Unique orbital biphenotypic tumour with neuroendocrine and sebaceous carcinoma features

A 60-year-old female presented with a large, left upper eyelid mass that had rapidly expanded in the 3 months prior to presentation. She had a presumed chalazion excised from the same area 1.5 years ago, but no pathology was investigated. On examination, she had a palpebral mass measuring 4.5 cm x 3.5 cm that abutted the globe with extensive conjunctival involvement. Neuroimaging demonstrated lesions concerning for parotid gland metastases. An incisional biopsy demonstrated synaptophysin-positive small blue cells concerning for neuroendocrine carcinoma. The patient underwent orbital exenteration with parotidectomy and radical neck dissection. The excised mass was found to have distinct neuroendocrine carcinoma cells intermingled with sebaceous carcinoma cells, a combination not previously reported.

Preseptal transconjunctival approach in orbital floor fracture repairs to prevent postoperative lower eyelid malposition

PURPOSE

Lower eyelid malposition can be a complication following orbital floor fracture surgeries. We present our incidence of lower eyelid malposition from a large case series of orbital floor fracture repairs using the 'swinging eyelid' approach and 'hang back' technique.

METHODS

A retrospective review of all orbital fracture surgeries at our institution from November 2011 to March 2021 was performed. Primary outcomes included the incidence of lower eyelid malposition by category, the average time to presentation after primary surgery, and reoperation rates among cases with lower eyelid complications.

RESULTS

A total of 438 cases that involved repair of the fractured orbital floor were identified. Six patients (1.37 %) developed lower eyelid malposition following primary orbital floor repair. Two patients (0.46 %) developed reverse ptosis of the lower eyelid. Two patients (0.46 %) returned with lower lid cicatricial ectropion. One patient (0.23 %) had postoperative lower eyelid retraction. One patient (0.23 %) had postoperative lower eyelid cicatricial entropion. No cases of lower lid flattening, lower eyelid fat flattening, or eyelid notch was noted. All patients with lower eyelid malposition underwent additional surgeries except one patient with reverse ptosis (83.3 %). The average time to the presentation of postoperative complications from the surgery date was 292.8 days (range = 49 days to 3.5 years).

CONCLUSION

Lower eyelid malposition after orbital floor repair is a known complication that can be decreased by employing the 'swinging eyelid' with a preseptal approach and closure by the 'hang back' technique.

Metabarcoding airborne pollen from subtropical and temperate eastern Australia over multiple years reveals pollen aerobiome diversity and complexity

eDNA metabarcoding is an emergent tool to inform aerobiome complexity, but few studies have applied this technology with real-world environmental pollen monitoring samples. Here we apply eDNA metabarcoding to assess seasonal and regional differences in the composition of airborne pollen from routine samples collected across successive years. Airborne pollen concentrations over two sampling periods were determined using a continuous flow volumetric impaction air sampler in sub-tropical (Mutdapilly and Rocklea) and temperate (Macquarie Park and Richmond), sites of Australia. eDNA metabarcoding was applied to daily pollen samples collected once per week using the rbcL amplicon. Composition and redundancy analysis of the sequence read counts were examined. The dominant pollen families were mostly consistent between consecutive years but there was some heterogeneity between sites and years for month of peak pollen release. Many more families were detected by eDNA than counted by light microscopy with 211 to 399 operational taxonomic units assigned to family per site from October to May. There were 216 unique and 119 taxa shared between subtropics (27°S) and temperate (33°S) latitudes, with, for example, Poaceae, Myrtaceae and Causurinaceae being shared, and Manihot, Vigna and Aristida being in subtropical, and Ceratodon and Cerastium being in temperate sites. Certain genera were observed within the same location and season over the two years; Chloris at Rocklea in autumn of 2017-18 (0.625, p ≤ 0.004) and 2018-19 (0.55, p ≤ 0.001), and Pinus and Plantago at Macquarie Park in summer of 2017-18 (0.58, p ≤ 0.001 and 0.53, p ≤ 0.003, respectively), and 2018-19 (0.8, p ≤ 0.003 and 0.8, p ≤ 0.003, respectively). eDNA metabarcoding is a powerful tool to survey the complexity of pollen aerobiology and distinguish spatial and temporal profiles of local pollen to a far deeper level than traditional counting methods. However, further research is required to optimise the metabarcode target to enable reliable detection of pollen to genus and species level.

Development of adiposity among Ju/'Hoansi Hunter-Gatherers

OBJECTIVES

To characterize the development of childhood adiposity among the Ju'/Hoansi, a well-known hunter-gather group, to compare our results to U.S. references and to recently published results from Savanna Pume' foragers of Venezuela, with the goal of expanding our understanding of adipose development among human hunter-gatherers.

METHODS

Triceps, subscapular, and abdominal skinfolds, along with height and weight from ~120 Ju'/Hoansi girls and ~103 boys, ages 0 to 24 years, collected in 1967-1969 were analyzed using best-fit polynomial models and penalized spines to characterize age-specific patterns of adiposity and their relationship to changes in height and weight.

RESULTS

Overall, Ju/'Hoansi boys and girls exhibit small skinfolds with a decline in adiposity from 3 to 10 years, with no consistent differences among the three skinfolds. Increases in adiposity during adolescence precede peak height and weight velocities. Adiposity declines during young adulthood for girls and remains largely constant for boys.

DISCUSSION

Compared to U.S. standards, the Ju/'Hoansi show a strikingly different pattern of adipose development, including the lack of an adiposity rebound at the onset of middle childhood, and clear increases in adiposity only at adolescence. These findings are consistent with published results from the Savanna Pumé hunter-gatherers of Venezuela, a group with a very different selective history, suggesting that the adiposity rebound does not characterize hunter-gathering populations more generally. Similar analyses in other subsistence populations are called for to confirm our results, and help distinguish the impact of specific environmental and dietary factors on adipose development.

