EWSR1::WT1 Fusions in Neoplasms Other Than Conventional Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumor: Three Tumors Occurring Outside the Female Genital Tract

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a high-grade, primitive round cell sarcoma classically associated with prominent desmoplastic stroma, coexpression of keratin and desmin, and a characteristic EWSR1::WT1 gene fusion. DSRCT typically arises in the abdominopelvic cavity of young males with diffuse peritoneal spread and poor overall survival. Although originally considered to be pathognomonic for DSRCT, EWSR1::WT1 gene fusions have recently been detected in rare tumors lacking the characteristic morphologic and immunohistochemical features of DSRCT. Here, we report 3 additional cases of neoplasms other than conventional DSCRCT with EWSR1::WT1 gene fusions that occurred outside the female genital tract. Two occurred in the abdominopelvic cavities of a 27-year-old man and a 12-year-old girl, whereas the third arose in the axillary soft tissue of an 85-year-old man. All cases lacked prominent desmoplastic stroma and were instead solid and cystic with peripheral fibrous pseudocapsules and occasional intervening fibrous septa. Necrosis was either absent (1/3) or rare (2/3), and mitotic activity was low (<1 to 3 per 10 hpf). In immunohistochemical studies, there was expression of smooth muscle actin (3/3) and desmin (3/3), rare to focal reactivity for EMA (2/3), and variable expression of CK AE1/AE3 (1/3). Myogenin and MyoD1 were negative, and C-terminus-specific WT1 was positive in both cases tested (2/2). All 3 tumors followed a more indolent clinical course with 2 cases demonstrating no evidence of disease at 20 and 44 months after resection. The patient from case 3 died of other causes at 14 months with no evidence of recurrence. DNA methylation profiling showed that the 3 cases clustered with DSRCT; however, they demonstrated fewer copy number variations with 2 cases having a flat profile (0% copy number variation). Differential methylation analysis with hierarchical clustering further showed variation between the 3 cases and conventional DSRCT. Although further study is needed, our results, in addition to previous reports, suggest that EWSR1::WT1 gene fusions occur in rare and seemingly distinctive tumors other than conventional DSRCT with indolent behavior. Proper classification of these unusual soft tissue tumors with EWSR1::WT1 gene fusions requires direct correlation with tumor morphology and clinical behavior, which is essential to avoid overtreatment with aggressive chemotherapy.

Malignant female genital tract smooth muscle tumors with adipocytic differentiation: A morphologic, immunohistochemical, MDM2 fluorescence in situ hybridization and molecular genetic study of 6 lipoleiomyosarcomas

Leiomyosarcoma with adipocytic differentiation or lipoleiomyosarcoma is an uncommon sarcoma of the female genital tract with only a few individual reports in the literature. We therefore performed a morphologic, immunohistochemical, MDM2 gene amplification and RNA and DNA sequencing analysis of a series of gynecologic lipoleiomyosarcoma to better define the clinicopathologic spectrum. Six tumors from 6 patients were identified and classified as spindled lipoleiomyosarcoma (n = 2), mixed spindled and myxoid lipoleiomyosarcoma (n = 1), epithelioid lipoleiomyosarcoma with focal myxoid features (n = 1) and mixed spindled and epithelioid lipoleiomyosarcoma (n = 2). Patient age ranged from 41 to 64 years (mean: 49; median: 50). Primary location included uterine corpus (3), uterine corpus/cervix (2) and broad ligament (1). Tumor size ranged from 4.5 to 22 cm (mean: 11.2; median: 9.8). Four patients had metastasis at presentation or subsequently developed recurrent or distant disease. Patient status was known for 5: 2 dead of disease, 2 alive with disease and 1 alive without evidence of disease. Immunohistochemical expression of smooth muscle markers, ER, PR and WT-1 showed patterns similar to non-adipocytic gynecologic leiomyosarcomas. MDM2 amplification fluorescence in situ hybridization performed on 2 tumors was negative in 1 and equivocal in 1. Sequencing studies performed on 3 tumors found TP53 mutations in 3, with 1 tumor also having an ATRX alteration. No gene fusions were identified. Although lipoleiomyosarcomas have a diverse morphologic spectrum, our findings suggest the smooth muscle component shares morphologic and immunohistochemical features with female genital tract non-adipocytic leiomyosarcomas. Lipoleiomyosarcomas also have genetic alterations associated with non-adipocytic gynecologic leiomyosarcomas.

