Ontology terms. The expansion of the β-amyrin synthase (bAS) gene, a key enzyme in the triterpenoid saponin pathway, was identified in the A. triphylla genome. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis of the two leaf types revealed differences in the activity of starch, sucrose, unsaturated fatty acid pathways, and oxidoreductase enzymes. The heat and endoplasmic reticulum pathways related to plant stress were active in the development of round type leaf, while an enhancement of pyrimidine metabolism related to cell development was confirmed in the development of the linear type leaf. This study provides insight into the evolution of bAS genes and the development of different leaf types in A. triphylla.

Dormancy-release and germination improvement of Korean bellflower (Campanula takesimana Nakai), a rare and endemic plant native to the Korean peninsula

Korean bellflower (Campanula takesimana Nakai) is a rare and perennial herb with medicinal and ornamental values, is endemic to the Ulleung Island of Korea. In this study, we investigated the dormancy-release and germination characteristics of C. takesimana (Campanulaceae) seeds by subjecting them to varying temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25°C and diurnal/nocturnal temperatures of 15/6, 20/10, and 25/15°C), cold stratification periods (0, 4, 8, or 12 weeks at 5°C), and gibberellic acid (GA3) concentrations (0, 10, 100, or 1,000 mg·L-1 at 15/6°C and 25/15°C) to identify the ideal seed propagation conditions. The seeds were stimulated to germinate (at 25°C, 12-h photoperiod with fluorescent lamps at 40 ± 10 μmol∙m-2∙s-1) after cold stratification. To examine the germination characteristics, the seeds were tested for water imbibition and found to readily absorb water. The seeds exhibited underdeveloped embryos during dispersal, showed final germination of 37.00% ± 4.43 at 25°C and were not influenced by temperature. The seeds subjected to 0, 4, 8, or 12 weeks of cold stratification germinated at a success rate of 22.00% ± 4.76, 87.00% ± 6.80, 79.00% ± 2.52, and 77.00% ± 1.91, respectively. Additionally, the germination characteristics, which were based on final germination, mean germination time, and germination velocity (Timson index), were significantly greater in the seeds pretreated with 1,000 mg·L-1 GA3 at 25/15°C than in seeds pretreated with 0 mg·L-1 GA3. Overall, the seeds broke dormancy with GA3 and short-term cold stratification. Therefore, we concluded that C. takesimana seeds have non-deep, simple, morphophysiological dormancy, and pretreatment with cold stratification and GA3 is required for effective seed propagation.

Morphological and environmental differentiation as prezygotic reproductive barriers between parapatric and allopatric Campanula rotundifolia agg. cytotypes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Reproductive isolation and local establishment are necessary for plant speciation. Polyploidy, the possession of more than two complete chromosome sets, creates a strong postzygotic reproductive barrier between diploid and tetraploid cytotypes. However, this barrier weakens between polyploids (e.g. tetraploids and hexaploids). Reproductive isolation may be enhanced by cytotype morphological and environmental differentiation. Moreover, morphological adaptations to local conditions contribute to plant establishment. However, the relative contributions of ploidy level and the environment to morphology have generally been neglected. Thus, the extent of morphological variation driven by ploidy level and the environment was modelled for diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid cytotypes of Campanula rotundifolia agg. Cytotype distribution was updated, and morphological and environmental differentiation was tested in the presence and absence of natural contact zones.

METHODS

Cytotype distribution was assessed from 231 localities in Central Europe, including 48 localities with known chromosome counts, using flow cytometry. Differentiation in environmental niche and morphology was tested for cytotype pairs using discriminant analyses. A structural equation model was used to explore the synergies between cytotype, environment and morphology.

KEY RESULTS

Tremendous discrepancies were revealed between the reported and detected cytotype distribution. Neither mixed-ploidy populations nor interploidy hybrids were detected in the contact zones. Diploids had the broadest environmental niche, while hexaploids had the smallest and specialized niche. Hexaploids and spatially isolated cytotype pairs differed morphologically, including allopatric tetraploids. While leaf and shoot morphology were influenced by environmental conditions and polyploidy, flower morphology depended exclusively on the cytotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Reproductive isolation mechanisms vary between cytotypes. While diploids and polyploids are isolated postzygotically, the environmental niche shift is essential between higher polyploids. The impact of polyploidy and the environment on plant morphology implies the adaptive potential of polyploids, while the exclusive relationship between flower morphology and cytotype highlights the role of polyploidy in reproductive isolation.