Brain-wide analysis of the supraspinal connectome reveals anatomical correlates to functional recovery after spinal injury

The supraspinal connectome is essential for normal behavior and homeostasis and consists of numerous sensory, motor, and autonomic projections from brain to spinal cord. Study of supraspinal control and its restoration after damage has focused mostly on a handful of major populations that carry motor commands, with only limited consideration of dozens more that provide autonomic or crucial motor modulation. Here, we assemble an experimental workflow to rapidly profile the entire supraspinal mesoconnectome in adult mice and disseminate the output in a web-based resource. Optimized viral labeling, 3D imaging, and registration to a mouse digital neuroanatomical atlas assigned tens of thousands of supraspinal neurons to 69 identified regions. We demonstrate the ability of this approach to clarify essential points of topographic mapping between spinal levels, measure population-specific sensitivity to spinal injury, and test the relationships between region-specific neuronal sparing and variability in functional recovery. This work will spur progress by broadening understanding of essential but understudied supraspinal populations.

Sex differences in adipose development in a hunter-gatherer population

OBJECTIVE

Humans are unusually sexually dimorphic in body composition, with adult females having on average nearly twice the fat mass as males. The development of adipose sex differences has been well characterized for children growing up in food-abundant environments, with less known about cross-cultural variation, particularly in populations without exposure to market foods, mechanized technologies, schooling, vaccination, or other medical interventions.

METHODS

To add to the existing cross-cultural data, we fit multiple growth curves to body composition and anthropometric data to describe adipose development for the Savanna Pumé, South American hunter-gatherers.

RESULTS

(1) Little evidence is found for an adiposity 'rebound' at the end of early childhood among either Savanna Pumé girls or boys. (2) Rather, fat deposition fluctuates during childhood, from age ~4 to ~9 years, with no appreciable accumulation until the onset of puberty, a pattern also observed among Congo Baka hunter-gatherers. (3) Body fat fluctuations are more pronounced for girls than boys. (4) The age of peak skeletal, weight, and adipose gains are staggered to a much greater extent among the Savanna Pumé compared to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) reference, suggesting this is an important developmental strategy in lean populations.

CONCLUSION

Documenting growth patterns under diverse preindustrial energetic conditions provides an important baseline for understanding sex differences in body fat emerging today under food abundance.

Tracking seasonal changes in diversity of pollen allergen exposure: Targeted metabarcoding of a subtropical aerobiome

The importance of grass pollen to the global burden of allergic respiratory disease is well established but exposure to subtropical and temperate pollens is difficult to discern. Current monitoring of airborne pollen relies on light microscopy, limiting identification of taxa to family level. This informs seasonal fluctuations in pollen aerobiology but restricts analysis of aerobiological composition. We aimed to test the utility of DNA metabarcoding to identify specific taxa contributing to the aerobiome of environmental air samples, using routine pollen and spore monitoring equipment, as well as assess temporal variation of Poaceae pollen across an entire season. Airborne pollen concentrations were determined by light microscopy over two pollen seasons in the subtropical city of Brisbane (27°32'S, 153°00E), Australia. Thirty daily pollen samples were subjected to high throughput sequencing of the plastid rbcL amplicon. Amplicons corresponded to plants observed in the local biogeographical region with up to 3238 different operational taxonomic units (OTU) detected. The aerobiome sequencing data frequently identified pollen to genus levels with significant quantitative differences in aerobiome diversity between the months and seasons detected. Moreover, multiple peaks of Chloridoideae and Panicoideae pollen were evident over the collection period confirming these grasses as the dominant Poaceae pollen source across the season. Targeted high throughput sequencing of routinely collected airborne pollen samples appears to offer utility to track temporal changes in the aerobiome and shifts in pollen exposure. Precise identification of the composition and temporal distributions of airborne pollen is important for tracking biodiversity and for management of allergic respiratory disease.

mGreenLantern: a bright monomeric fluorescent protein with rapid expression and cell filling properties for neuronal imaging

Although ubiquitous in biological studies, the enhanced green and yellow fluorescent proteins (EGFP and EYFP) were not specifically optimized for neuroscience, and their underwhelming brightness and slow expression in brain tissue limits the fidelity of dendritic spine analysis and other indispensable techniques for studying neurodevelopment and plasticity. We hypothesized that EGFP's low solubility in mammalian systems must limit the total fluorescence output of whole cells, and that improving folding efficiency could therefore translate into greater brightness of expressing neurons. By introducing rationally selected combinations of folding-enhancing mutations into GFP templates and screening for brightness and expression rate in human cells, we developed mGreenLantern, a fluorescent protein having up to sixfold greater brightness in cells than EGFP. mGreenLantern illuminates neurons in the mouse brain within 72 h, dramatically reducing lag time between viral transduction and imaging, while its high brightness improves detection of neuronal morphology using widefield, confocal, and two-photon microscopy. When virally expressed to projection neurons in vivo, mGreenLantern fluorescence developed four times faster than EYFP and highlighted long-range processes that were poorly detectable in EYFP-labeled cells. Additionally, mGreenLantern retains strong fluorescence after tissue clearing and expansion microscopy, thereby facilitating superresolution and whole-brain imaging without immunohistochemistry. mGreenLantern can directly replace EGFP/EYFP in diverse systems due to its compatibility with GFP filter sets, recognition by EGFP antibodies, and excellent performance in mouse, human, and bacterial cells. Our screening and rational engineering approach is broadly applicable and suggests that greater potential of fluorescent proteins, including biosensors, could be unlocked using a similar strategy.

A simple foot pedal device in a horizontal bore imaging facility replicates weightbearing outcomes for Hallux Valgus patients

BACKGROUND

Weightbearing images are important to the diagnosis of foot pathologies as are the three dimensional views available from CT and MRI. Standard three-dimensional imaging hardware, however, does not have a simple tool to obtain weightbearing images. The current research aimed to design, build and test a simple device to apply load in a horizontal bore imaging facility.

METHODS

With the immediate need in hallux valgus studies, hallux valgus subjects were imaged using the new loading device, which could be easily transported and had no additional electronics.

RESULTS

Testing showed that the usual angular measures of the foot (intermetatarsal and hallux valgus) replicated the results from the standard of care standing plain film results. With application of load, HV angle changed from 29.9° non-weightbearing to 32.2° weightbearing, while IM angle changed from nonweightbearing 15.8° to weightbearing 16.5°.

CONCLUSION

The pedal-like device can provide weightbearing images in a horizontal bore MRI facility.