Alpine and lowland grazing differentially alter the reproductive tract redox milieu and amino acid composition in cattle

An alpine environment is unique due to pasture biodiversity, with an abundant content of natural antioxidant polyphenols. The present study investigated the effects of lowland and alpine grazing on the oviduct and uterine tissue redox status and amino acid concentrations in plasma and reproductive fluids. In the first experiment, heifers grazed on lowland (H-LOW: n = 13) and on alpine (H-ALP: n = 15) pastures. In the second experiment, heifers grazed on the same lowland (HS-LOW: n = 6) and on a different alpine (HS-ALP: n = 6) pasture. The abundance of mRNA transcripts for antioxidant enzymes in the oviduct (glutathione S-transferase alpha 2, glutathione synthetase (GSS)) and the endometrium (catalase, glutathione-disulfide reductase, GSS) was less (P <  0.05), and for glutathione peroxidase 4 in the endometrium greater (P =  0.006) in the H-LOW than in the H-ALP group. The abundance of mRNA transcript for catalase was less in the endometrium in the H-LOW than in the H-ALP (P =  0.001) group. Catalase and NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 concentrations in the oviduct were greater in the HS-LOW than in the HS-ALP group (P <  0.05). Of 32 amino acids analysed, there were differences in concentrations in the H-LOW and H-ALP group of 13, seven and 15 in plasma, oviduct and uterine fluids, respectively (P <  0.05). Comparing the HS-LOW to the HS-ALP groups, there were 13, one and three amino acids in the plasma, oviduct and uterine fluids, respectively, that were differentially abundant (P <  0.05). The grazing systems had some effect on the redox status and amino acid patterns in reproductive tissues.

Baby on board: olfactory cues indicate pregnancy and fetal sex in a non-human primate

Olfactory cues play an integral, albeit underappreciated, role in mediating vertebrate social and reproductive behaviour. These cues fluctuate with the signaller's hormonal condition, coincident with and informative about relevant aspects of its reproductive state, such as pubertal onset, change in season and, in females, timing of ovulation. Although pregnancy dramatically alters a female's endocrine profiles, which can be further influenced by fetal sex, the relationship between gestation and olfactory cues is poorly understood. We therefore examined the effects of pregnancy and fetal sex on volatile genital secretions in the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), a strepsirrhine primate possessing complex olfactory mechanisms of reproductive signalling. While pregnant, dams altered and dampened their expression of volatile chemicals, with compound richness being particularly reduced in dams bearing sons. These changes were comparable in magnitude with other, published chemical differences among lemurs that are salient to conspecifics. Such olfactory 'signatures' of pregnancy may help guide social interactions, potentially promoting mother-infant recognition, reducing intragroup conflict or counteracting behavioural mechanisms of paternity confusion; cues that also advertise fetal sex may additionally facilitate differential sex allocation.

HIV-1 genital shedding is suppressed in the setting of high genital antiretroviral drug concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle

BACKGROUND

It is not known if fluctuations in genital tract antiretroviral drug concentrations correlate with genital virus shedding in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected women on antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

Among 20 HIV-infected women on ART (tenofovir [TFV], emtricitabine [FTC], and ritonavir-boosted atazanavir [ATV]) with suppressed plasma virus loads, blood and cervicovaginal samples collected twice weekly for 3 weeks were tested for antiretroviral concentrations, HIV-1 RNA, and proviral DNA.

RESULTS

Cervicovaginal:plasma antiretroviral concentration ratios were highest for FTC (11.9, 95% confidence interval [CI], 8.66-16.3), then TFV (3.52, 95% CI, 2.27-5.48), and ATV (2.39, 95% CI, 1.69-3.38). Within- and between-person variations in plasma and genital antiretroviral concentrations were observed. Low amounts of genital HIV-1 RNA (<50 copies/mL) were detected in 45% of women at 16% of visits. Genital HIV-1 DNA was detected in 70% of women at 35% of visits. Genital virus detection was associated with higher concentrations of mucosal leukocytes but not with genital antiretroviral concentrations, menstrual cycle phase, bacterial vaginosis, genital bleeding, or plasma virus detection.