Campanula macrostachya: biological activity and identification of phenolics using a liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry system

It is known that some Campanula species are traditionally used because of their anti-allergic, spasmolytic, antiphlogistic, antioxidant, and antiviral properties. This study was designed to evaluate the phytochemical composition, antioxidant, α-amylase, and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of ethyl acetate, methanol, and water extracts of Campanula macrostachya Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. Chemical compositions were analyzed by spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods. Antioxidant activities of the samples were tested by using five different test systems. Enzyme inhibitory activities of the extracts were also studied. As a result of the LC-ESI-MS/MS analyses, chlorogenic acid, hesperidin, and hyperoside were found to be the major compounds of the extracts, especially the MeOH extract (6559.59, 2499.22, and 2047.66 μg/g extract, respectively). Antioxidant activity tests have proven that MeOH extract showed higher activity than others (DPPH: 4.15 mg/mL, ABTS: 2.05 mg/mL, CUPRAC: 1.80 mg/mL, FRAP: 0.83 mg/mL, phosphomolybdenum: 1.69 mg/mL). Ferrous ion chelating activity of the water extract was 1.03 mg/mL. In α-amylase and tyrosinase inhibitory assays, EtOAc (IC₅₀: 2.54 mg/mL) and MeOH (IC₅₀: 1.51 mg/mL) extracts showed higher activity than the others did. In phosphomolybdenum, CUPRAC, FRAP, and tyrosinase inhibitory assays, the activity was strongly correlated with flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, hesperidin, and hyperoside. On the other hand, phenolic compounds have been found to contribute more to radical scavenging activity. Pearson correlation analysis showed that phenolics and flavonoids were not responsible for the α-amylase inhibitory activity of EtOAc extract.

Pollen limitation and autonomous selfing ability interact to shape variation in outcrossing rate across a species range

PREMISE

Hermaphroditic plants commonly reproduce through a mixture of selfing and outcrossing. The degree to which outcrossing rates reflect the availability of outcross pollen, genetic differentiation in the ability to autonomously self-fertilize, or both is often unclear. Despite the potential for autonomy and the pollination environment to jointly influence outcrossing, this interaction is rarely studied.

METHODS

We reviewed studies from the literature that tested whether the pollination environment or floral traits that cause autonomous selfing predict variation in outcrossing rate among populations. We also measured outcrossing rates in 23 populations of Campanula americana and examined associations with the pollination environment, autonomy, and their interaction.

RESULTS

Our review revealed that traits that facilitate selfing were often negatively associated with outcrossing rates whereas most aspects of the pollination environment poorly predicted outcrossing. Populations of C. americana varied from mixed mating to highly outcrossing, but variation was unrelated to population size, density, pollen limitation, or autonomous selfing ability. Outcrossing rate was significantly influenced by an interaction between autonomous selfing ability and pollen limitation. Across highly autonomous populations, elevated pollen limitation was associated with reduced outcrossing, while there was no relationship for less autonomous populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the ability to self autonomously and pollen limitation interact to shape outcrossing rates in C. americana. This work suggests that autonomy affords mating-system flexibility, though it is not ubiquitous in all populations across the species range. Interactions between traits influencing autonomy and pollen limitation are likely to explain variation in outcrossing rates among populations of flowering plants.

Antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory effects of Adenophorae Radix powder in ICR mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Adenophora triphylla var. japonica is frequently used as an oriental medicinal plant in Korea, China, and Japan for its anti-inflammatory, antitussive, and hepatoprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In the present study, the antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory effects of AR powder were investigated using animal models to evaluate their potential to treat respiratory disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AR powder was administered orally to mice once daily for 11 days, at dose levels of 400, 200, and 100 mg/kg. Theobromine (TB), ambroxol (AM) and dexamethasone (DEXA) were used as standard drugs for antitussive effects, expectorant effects and anti-inflammatory effects, respectively. Evaluations of antitussive effects were based on changes in body weight, the number of cough responses and the histopathology of the lung and trachea. Expectorant effects were based on changes in the body weight, macroscopic observations of body surface redness, the mucous secretion of the trachea and histopathology of lung (secondary bronchus). Anti-inflammatory effects were based on changes in the body weight, macroscopic observations involving redness and edema of the treated ear, absolute and relative ear weights and histopathology of the treated ears.