Mitochondrial Aging Defects Emerge in Directly Reprogrammed Human Neurons due to Their Metabolic Profile

Mitochondria are a major target for aging and are instrumental in the age-dependent deterioration of the human brain, but studying mitochondria in aging human neurons has been challenging. Direct fibroblast-to-induced neuron (iN) conversion yields functional neurons that retain important signs of aging, in contrast to iPSC differentiation. Here, we analyzed mitochondrial features in iNs from individuals of different ages. iNs from old donors display decreased oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS)-related gene expression, impaired axonal mitochondrial morphologies, lower mitochondrial membrane potentials, reduced energy production, and increased oxidized proteins levels. In contrast, the fibroblasts from which iNs were generated show only mild age-dependent changes, consistent with a metabolic shift from glycolysis-dependent fibroblasts to OXPHOS-dependent iNs. Indeed, OXPHOS-induced old fibroblasts show increased mitochondrial aging features similar to iNs. Our data indicate that iNs are a valuable tool for studying mitochondrial aging and support a bioenergetic explanation for the high susceptibility of the brain to aging.

Age-specific associations between oestradiol, cortico-amygdalar structural covariance, and verbal and spatial skills

Oestradiol is known to play an important role in the developing human brain, although little is known about the entire network of potential regions that might be affected and how these effects may vary from childhood to early adulthood, which in turn can explain sexually differentiated behaviours. In the present study, we examined the relationships between oestradiol, cortico-amygdalar structural covariance, and cognitive or behavioural measures typically showing sex differences (verbal/spatial skills, anxious-depressed symptomatology) in 152 children and adolescents (aged 6-22 years). Cortico-amygdalar structural covariance shifted from positive to negative across the age range. Oestradiol was found to diminish the impact of age on cortico-amygdalar covariance for the pre-supplementary motor area/frontal eye field and retrosplenial cortex (across the age range), as well as for the posterior cingulate cortex (in older children). Moreover, the influence of oestradiol on age-related cortico-amygdalar networks was associated with higher word identification and spatial working memory (across the age range), as well as higher reading comprehension (in older children), although it did not impact anxious-depressed symptoms. There were no significant sex effects on any of the above relationships. These findings confirm the importance of developmental timing on oestradiol-related effects and hint at the non-sexually dimorphic role of oestradiol-related cortico-amygdalar structural networks in aspects of cognition distinct from emotional processes.

Sex-specific contribution of DHEA-cortisol ratio to prefrontal-hippocampal structural development, cognitive abilities and personality traits

Although dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) may exert neuroprotective effects in the developing brain, prolonged or excessive elevations in cortisol may exert neurotoxic effects. The ratio between DHEA and cortisol (DC ratio) has been linked to internalising and externalising disorders, as well as cognitive performance, supporting the clinical relevance of this hormonal ratio during development. However, the brain mechanisms by which these effects may be mediated have not yet been identified. Furthermore, although there is evidence that the effects of cortisol in the central nervous system may be sexually dimorphic in humans, the opposite is true for DHEA, with human studies showing no sex-specific associations in cortical thickness, cortico-amygdalar or cortico-hippocampal structural covariance. Therefore, it remains unclear whether sex moderates the developmental associations between DC ratio, brain structure, cognition and behaviour. In the present study, we examined the associations between DC ratio, structural covariance of the hippocampus with whole-brain cortical thickness, and measures of personality, behaviour and cognition in a longitudinal sample of typically developing children, adolescents and young adults aged 6-22 years (N = 225 participants [F = 128]; 355 scans [F = 208]), using mixed effects models that accounted for both within- and between-subject variances. We found sex-specific interactions between DC ratio and anterior cingulate cortex-hippocampal structural covariance, with higher DC ratios being associated with a more negative covariance between these structures in girls, and a more positive covariance in boys. Furthermore, the negative prefrontal-hippocampal structural covariance found in girls was associated with higher verbal memory and mathematical ability, whereas the positive covariance found in boys was associated with lower cooperativeness and reward dependence personality traits. These findings support the notion that the ratio between DHEA and cortisol levels may contribute, at least in part, to the development of sex differences in cognitive abilities, as well as risk for internalising/externalising disorders, via an alteration in prefrontal-hippocampal structure during the transition from childhood to adulthood.

Dehydroepiandrosterone impacts working memory by shaping cortico-hippocampal structural covariance during development

Existing studies suggest that dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) may be important for human brain development and cognition. For example, molecular studies have hinted at the critical role of DHEA in enhancing brain plasticity. Studies of human brain development also support the notion that DHEA is involved in preserving cortical plasticity. Further, some, though not all, studies show that DHEA administration may lead to improvements in working memory in adults. Yet these findings remain limited by an incomplete understanding of the specific neuroanatomical mechanisms through which DHEA may impact the CNS during development. Here we examined associations between DHEA, cortico-hippocampal structural covariance, and working memory (216 participants [female=123], age range 6-22 years old, mean age: 13.6 +/-3.6 years, each followed for a maximum of 3 visits over the course of 4 years). In addition to administering performance-based, spatial working memory tests to these children, we also collected ecological, parent ratings of working memory in everyday situations. We found that increasingly higher DHEA levels were associated with a shift toward positive insular-hippocampal and occipito-hippocampal structural covariance. In turn, DHEA-related insular-hippocampal covariance was associated with lower spatial working memory but higher overall working memory as measured by the ecological parent ratings. Taken together with previous research, these results support the hypothesis that DHEA may optimize cortical functions related to general attentional and working memory processes, but impair the development of bottom-up, hippocampal-to-cortical connections, resulting in impaired encoding of spatial cues.

Body Image among Ariaal Men from Northern Kenya

To test attitudes toward male body image in a society with relatively little media exposure, the authors surveyed 53 men, ages 20-35, among the Ariaal, pastoral nomads of northern Kenya. Measures of body image were obtained using a somatomorphic matrix. Height, weight, and percentage of body fat based on bioelectric impedance were also obtained. Results indicate that men exhibit very little discrepancy between what they perceive as the degree of muscularity preferred by women and that of the average man (.21 kg/m2). Comparison with findings from the United States and Western Europe indicates that Ariaal men show significantly less discrepancy between their judgment of women’s preference for muscularity and the muscularity of the average man. These results support a role for media exposure in attitudes about male body image.