CONCLUSIONS

Standard doses of ART achieved higher genital than plasma concentrations across the menstrual cycle. Therapeutic ART suppresses genital virus shedding throughout the menstrual cycle, even in the presence of factors reported to increase virus shedding.

Distribution of platinum in the female genital tract and efficacy of radiotherapy combined with transcatheter arterial infusion of cisplatin for locally advanced stage IIIb carcinoma of the uterine cervix

The current main treatment for locally advanced stage III/IV cervical cancer involves chemoradiotherapy. In this study, we investigated the distribution of platinum in the female genital tract by intra-arterial infusion of platinum (carboplatin 150 mg) during surgery and examined the therapeutic effects of radiotherapy with transcatheter arterial infusion (TAI) of cisplatin for locally advanced carcinoma of the uterine cervix. From January 1991, we randomly selected 26 patients with locally advanced stage IIIb cervical cancer to receive radiotherapy combined with TAI of 120 mg/body cisplatin twice a month at an interval of 4 weeks. Radiotherapy routinely involved 50 Gy of external beam irradiation to the whole pelvis and 12-24 Gy (point A dose) of intracavitary irradiation using a remote afterloading system. The mean platinum concentration in the cervical cancer was 1.77 microg/g wet tissue (wt) and high value, but the genital tract also contained the same platinum concentration. The platinum concentration in each regional lymph node was 1.10-1.48 microg/g wt, and its level of platinum was equal to that in the female genital tract. The effective histologic response rate was 88.5% (23/26). The median follow-up period was 38 months. The cumulative survival rate was 74.0%. Serious acute adverse reactions interfering with treatment were not observed. Based on these results, intra-arterial infusion of platinum produced a therapeutic effect on the primary cervical cancer site and the other parts of the female genital tract. We concluded that radiotherapy with TAI of cisplatin achieved superior therapeutic efficacy in locally advanced stage IIIb cervical cancer.

Pathobiology of triple reassortant H3N2 influenza viruses in breeder turkeys and its potential implication for vaccine studies in turkeys

Triple reassortant (TR) H3N2 influenza viruses have been isolated from turkeys in the United States since 2003. These TR H3N2 virus infections have been associated with drastic declines in egg production in breeder turkeys although co-infection with multiple agents could have been responsible for exacerbating the clinical signs. In this study, we experimentally confirmed that TR H3N2 influenza virus alone can cause drastic reduction/complete cessation of egg production and pathology of the reproductive tract in 26-week-old breeder turkeys. We confirmed high levels of virus replication and abundant distribution of avian specific alpha2,3 sialic acid-galactose receptors in the oviduct of these turkeys. Although 2-6-week-old turkeys are routinely used for pathogenicity and vaccine protection studies, the low levels of viral shedding and asymptomatic infections in this age group often pose difficulty in interpretation of results. Our study shows that breeder turkeys should be used to assess the potential pathogenicity of TR H3N2 viruses and the viral titers and pathology of the oviduct as well as egg production data can be good measures of protection following in vivo challenge in vaccine efficacy studies.

Stable isotope-mass spectrometric determination of semen transfer in malaria mosquitoes

The potential use of stable isotopes to study mosquito mating was investigated by tracing the fate of labelled semen into spermathecae. [(13)C]glucose was incorporated in the diet of the malaria mosquito Anopheles arabiensis. Treatments included labelling of either the larval water or adult sugar water, or a combination of both. After mating, ;spiked' spermathecae were analysed for isotope ratios using mass spectrometry. Results demonstrated that spermathecae positive for semen could successfully be distinguished from empty ones or controls (i.e. filled with unlabelled semen) using the raw delta(13)C values. Labelling during larval development and combined labelling of larvae and adults resulted in detectable values. The label persisted in spermathecae for up to 7 days after mating, and unlabelled sugar feeding of males labelled in the larval stage did not result in a detectable turnover of the semen label. There were no detrimental effects of the addition of labelled glucose on larval development and survival, adult size, male longevity and mating performance. We have proved that it is possible to label male mosquitoes and detect the semen label in females after insemination. This method offers great potential to study mating in mosquitoes and other insects and could prove useful in genetic control studies of medical or agricultural pest insects, with male mating success in the field as a critical verifiable indicator for a positive outcome of the intervention.