RESULTS

Allergic acute inflammation and coughing induced by exposure to NH₄OH and symptoms of xylene-induced contact dermatitis were significantly inhibited by treatment with AR powder in a dose-dependent manner. Histological analyses revealed that AR powder decreased the OD values in trachea lavage fluid, reduced body surface redness, thicknesses of intrapulmonary secondary bronchus mucosa, and the number of PAS-positive mucous producing cells. Overall, AR powder administered at 200 mg/kg displayed superior antitussive and expectorant effects as compared to TB (50 mg/kg), and AM (250 mg/kg). At the highest concentration (400 mg/kg) AR powder displayed only moderately improved anti-inflammatory activities as compared to DEXA (1 mg/kg).

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study suggest that AR powder exerts dose-dependent, favorable antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory activities achieved through modulation of the activity of mast cells and respiratory mucous production. Therefore, AR powder may serve as a therapeutic agent in various respiratory disorders, especially those that occur as a result of environmental toxicants.

The role of pollinator preference in the maintenance of pollen colour variation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Pollinators often drive the evolution of floral traits, but their capacity to influence the evolution of pollen colour remains unclear. Pollen colour in Campanula americana is variable and displays a longitudinal cline from prevalence of deep purple in western populations to white and light-purple pollen in eastern populations. While selection for thermal tolerance probably underlies darker pollen in the west, factors contributing to the predominance of light pollen in eastern populations and the maintenance of colour variation within populations throughout the range are unknown. Here we examine whether pollinators contribute to the maintenance of pollen colour variation in C. americana.

METHODS

In a flight cage experiment, we assessed whether Bombus impatiens foragers can use pollen colour as a reward cue. We then established floral arrays that varied in the frequency of white- and purple-pollen plants in two naturally occurring eastern populations. We observed foraging patterns of wild bees, totalling >1100 individual visits.

KEY RESULTS

We successfully trained B. impatiens to prefer one pollen colour morph. In natural populations, the specialist pollinator, Megachile campanulae, displayed a strong and consistent preference for purple-pollen plants regardless of morph frequency. Megachile also exhibited a bias toward pollen-bearing male-phase flowers, and this bias was more pronounced for purple pollen. The other main pollinators, Bombus spp. and small bees, did not display pollen colour preference.

CONCLUSIONS

Previous research found that Megachile removes twice as much pollen per visit as other bees and can deplete pollen from natural populations. Taken together, these results suggest that Megachile could reduce the reproductive success of plants with purple pollen, resulting in the prevalence of light-coloured pollen in eastern populations of C. americana. Our research demonstrates that pollinator preferences may play a role in the maintenance of pollen colour variation in natural populations.

Antibacterial compounds from Salvia adenophora Fernald (Lamiaceae)

From the aerial parts of Salvia adenophora Fernald four derivatives of 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (1-4) together with five clerodane diterpenoids (5, 6, 8-10), and one known diterpene (7) have been isolated. Compounds 1-6 and 8-10 are described for the first time. The structures were established by extensive 1D, 2D NMR and HRESI-TOFMS spectroscopic methods. Finally, the absolute configuration has been established by comparing of experimental and quantum chemical calculation of ECD spectra. Despite a total lack of antimicrobial activity of the plant extract, hinting to the existence of antagonistic interactions in the crude material, three oxylipins (2-4) displayed a promising inhibition on Gram-positive multidrug-resistant clinical strains including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and, particularly, Staphylococcus epidermidis, while the compounds 9 and 10 revealed a specific and strain-dependent activity against S. epidermidis. Interestingly, the inhibition provided by these compounds was independent of the resistance patterns of these pathogens to classic antibiotics. No action was reported on Gram-negative strains nor on Candida albicans. These results confirm that clerodanes and, particularly, prostaglandin-like compounds can be considered as interesting antimicrobial agents deserving further study.