Alleviation of α-tomatine-induced toxicity to the parasitoid,Hyposoter exiguae, by phytosterols in the diet of the host,Heliothis zea

The solitary, endoparasitic ichneumonid,Hyposoter exiguae (Viereck) is a parasitoid of the tomato fruitworm,Heliothis zea (Boddie). However, the parasitoid is deleteriously affected by the tomato glycoalkaloid, α-tomatine, ingested from hosts (H. zea) fed on artificial diets or semipurified extracts of tomato plants that contained α-tomatine. α-Tomatine causes prolonged larval development; disruption or prevention of pupal eclosion; deformation of antennal, abdominal, and genital structures; and reduction in adult weight and longevity of the parasitoid. These toxic effects are exacerbated when the dietary dose of α-tomatine is increased from 12 μmol to 20 μmol/g dry wt of diet. However, the toxicity of α-tomatine is attenuated in parasitoids reared from hosts fed on artificial diets that contain equimolar or supramolar amounts of 3β-OH-sterols admixed with α-tomatine. Further, the toxicity of extracts from the foliage of different cultivars of tomatoes toH. exiguae is contingent upon the composite levels of α-tomatine and total phytosterol (free and esterified). Cultivars with a low total sterol-tomatine ratio are more toxic toH. exiguae. The possible mode of action of α-tomatine toxicity toH. exiguae by disruption of sterol metabolism is discussed.

Differential inhibition by castanospermine of various insect disaccharidases

The indolizidine alkaloid, castanospermine (1,6,7,8-tetrahydroxy-octahydroindolizidine-a stereochemical mimic of glucose found in the Australian legumeCastanospermum australe), differentially inhibited cellobiose, lactose, maltose, sucrose, and trehalose hydrolyzing enzymes from a broad taxonomic spectrum of insects (19 species from 12 different families). It was a potent inhibitor of cellobiase activity of all insects tested (50% inhibition at <3.2 × 10(-5) M castanospermine). With one exception, it also inhibited lactase activity of all insects examined. Only in the sap-feeding Homoptera did castanospermine inhibit all disaccharidase activities assayed. Trehalase activity of the Lepidoptera and Diptera was generally inhibited by castanospermine, whereas inhibition of trehalase activity of the Coleoptera by castanospermine was exiguous or not detectable. Castanospermine was a significant feeding deterrent towards pea aphids,Acyrthosiphon pisum, with an ED50 of 1 × 10(-4) M in artificial diets. Two compounds stereochemically related to castanospermine, deoxynojirimycin and 6-epicastanospermine, were each slightly active at deterring the feeding of green peach aphids,Myzus persicae, (ED50=2.5 × 10(-3) M) and greenbugs,Schizaphis graminum (ED50=5 × 10(-3) M), respectively. Among the insects studied there was no distinct relationship between enzyme inhibition and adaptation to host plants containing castanospermine or other toxic alkaloids.

Familial linkage between neuropsychiatric disorders and intellectual interests

From personality to neuropsychiatric disorders, individual differences in brain function are known to have a strong heritable component. Here we report that between close relatives, a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders covary strongly with intellectual interests. We surveyed an entire class of high-functioning young adults at an elite university for prospective major, familial incidence of neuropsychiatric disorders, and demographic and attitudinal questions. Students aspiring to technical majors (science/mathematics/engineering) were more likely than other students to report a sibling with an autism spectrum disorder (p = 0.037). Conversely, students interested in the humanities were more likely to report a family member with major depressive disorder (p = 8.8×10⁻⁴), bipolar disorder (p = 0.027), or substance abuse problems (p = 1.9×10⁻⁶). A combined PREdisposition for Subject MattEr (PRESUME) score based on these disorders was strongly predictive of subject matter interests (p = 9.6×10⁻⁸). Our results suggest that shared genetic (and perhaps environmental) factors may both predispose for heritable neuropsychiatric disorders and influence the development of intellectual interests.

Enhanced activity of antifungal drugs using natural phenolics against yeast strains of Candida and Cryptococcus

AIMS

Determine whether certain, natural phenolic compounds enhance activity of commercial antifungal drugs against yeast strains of Candida and Cryptococcus neoformans.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Twelve natural phenolics were examined for fungicidal activity against nine reference strains of Candida and one of C. neoformans. Six compounds were selected for synergistic enhancement of antifungal drugs, amphotericin B (AMB), fluconazole (FLU) and itraconazole (ITR). Matrix assays of phenolic and drug combinations conducted against one reference strain, each, of Candida albicans and C. neoformans showed cinnamic and benzoic acids, thymol, and 2,3- and 2,5-dihydroxybenzaldehydes (-DBA) had synergistic interactions depending upon drug and yeast strain. 2,5-DBA was synergistic with almost all drug and strain combinations. Thymol was synergistic with all drugs against Ca. albicans and with AMB in C. neoformans. Combinations of benzoic acid or thymol with ITR showed highest synergistic activity. Of 36 combinations of natural product and drug tested, none were antagonistic.

CONCLUSIONS

Relatively nontoxic natural products can synergistically enhance antifungal drug activity, in vitro.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This is a proof-of-concept, having clinical implications. Natural chemosensitizing agents could lower dosages needed for effective chemotherapy of invasive mycoses. Further studies against clinical yeast strains and use of animal models are warranted.

Tomatine and parasitic wasps: potential incompatibility of plant antibiosis with biological control

alpha-Tomatine, an alkaloid in tomato plants, is toxic to an endoparasite of a major lepidopterous pest of tomatoes. The parasite acquires the alkaloid from its host after the host ingests the alkaloid. This form of interaction creates a potential dilemma to controlling herbivorous pests through chemical antibiosis in plants.

Assortative human pair-bonding for partner ancestry and allelic variation of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene

The 7 repeat (7R) allele of the dopamine receptor D4 gene has been associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and risk taking. On the cross-population scale, 7R allele frequencies have been shown to be higher in populations with more of a history of long-term migrations. It has also been shown that the 7R allele is associated with individuals having multiple ancestries. Here, we conduct a replication of this latter finding with two independent samples. Measures of subjects' ancestry are used to examine past reproductive bonds. The individuals' history of interracial/ancestral dating and their feelings about this are also assessed. Tentative support for an association between multiple ancestries and the 7R allele was found. These results are dependent upon the method of questioning subjects about their ancestries, with only finer-scale measures of ancestry being associated with 7R. Interracial dating and feelings about interracial pairing were not related to the presence of the 7R allele. This study provides continued support for a role for the 7R allele in migration and/or mate choice patterns. However, replications and extensions of this study are needed and the way ancestry/race is assessed must be carefully considered.