Pleomorphic extra-renal manifestation of the glomerular podocyte marker podocalyxin in tissues of normal beagle dogs

Podocalyxin (PC) was initially identified as a major sialoprotein on the apical surface of glomerular podocytes to perform the filtration barrier function. Later, it was reported to be expressed in endothelial cells, megakaryotes/platelets, and hemangioblasts, the common progenitor cells of the hematopoietic and endothelial cells. Recently, increasing numbers of reports have indicated that PC is not merely a molecule restricted at renal glomerulus, angiogenic or hematopoietic system. To further elucidate the expression pattern and address the possible physiological role of PC in adult mammals, we conducted an extensive study by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining on various tissues of healthy adult beagle dogs. By combinatory usage of two different anti-podocalyxin antibodies recognizing distinct epitopes in PC, we have demonstrated that (1) PC is expressed in renal tubules, mesothelium, myocardium, striated muscles in tongue, esophagus and extraocular region, myoepithelial cells in esophagus and salivary glands, neurons, and ependyma, etc.; (2) there are at least three forms of PC proteins, depending upon the accessibility of two different PC antibodies, expressed in different organs/systems; and (3) a particular form of PC is distributed in a vesicle-like compartment in certain organs/systems, such as the central nervous system.

Expression and localization of the progesterone receptor in mouse and human reproductive organs

The effects of gonadotropins on progesterone receptor (PR) expression and localization in the mouse oviduct, uterus, and ovary was examined. In the oviduct ciliated epithelial cells of adult mice and human revealed a unique PR localization to the lower half of the motile cilia whereas the nuclei were unstained or faintly stained. Pubertal female mice were further studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy and western blotting before and after injection with FSH and LH followed by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) injection after a 48-h period. PR immunolocalization to the oviduct cilia was greatly increased in pubertal mice upon hCG stimulation. In neighboring goblet cells, the PR staining was confined to the nuclei. Nuclear PR localization was evident in epithelial cells of the uterus as well as in a fraction of stromal and muscle cells. Staining intensity and number of stained cells was not affected by hormone stimulation. In the ovary, weak PR immunolocalization was observed in unprimed animals but increased significantly after hCG stimulation. In granulosa cells of preovulatory follicles PR was exclusively observed in mural cells, whereas cumulus cells remained negative. At all stages examined, primary granulosa cell cilia lacked PR staining. SDS-PAGE and western blotting analysis of tissues from oviduct, uterus, and ovary confirmed antibody specificity, and identified two bands corresponding to the PR isoforms PR-A and PR-B. Upon hCG stimulation, a new band cross-reacting with anti-PR emerged above the PR-A form in oviduct fractions, suggesting LH-induced phosphorylation of PR-A. We suggest that ciliary PR in the oviduct plays a role in progesterone signaling after ovulation, possibly via non-genomic events. These novel findings warrant further studies of oviduct and postovulatory signaling events and suggest a sensory role for oviduct cilia in the process of oocyte transport/fertilization.

Female reproductive system of the sugarcane spittlebug Mahanarva fimbriolata (Auchenorrhyncha): vitellogenesis dynamics and protein quantification

The present study aimed describing the ovaries of the sugarcane spittlebug Mahanarva fimbriolata which are meroistic telotrophic with nurse cells and oocytes located in the tropharium. SEM revealed paired ovaries located dorsolaterally around the intestine, and oocytes exhibiting shapes ranging from round (less developed) to elliptic (more developed), suggesting a simultaneous, although, asynchronous development. Based on histological data we classified the oocytes in stages from I to V. Stage I oocytes exhibit follicular epithelium with cubic and/or prismatic cells, fine cytoplasmic granules. Stage II oocytes present intercellular spaces in the follicular epithelium due to the incorporation of yolk elements from the hemolymph. Small granules are present in the periphery of oocytes while larger granules are observed in the center. Stage III oocytes are larger and intercellular spaces in the follicular epithelium are evident, as well as the interface between follicular epithelium and oocyte. Yolk granules of different sizes are present in the cytoplasm. During this stage, chorion deposition initiates. Stage IV oocytes exhibit squamous follicular cells and larger intercellular spaces when compared to those observed in the previous stage. The oocyte cytoplasm present granular and viscous yolk, the latter is the result of the breakdown of granules. Stage V oocytes exhibit a follicular epithelium almost completely degenerated, smaller quantities of granular yolk and large amounts of viscous yolk. Based on our findings we established the sequence of yolk deposition in M. fimbriolata oocyte as follows: proteins and lipids, which are first produced by endogenous processes in stages I and II oocytes. Exogenous incorporation begins in stage III. In stages I and II oocytes, lipids are also produced by follicular epithelial cells. The third element to be deposited is polysaccharides, mainly found as complexes. Therefore, the yolk present in the oocytes of this species consists of glycolipoproteins. Molecular weights of proteins present in M. fimbriolata oocytes ranged from 10 to 92 KDa, differently from vitellogenin, the most common protein present in insect oocytes, weighing approximately 180 KDa.