Rearrangement-based phylogeny using the Single-Cut-or-Join operation

Recently, the Single-Cut-or-Join (SCJ) operation was proposed as a basis for a new rearrangement distance between multichromosomal genomes, leading to very fast algorithms, both in theory and in practice. However, it was not clear how well this new distance fares when it comes to using it to solve relevant problems, such as the reconstruction of evolutionary history. In this paper, we advance current knowledge, by testing SCJ's ability regarding evolutionary reconstruction in two aspects: 1) How well does SCJ reconstruct evolutionary topologies? and 2) How well does SCJ reconstruct ancestral genomes? In the process of answering these questions, we implemented SCJ-based methods, and made them available to the community. We ran experiments using as many as 200 genomes, with as many as 3,000 genes. For the first question, we found out that SCJ can recover typically between 60 percent and more than 95 percent of the topology, as measured through the Robinson-Foulds distance (a.k.a. split distance) between trees. In other words, 60 percent to more than 95 percent of the original splits are also present in the reconstructed tree. For the second question, given a topology, SCJ's ability to reconstruct ancestral genomes depends on how far from the leaves the ancestral is. For nodes close to the leaves, about 85 percent of the gene adjacencies can be recovered. This percentage decreases as we move up the tree, but, even at the root, about 50 percent of the adjacencies are recovered, for as many as 64 leaves. Our findings corroborate the fact that SCJ leads to very conservative genome reconstructions, yielding very few false-positive gene adjacencies in the ancestrals, at the expense of a relatively larger amount of false negatives. In addition, experiments with real data from the Campanulaceae and Protostomes groups show that SCJ reconstructs topologies of quality comparable to the accepted trees of the species involved. As far as time is concerned, the methods we implemented can find a topology for 64 genomes with 2,000 genes each in about 10.7 minutes, and reconstruct the ancestral genomes in a 64-leaf tree in about 3 seconds, both on a typical desktop computer. It should be noted that our code is written in Java and we made no significant effort to optimize it.

Wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities of the Michauxia L'Hérit (Campanulaceae) species native to Turkey

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The leaves of Michauxia species are used for the treatment of wounds in Turkish traditional medicine. In the present study, wound healing, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of the extracts obtained from the root and herb of 5 species of Michauxia collected in different parts of Turkey were evaluated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In vivo incision and excision wound models were used in order to assess the wound healing effects of the methanolic extracts of the plants. Skin samples were also evaluated histopathologically. In vivo inhibitory effect of the extracts on acetic acid-induced increase in capillary permeability was studied for the assessment of anti-inflammatory activity. TBA (thiobarbituric acid) test, qualitative and quantitative DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) tests were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity.

RESULTS

Noteworthy wound healing activity was observed for the ointment formulation prepared with 1% Michauxia nuda (root) and Michauxia tchihatchewii (herb) extracts. The results of histopathological evaluation supported the outcome of incision and excision wound models. Moreover, the Michauxia nuda (root) exerted remarkable anti-inflammatory effect. The highest antioxidant activity was observed with the ethyl acetate extract of Michauxia tchihatchewii herb.

CONCLUSION

The experimental study revealed that Michauxia displays remarkable wound healing and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

Pharmacokinetic pilot study of the antiangiogenic activity of standardized platycodi radix

INTRODUCTION

Platycodi radix is a radish used in food, such as Korean kimchi, and has been shown to cause weight loss in rodents. Platycodin D is considered its active ingredient and has been shown to inhibit lipases. The authors hypothesized that platycodi radix and the platycodin D it contains inhibit angiogenesis; another mechanism for weight loss.

METHODS

This study tested platycodi radix extract, platycodin D, and an extract of platycodi radix standardized to platycodin D for their ability to inhibit angiogenesis in a human adipose tissue assay. This study treated five healthy volunteers, orally, with platycodi radix extract standardized to 414 mg of platycodin D. Three volunteers were treated under fasting conditions, one volunteer with a 400 kcal meal, and one volunteer treated with a placebo. Blood was drawn over 5 hours to compare serum inhibition of the human adipose tissue angiogenesis.