Use of chemosensitization to overcome fludioxonil resistance in Penicillium expansum

AIM

To overcome fludioxonil resistance of Penicillium expansum, a mycotoxigenic fungal pathogen causing postharvest decay in apple, by using natural phenolic chemosensitizing agents.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Fludioxonil-resistant mutants of P. expansum were co-treated with different oxidising and natural phenolic agents. Resistance was overcome by natural phenolic chemosensitizing agents targeting the oxidative stress-response pathway. These agents also augmented effectiveness of the fungicide, kresoxim-methyl. Results indicated that alkyl gallates target mitochondrial respiration and/or its antioxidation system. Fungal mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) plays a protective role against alkyl gallates.

CONCLUSIONS

Natural chemosensitizing agents targeting the oxidative stress-response system, such as Mn-SOD, can synergize commercial fungicides.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Redox-active compounds can serve as potent chemosensitizing agents to overcome resistance and lower effective dosages of fungicides. This can reduce costs with coincidental lowering of environmental and health risks.

Neuroanthropology: evolution and emotional embodiment

The Decade of the Mind is a proposal for a research initiative focused on four areas of neuroscience, including mental health, high-level cognitive function, education, and computational applications. Organizing efforts to date have primarily included cognitive scientists, computer scientists, and engineers, as well as physicians. At the same time anthropologists have started to explore the implications of neuroscience for understanding culture. Here we suggest that evolutionary neuroscience can be used to bridge knowledge obtained by social scientists with that obtained in the neurosciences for a more complete appreciation of the mind. We consider such a perspective as neuroanthropology. We use embodiment, an anthropological concept that has been substantiated by recent findings in neuroscience, to illustrate an integrative biocultural approach within neuroanthropology and suggest future possible directions for research.

Timing of reproductive maturation in rural versus urban Tonga boys, Zambia

BACKGROUND

Population variation in the timing of reproductive maturation among boys has received relatively little attention. However, evidence that the timing of pubertal onset is related to measures of adiposity suggests that the onset of reproductive maturation among boys in populations with poor nutritional status will be delayed.

AIM

This study seeks to determine the impact of nutritional status on the timing of reproductive maturation by comparing urban and rural boys in an African population.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Subjects were 794 rural and urban Tonga boys from Zambia, ages 5-19. Onset of puberty was defined as testicular volume >3 mL, which was measured using Prader beads. Data on height, weight, triceps skinfolds, and dental development were also obtained.

RESULTS

Onset of testicular growth was 11.2 years (95% CI 10.9-11.4) for urban boys and 12.4 (95% CI 12.1-12.9) years for rural boys. Completion of testicular growth was also earlier in the urban sample: 15.3 years (95% CI 15.0-5.6) versus 17.1 years (95% CI 15.6-25.2). Both onset and completion of testicular growth were significantly and positively related to height and arm muscle area. In addition, triceps skinfolds by residence interaction was a significant predictor of testicular maturity, indicating a stronger relationship between energetic status and testicular growth in the rural sample.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that delayed onset and slow testicular development among rural Gwembe boys is related to poor nutritional status.

Age-related patterns of DHEAS among Turkana males of northern Kenya

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) has been widely associated with aging, but little is known about age-related decline of DHEAS in non-western populations. To determine the age-related pattern of DHEAS and its relationship to nutritional status in a subsistence population, we sampled Turkana nomads from northern Kenya. Subjects were 108 nomadic and 90 settled Turkana males, estimated ages 20 to 80+. Measures included blood DHEAS, height, weight, skinfolds, and waist circumference. Overall nomads exhibited less adiposity (5.7 +/- 1.8% versus 9.0 +/- 3.3% body fat) and higher blood DHEAS levels (5.2 +/- 3.3 microM versus 4.1 +/- 3.1 microM; p = 0.03). Age pattern of DHEAS was curvilinear, peaking in the 30s and 40s. General linear models (GLM) showed that blood DHEAS levels among men over 70 years of age were significantly lower than those in their 30s and 40s. Controlled for age, blood DHEAS was not related to adiposity. These results suggest that DHEAS levels were higher in those individuals who were calorie restricted. In addition, DHEAS levels rose more slowly than described in other populations, peaking in the fourth decade of life

Enhanced activity of strobilurin and fludioxonil by using berberine and phenolic compounds to target fungal antioxidative stress response

AIMS

Identify natural products that effectively target antioxidative signal transduction/stress response systems [i.e., mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD)] of fungi. Enhance activity of strobilurin or fludioxonil with discovered compounds.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Enhancement of antifungal activity of strobilurins, inhibitors of complex III of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, was tested using berberine hemisulfate and different phenolic compounds. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae sod2Delta, a deletion mutant lacking Mn-SOD gene, was highly sensitive to berberine and veratraldehyde. Functional complementation analysis verified these compounds target Mn-SOD. Activity of strobilurin (25-50 micromol l(-1)) was elevated on most aspergilli and Penicillium expansum by co-application with berberine or veratraldehyde (2-4 mmol l(-1)). These compounds also prevented Aspergillus fumigatus MAPK mutants (sakADelta and mpkCDelta) from escaping toxicity of fludioxonil (a phenylpyrrole fungicide potentiated by the MAPK pathway), a typical phenotype of fungal MAPK mutants.

CONCLUSIONS

Strobilurin activity or prevention of fungal escape from fludioxonil toxicity can be enhanced by co-application of certain alkaloids or phenolics.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Natural products can be used to target cellular stress response systems in fungal pathogens and serve as alternatives/additives to commercial antifungal agents.