Surfactant proteins A and D in the genital tract of mares

The presence of surface-active material in the lung alveolus has been known for several decades as being essential for normal lung function. Surfactant is essential for reducing the surface tension at the alveolar air-liquid interface. Pulmonary surfactant is composed of 90% lipids and 10% proteins. There are four non-serum proteins surfactant protein-A (SP-A), surfactant protein-B (SP-B), surfactant protein-C (SP-C) and surfactant protein-D (SP-D) named in chronologic order of discovery. Lung SP-A and SP-D belong to a family of collagen-containing C-type lectin family called collectins. The host defence and controlling inflammatory processes of the lung are the major functions of SP-A and SP-D. SP-A and SP-D were originally demonstrated in alveolar type II cells, but recent studies have shown extrapulmonary expression of SP-A and SP-D indicating systemic roles of these proteins. Present study describes the presence of SP-A and SP-D in the mare genital tract, vulva, vagina, ovarium, uterus and tuba uterina using immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. The aim of this study was to characterize surfactant proteins in terms of: (i) whether surfactant proteins were present in the various structures of the mare genital system, (ii) if so, identifying and locating the surfactant proteins and finally (iii) determining the differences from those previously characterized for the lung. Although beyond the scope of this report, it is recognized that there are also some potential implications for better defining the reproductive defence mechanisms in mare. Therefore, genital system organs and tissues from mares were examined. We were able to show that proteins reactive with surfactant-specific antibodies were present in the mare genital tract. Thus, surfactant proteins are present not in just lamellar bodies associated with lung, but also genital system of mare.

p16 expression in the female genital tract and its value in diagnosis

p16 is a cyclin-dependent kinase-4 inhibitor that is expressed in a limited range of normal tissues and tumors. In recent years, immunohistochemistry with p16 antibodies has been used as a diagnostic aid in various scenarios in gynecologic pathology. Diffuse (as opposed to focal) positivity with p16 in the cervix can be regarded as a surrogate marker of the presence of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV). In cervical squamous lesions, p16 is positive in most high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and in some cases of low-grade CIN, usually those associated with high-risk HPV. p16 may be useful to identify small focal high-grade CIN lesions, to distinguish some cases of CIN involving immature metaplastic squamous epithelium from immature metaplastic squamous epithelium not involved by CIN and to distinguish high-grade CIN from benign mimics. Most cervical carcinomas of squamous, glandular, and small cell type are p16-positive. In cervical glandular lesions, p16 is useful, as part of a panel, in the distinction between adenocarcinoma in situ (diffusely positive) and benign mimics, including tuboendometrial metaplasia and endometriosis, which are usually p16-negative or focally positive. p16 may be used, in combination with other markers, to distinguish between a cervical adenocarcinoma (diffuse positivity) and an endometrioid-type endometrial adenocarcinoma (negative or focally positive). Some uterine serous carcinomas are diffusely positive. In the vulva, p16 is positive in HPV-associated vulval intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) but negative in VIN not associated with HPV. Similarly, HPV-associated invasive squamous carcinomas are p16-positive, whereas the more common non-HPV-associated neoplasms are largely negative or focally positive. In the uterus, p16 positivity is more common and widespread in leiomyosarcomas than leiomyomas, and this may be a useful aid to diagnosis, although problematic uterine smooth muscle neoplasms have not been extensively studied. Metastatic cervical adenocarcinomas in the ovary are usually diffusely p16-positive, and because these may closely mimic a primary ovarian endometrioid or mucinous adenocarcinoma, this may be a valuable diagnostic aid, although p16 expression in primary ovarian adenocarcinomas of these morphologic subtypes has not been widely investigated. Some ovarian serous carcinomas, similar to their uterine counterparts, are p16-positive.