RESULTS

Platycodin radix extract, platycodin D, and platycodi radix extract standardized to platycodin D all inhibited angiogenesis. The three volunteers who consumed platycodi radix extract standardized to 414 mg of platycodin D had a 25.76% reduction in angiogenesis from baseline at 60 minutes (P<0.002), and had a statistically significant reduction in angiogenesis from 30 to 240 minutes (P<0.05 to P<0.002). The placebo decreased angiogenesis by 5.6% between 30 and 240 minutes, compared with 17.8% by the extract. The meal delayed absorption by approximately 3.5 hours.

CONCLUSION

Platycodi radix extract standardized to platycodin D inhibited angiogenesis in human volunteers, and paves the way for a dose-response study and a human clinical obesity trial.

Adaptive Trade‐Off in Floral Morphology Mediates Specialization for Flowers Pollinated by Bats and Hummingbirds

Evolution toward increased specificity in pollination systems is thought to have played a central role in the diversification of angiosperms. Theory predicts that the presence of trade-offs in adapting to different pollinator types will favor specialization, yet few studies have attempted to characterize such interactions in nature. I conducted flight cage experiments with bats, hummingbirds, and artificial flowers to examine effects of corolla width on pollination. I videotaped visits to analyze pollinator behavior and counted pollen grains transferred to stigmas. Results demonstrated that flower-pollinator fit is critical to effective pollination; wide corollas guided bat snouts better, and narrow corollas guided hummingbird bills better. Poor fit resulted in variable entry angles and decreased pollen transfer. A model using these results predicts that wide corollas will be selected for when bats make more than 44% of the visits and narrow corollas when they make fewer. Intermediate corollas are never favored (i.e., generalization is always suboptimal). This is the first study to clearly document a pollinator-mediated fitness trade-off in floral morphology.

Saponins from platycodi radix ameliorate high fat diet-induced obesity in mice

We examined the effects of crude saponins isolated from Platycodi radix on the degree on fat storage induced in mice by feeding a high fat diet for 9 wk. We reported previously that feeding mice a high fat diet for a longer time caused obesity and fatty liver compared with those fed a low fat diet, nonpurified diet. Feeding a high fat diet containing 10 or 30 g/kg crude saponins prevented the body and parametrial adipose tissue weight increases and hepatic steatosis of mice fed the high fat diet alone. Furthermore, crude saponins (375 mg/kg) inhibited the elevations in blood triacylglycerol in rats orally administered a lipid emulsion compared with that of rats given the lipid emulsion alone. Previously, we reported that crude saponins inhibited pancreatic lipase activity in vitro. To identify the active substance(s) of crude saponins, we examined the effects of purified platycodin D, the primary saponin in the crude mixture, on pancreatic lipase activity and on the blood triacylglycerol elevation in rats administered the oral lipid emulsion tolerance test. Platycodin D (0.5 and 1.0 g/L) inhibited pancreatic lipase activity in vitro and at a dose of 244 mg/kg, inhibited the elevation of blood triacylglycerol. Therefore, the antiobesity effect of the crude saponins in mice fed a high fat diet may be due to the inhibition of intestinal absorption of dietary fat by platycodin D.

Platycodin D and D3 increase airway mucin release in vivo and in vitro in rats and hamsters

The root of Platycodon grandiflorum has been widely used for the treatment of various chronic inflammatory diseases including airway disease in oriental medicine. The root extract of the plant has been known to be effective in the expectoration of sputum or mucus, thereby improving airway respiratory function and preventing secondary airway inflammation. In this study, we investigated the effect of platycodin D and D3, the saponin components that are anti-inflammatory components in Platycodon grandiflorum. Platycodin D and D3 increased mucin release from rat and hamster tracheal surface epithelial cell culture and also from intact rat trachea upon nebulization. The effect of platycodin D3 was stronger than that of ATP, a potent mucin secretagogue and also of ambroxole, a mucolytic drug. The results from the present study suggest that platycodin D and D3 are useful as expectorant agents in the treatment of various airway diseases.