Suppression of ochratoxin biosynthesis by naturally occurring alkaloids

The effects of four alkaloids on the biosynthesis of ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB) and citrinin were examined on four OTA-producing aspergilli: Aspergillus auricomus, A. sclerotiorum and two isolates of A. alliaceus. Piperine and piperlongumine, natural alkaloids of Piper longum, significantly inhibited OTA production at 0.001% (w/v) for all aspergilli examined. Piperine and piperlongumine affected the polyketide synthesis step of OTA production and inhibited production of citrinin. Curcumin, a constituent of tumeric, completely inhibited mycelial growth of A. alliaceus isolate 791 at 0.1% (w/v) and decreased OTA production by approximately 70% at 0.01% (w/v). Sesamin, a constituent of sesame oil, inhibited OTA and OTB production by 60 and 45%, respectively, at 0.1% (w/v), showing its effect was on chloroperoxidase and polyketide synthase activity. The potential advantage of these natural products to reduce ochratoxin contamination of agricultural commodities is discussed.

Age-related patterns of body composition and salivary testosterone among Ariaal men of Northern Kenya

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Loss of muscle mass and gain of adipose tissue are hallmarks of aging among men in western populations. However, the extent to which these changes reflect inherent senescence is unclear. To determine age-related patterns of body composition and testosterone (T) among men in a subsistence population we sampled 104 nomadic and 102 settled men, ages 20+ years, among the Ariaal of northern Kenya.

METHODS

Anthropometric measures included height, weight, skinfolds, and waist circumference. Saliva samples, collected in the morning and afternoon, were assayed for T. Results were analyzed using general linear models, based on 10 year age groups.

RESULTS

Average overall BMI was 17.9+/-2.0 kg/m2. Settled and nomadic males did not differ in fat free mass (FFM). FFM peaked in the 30s with a significant decline in the oldest age group. Percent body fat and waist circumference increased significantly across age groups. Morning mean (+/-SD) salivary T was higher among settled males (107.6+/-57.6 vs 63.4+/-38.1 pmol/L; p<0.001), but did not differ significantly across age groups. Salivary T was positively related to suprailiac skinfolds, percent body fat and waist circumference among the settled males.

CONCLUSIONS

Age-related patterns of body composition, but not salivary T, among Ariaal men are consistent with those observed in western populations. Together these results suggest that lower FFM after 60 may reflect senescent processes among human males, while age patterns of adiposity reflect energy balance. T does not appear to play an essential role in age-related patterns of body composition.

Targeting antioxidative signal transduction and stress response system: control of pathogenic Aspergillus with phenolics that inhibit mitochondrial function

AIMS

The aim of this study was to show whether antioxidative response systems are potentially useful molecular targets for control of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. Selected phenolic agents are used in target-gene-based bioassays to determine their impact on mitochondrial respiration.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Vanillyl acetone, vanillic acid, vanillin, cinnamic acid, veratraldehyde, m-coumaric acid (phenolic agents to which Saccharomyces cerevisiae sod2delta mutant showed sensitivity), carboxin (inhibits complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain), strobilurins/antimycin A (inhibits complex III of the mitochondrial respiratory chain) and fludioxonil/fenpiclonil [antifungals potentiated by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)] were examined in A. fumigatus, A. flavus and S. cerevisiae. Individual or combined application of phenolics with inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration showed some of the phenolics effectively inhibited fungal growth. Target-gene bioassays were performed using a sakAdelta (MAPK deletion) strain of A. fumigatus and a complementation analysis using the mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD) gene (sodA) of A. flavus in the ortholog mutant, sod2delta, of S. cerevisiae. The results demonstrated that mitochondrial antioxidative stress system plays important roles in fungal response to antifungal agents tested.

CONCLUSIONS

Antioxidative response systems of fungi can be an efficient molecular target of phenolics for pathogen control. Combined application of phenolics with inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration can effectively suppress the growth of fungi.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Natural compounds that do not pose any significant medical or environmental risks could serve as useful alternatives or additives to conventional antifungals. Identifying the antioxidative response systems in other pathogens could improve methods for fungal control.

Pubertal timing, hormones, and body composition among adolescent Turkana males

The Turkana, like other East African pastoral groups, are known for their tall adult stature, achieved despite a blunted growth spurt during adolescence and continued growth into the early 20s. To investigate the hormonal mechanisms associated with the pattern of slow and continued adolescent growth, we collected data on hormonal status, height, weight, and trunk skinfolds and ethnographic self-reports of testicular maturation in a cross-sectional sample of 35 nomadic and 37 settled Turkana males aged 14-24. Hormonal determinations included testosterone (T), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in blood, in addition to urinary DHEA. Self-reports of testicular maturation showed no difference between settled and nomadic subpopulations. However, nomadic boys exhibited significantly higher levels of T, DHEA, and SHBG. Of all the hormones, only SHBG showed a significant relationship with age. Multiple regression models show blood T and SHBG to be significant independent predictors of achieved height as well as weight, controlling for age. Our results suggest that onset of puberty is substantially delayed among Turkana males, and that bioavailable T is related to growth in stature during adolescence. We suggest that SHBG acts to mediate the effects of energy availability on adolescent growth in this energetically limited population. Our findings may also have implications for understanding adolescent growth among Homo erectus.

Timing of pubertal maturation and the onset of sexual behavior among Zimbabwe school boys

The relationship between reproductive maturation and the onset of sexual behavior in boys across cultures is unclear. To explore the relative timing of pubertal events and their relationship to the onset of sexual behavior, we used data collected from 442 Zimbabwe school boys aged 12-18 years. Measures of reproductive maturation included self-reported spontaneous nocturnal emission, secondary sexual characteristics, and salivary testosterone. Behavioral measures included age at first sexual fantasies, non-coital sexual behavior, and coitus. Sigmoid interpolation curve techniques indicated a median age of first erection at 10.75 +/- 0.11 years, first sexual fantasy at 12.66 +/- 0.03 years, first spontaneous nocturnal emission at 13.02 +/- 0.03 years, and adult levels of blood testosterone at 17.2 +/- 0.7 years. First reported spontaneous nocturnal emission was significantly related to all measures of sexual behavior. Multiple regression models indicated that first reported spontaneous nocturnal emission was a stronger predictor of sexual behavior than variation in secondary sexual characteristics. In addition, testosterone was a significant predictor of sexual fantasies and intercourse, independent of first reported spontaneous nocturnal emission. These results confirm earlier findings in other populations that self-reported spontaneous nocturnal emissions can be used as a marker of pubertal timing among adolescent boys. They also suggest that variation in testosterone plays a role in the onset of sexual behavior among boys, beyond its relationship to developmental timing. The behavioral mechanisms represented by the significant effects of testosterone reported here remain to be investigated.

Leptin, adiposity, and testosterone in captive male macaques

Leptin is considered to act as a signal relating somatic energetic status to the reproductive system. However, the nature of that signal and its relationship with male reproductive function across nonhuman primate species are unclear. We suggest that species-specific differences in leptin physiology may be related to the degree of environmental variation and variation in the importance of energy stores for male reproduction. In order to test the role of seasonality in species differences among nonhuman primates, we compared leptin, testosterone, and body composition in male rhesus (n = 69) and pig-tailed (n = 43) macaques. Despite having larger abdominal fat deposits, the rhesus macaques did not exhibit significantly higher leptin levels (rhesus, 2.21 +/- 0.43 ng/ml; pig-tailed, 2.12 +/- 0.39 ng/ml). Both species showed increases in leptin across adolescent, subadult, and adult age-groups (P = 0.036 for rhesus; P = 0.0003 for pig-tailed by ANCOVA). Testosterone was not significantly associated with leptin in either the rhesus (r = 0.039; P = 0.754) or pig-tailed (r = 0.2862; P = 0.066) samples. Comparison of leptin levels across the two species using univariate modeling procedures showed no significant age-group by abdominal fat interaction. These findings suggest little difference in leptin production between these two closely related species, despite the difference in breeding seasonality.

Testosterone, aging, and body composition in men from Harare, Zimbabwe

To examine age-related changes in body composition and testosterone (T) among men in an urban sub-Saharan African population, measures of body composition and salivary T were obtained from 109 males ages 20-78 in Harare, Zimbabwe. Measures included height, weight, suprailiac and triceps skinfold, and percent body fat by bioelectric impedance (BIA). Saliva samples were assayed for T using radioimmunoassay. Average BMI of the overall sample (23.16 (SD = 18.12) kg/m(2) was close to Western populations, while salivary T levels (AM = 196 +/- 96 pmol/l; pm = 172 +/- 98 pmol/l) were much lower. Both morning (beta = -0.535; P < 0.001) and afternoon salivary T declined with age (beta = -0.385; P < 0.001). Multiple regression models indicate that pm salivary T (beta = 0.24; P = 0.025), was a predictor of fat-free mass, but neither am nor pm salivary T was related to fat mass or other measures of body composition. In addition, height was significantly related to pm salivary T levels in men under the age of 60. Multivariate regression indicates that pm salivary T is a predictor of fat-free mass when controlled for height and adiposity. These findings suggest that T is related to both lean mass and overall body size among men from a non-Western nonsubsistence population. As such they are consistent with the hypothesis that bioavailable T plays a role in energetic allocation among human males.

Urinary cortisol and muscle mass in Turkana men

To determine the role of cortisol in modulating the effects of energetics on muscle mass in a subsistence society, measures of cortisol and body composition were obtained from a sample of Turkana men. Subjects were 63 settled and 69 nomadic men, ages 24 and older. Urinary cortisol was determined along with measures of muscle mass. Cortisol/creatinine ratio was higher among nomadic men (57.8 +/- 56.8 vs. 34.5 +/- 44.6; P < 0.001). Controlled for age, urinary cortisol was inversely related to arm muscle plus bone area (MPBA) among the nomadic (beta = -0.28; P = 0.04), but not the settled (beta = -0.04; P = 0.78) sample. Urinary cortisol was not related to any other measures of body composition. These results suggest that even in chronically undernourished populations, cortisol may be elevated primarily under conditions of acute nutritional stress. However, the catabolic effects of cortisol on muscle in our results may be confounded by other energetic factors, including energy availability.

Social variables predict between-subject but not day-to-day variation in the testosterone of US men

Previous research has shown lower testosterone (T) levels associated with involvement in committed, romantic relationships ("paired" men) and paternal care in eight studies of North American men. An unanswered question is whether differences in male T levels associated with relationship status better reflect state (e.g., a man has lower T levels because he is involved in a relationship) or trait (e.g., low T men are more inclined toward such relationships) effects. Toward addressing this question, this paper presents data on male salivary T levels among a sample of 65 men varying in marital and parental status. Subjects collected saliva samples (at approximately waking, 17:00 and 21:00 h) and filled out questionnaires concerning their activities on four days. Each subject collected samples in two settings that varied in social interactions: for unmarried men, two working and two non-working days; for married non-fathers, two days spent mostly with their wives and two days spent mostly away from their wives; and for married fathers, two days spent mostly with their young children and two days spent mostly away from their children. Analyses revealed no significant within-subject T differences between these different conditions. However, between-group analyses revealed that married men had lower evening T levels than unmarried men, corroborating existing North American studies of male T and relationship status. These results suggest that day-to-day differences in social interactions may not be associated with differences in T levels, and lend further support to the growing body of evidence that hormone-behavior effect sizes may be greater in the afternoon and evening than in the morning.

Body composition, age and fertility among free-ranging female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

The relationship of morphometric measures and birth status among 93 females on Cayo Santiago trapped during the 2001 and 2002 seasons was assessed. The proportion of females giving birth differed between the two seasons (0.58 vs. 0.38; P = 0.006) with a prominent decline among older females. Most morphometric measures increased from adolescent to adult groups, but bicep circumference showed a significant decrease among adults. When controlled for age differences, females with infants during the 2002 season exhibited greater bicep circumference, but no difference in abdominal fat than those without. Members of the socially dominant group did not have a higher rate of birth in either 2001 or 2002, despite being significantly longer and weighing more than those of the subordinate group. Abdominal skinfold and bicep circumference were significant predictors of birth status during the 2002 season, controlling for age group, social group membership, and parity in the previous year. Bicep circumference was also a significant predictor of birth status for the 2001 birth season. These findings suggest that individual variation in body composition among females of Cayo Santiago is associated with differences in fertility.

Leptin, body composition, adrenal and gonadal hormones among captive male baboons

Morphometric and hormonal measures were collected from 21 captive savanna baboons (Papio cynocephalus) maintained at the Tulane National Primate Research Center in order to determine age-related patterns in leptin levels over the life course as well as their relationships to body composition and adrenal and gonadal steroids. Comparison of leptin levels between peri-pubertal, adolescent, young adult, and fully mature males show lower levels among adolescent as compared with young adult males (P = 0.05 by Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA). In addition, abdominal fat varied among age groups (P = 0.003 by Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA) with the peri-pubertal animals lower than the adolescents, young adults, and prime adults. However leptin was not related to any measure of body composition, including abdominal fat, or to adrenal hormones (dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate, and cortisol) or gonadal hormones (testosterone and estradiol). Age-related changes in leptin appear similar to those reported for captive rhesus macaques, while the failure to find an association between leptin and abdominal fat is interestingly different. These results confirm elevated levels of leptin in captive baboons compared with their wild counterparts and suggest that they result from changes in fetal development.

Dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate as a biomarker of senescence in male non-human primates

Numerous studies have suggested important and varying roles for dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S) in primate physiological functions. Despite these numerous claims, specific actions and significance of DHEA and DHEA-S are still equivocal. A decline of these hormones in adult humans may have functional significance, yet there is no clear relationship between functional impairments of aging and the decline in DHEA or DHEA-S levels. This current study attempts to address the natural history of adrenal hormones by presenting non-human primate evidence of the endocrinology of aging; the age-related patterns of adrenal hormone decline in three species of the subfamily Cercopithecinae, Macaca mulatta, Macaca nemestrina, and Papio cynocephalus are compared. It is concluded that DHEA-S and cortisol represent lineage specific markers of senescence among primates and that parallel age-related patterns of DHEA-S and cortisol likely reflect lineage specific effects, or rather, phylogenetic similarities of endocrine senescence. The use of relative adrenal hormone levels to approximate species' life expectancies is discussed.

Population variation in age-related decline in male salivary testosterone

BACKGROUND

Age-related declines in free and bioavailable testosterone are frequently reported for Western populations, but interpopulation variation in this pattern has not previously been investigated.

METHODS

Salivary testosterone was measured using a consistently applied protocol on morning samples collected from men in four populations (USA, Congo, Nepal, and Paraguay) representing different geographical, ecological, and cultural settings.

RESULTS

Mean testosterone levels varied significantly between the four populations. The mean testosterone differences between populations were greatest for young men (aged 15-30 years) and insignificant for older men (aged 45-60 years). The slope of age-related decline in testosterone was significant in the USA and Congolese participants, but not in the Nepalese or Paraguayan participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Age patterns of testosterone decline vary between populations primarily as a result of variation in the peak levels attained in young adulthood. The potential consequences of this variation for other aspects of male health deserve investigation.

Morphological and hormonal parameters in two species of macaques: impact of seasonal breeding

To compare physiological and developmental differences between two cogeneric species that differ by seasonal vs. aseasonal breeding, values for morphological measurements, testicular volume, serum testosterone, estradiol, and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate levels were obtained from 53 rhesus during the early breeding season, as well as 41 pig-tailed macaque males maintained at the Tulane Primate Center. The two species exhibited similar body size, testosterone, and estradiol levels, but differed substantially in testicular volume (3.00 +/- 1.7 vs. 1.72 +/- 1.3 cc), abdominal skinfold measures (15.7 +/- 9.2 vs. 9.0 +/- 7.7 mm), and DHEA-S levels (18.0 +/- 11.7 vs. 7.6 +/- 5.4 microg/dl). Significant interaction effects for species by age group were found for weight, tricep circumference, length, and estradiol level. In addition, length was more closely related to testicular volume among rhesus compared to pig-tailed macaques, suggesting different developmental patterns between the species. Predictors of hormonal levels differed between the two species. In the rhesus, estradiol levels were related to testicular volume and testosterone levels while there were no anthropometric predictors of testosterone or DHEA-S. For the pig-tailed macaques, testicular volume was related to tricep circumference, testosterone to triceps skinfold and testicular volume, and estradiol to weight. It is argued that rhesus have larger testes for body size and more abdominal fat deposits during the early breeding season relative to pig-tailed macaques reflecting the increased demands of sperm competition in a seasonally breeding species. Hormonal differences associated with the difference in breeding system appear to be primarily related to adrenal rather than testicular activity.

Inhibitory effects of naturally occurring compounds on aflatoxin B(1) biotransformation

Effects of naturally occurring compounds from plants on biotransformation of a mycotoxin, aflatoxin B(1), were evaluated. Among 77 naturally occurring compounds tested, anthraquinones, coumarins, and flavone-type flavonoids were shown to be potent inhibitors of aflatoxin B(1)-8,9-epoxide formation. Addition of the flavonoids galangin, rhamnetin, and flavone strongly inhibited mouse liver microsomal conversion of aflatoxin B(1) to aflatoxin B(1)-8,9-epoxide, a metabolically activated mutagenic product. In contrast to these results, addition of isoflavonoids, catechins, terpenes, alkaloids, and quinones to mouse liver microsomes did not inhibit formation of aflatoxin B(1)-8,9-epoxide. Formation of the aflatoxin B(1) reductase product, aflatoxicol, by chicken liver cytosols was strongly inhibited by curcumin, the diferuloylmethane present in turmeric and other Curcuma species. Curcumin analogues also showed inhibitory effects, and a structure-activity study established that beta-diketone groups linked with two benzyl moieties were essential for inhibition of aflatoxicol formation. An additional 37 naturally occurring compounds tested did not inhibit formation of aflatoxicol. These results demonstrate that dietary constituents in certain fruits, vegetables, and spices may have significant inhibitory effects on metabolic transformation of aflatoxins to their hepatotoxic or carcinogenic derivatives or, alternatively, may promote their transformation into nontoxic products.

Reproductive maturation in a sample of captive male baboons

Though baboons have been considered an appropriate non-human primate model for studying human reproductive and endocrine development. the overall similarity of reproductive maturation between the two species is unclear. This paper examines the role of testicular and adrenal hormones for pubertal changes in a cross-sectional sample of 21 captive male savanna baboons. Morphometric and hormonal indices demonstrate changes in size and gonadal function, but not adrenal function, during pubertal maturation among baboons. Results also indicate that gonadal, but not adrenal, androgens are related to morphometric variables. We conclude that savanna baboons do not make an appropriate evolutionary model of human pubertal maturation.