Expression of RCAS1 in Female Genital Organs

Receptor-binding antigen expressed on a human uterine adenocarcinoma cell line, SiSo (RCAS1), has been reported to be a prognostic factor of various malignant tumors, and it has also been proven to induce apoptosis of lymphoid cells. However, its normal distribution and function have not yet been elucidated. The purpose of this study was to disclose the distribution of RCAS1 expression in normal female genital organs. Immunohistochemical staining using anti-RCAS1 and anti-MIB-1 antibodies was performed on 123 surgical specimens of a histologically normal uterus, ovary, or fallopian tube from 66 patients, and the apoptotic index was determined. In uterine cervical glands, the expression of RCAS1 was seen in 93% of the cases, and it was mainly localized in the superficial cervical glands. Near the areas of squamous metaplasia, RCAS1 was strongly expressed in all samples. In the uterine cervical squamous epithelium, RCAS1 was seen in 84% of cases. In the uterine corpus, RCAS1 was seen in 87% of all cases, and it was mainly expressed in the endometrial glands of basalis layer. There was significant positive correlation between age and RCAS1 expression, but no significant difference was found regarding the endometrial status and RCAS1 expression in endometrium. No significant correlation was found between RCAS1 expression and MIB-1 index/apoptotic index. RCAS1 may affect these metaplastic processes and tumor progression.

Immunolocalization of glycodelin in the genital tract of rats

Glycodelin, also known as placental protein 14 has been predominantly localized to organs of the human genital tract. Unfortunately the physiological role of glycodelin is largely unknown since it depends on limited availability of tissues. Therefore, a suitable animal model to study the role of glycodelin would be desirable. Previously, it was shown that glycodelin mRNA is expressed in the genital tract of male and female rats. In the present study, we demonstrate the expression of glycodelin protein in male and female rats by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. For this purpose a polyclonal antibody was generated against glycodelin peptide. In female rats, glycodelin was found in the epithelial gland cells of the uterus, epithelial cells of the fallopian tube as well as in corpora lutea, interstitial and theca cells of the ovary. Glycodelin was distributed in all epithelial cells of the epididymis and the seminal vesicle. In the seminiferous epithelium, glycodelin was seen in all developmental stages of spermatogonia and spermatocytes and in Sertoli cells. Whereas in the rat male reproductive tract glycodelin expression is slightly different from human or primate tissues, in organs of the rat female genital tract glycodelin expression is similar to humans and primates.

Transfer of selenium from prey to predators in a simulated terrestrial food chain

Little is known about the accumulation and effects of selenium in reptiles. We developed a simplified laboratory food chain where we fed commercial feed laden with seleno-D,L-methionine (30 microg/g dry mass) to crickets (Acheta domestica) for 5-7 d. Se-enriched crickets (approximately 15 microg/g Se [dry mass]) were fed to juvenile male and female lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) for 98 d while conspecifics were fed uncontaminated crickets. Lizards fed contaminated prey accumulated Se concentrations ranging from 9.3 (in female carcass) to 14.1 (in female gonad) microg/g compared to <1.5 microg/g in tissues of controls. Female gonad concentrations approached the highest of thresholds for reproductive toxicity in oviparous vertebrates. However, we observed no consistent effect of dietary treatment on sublethal parameters or survival. Our simplified food chain proved to be an ecologically relevant method of exposing lizards to Se, and forms the foundation for future studies on maternal transfer and teratogenicity of Se.

SEX STEROID HORMONE RECEPTORS IN THE DEVELOPING FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF LABORATORY RODENTS

Many chemicals released into the environment potentially disrupt the endocrine system in wildlife and humans. Some of these chemicals exhibit estrogenic activity by binding to the estrogen receptors. The developing organism is particularly sensitive to estrogenic chemicals during the critical period in which the induction of long-term changes and persistent molecular alterations in female reproductive tracts occur. Perinatal mouse and rat models can be utilized as indicators for determining the consequences of exposure to exogenous estrogenic agents, including possible xenoestrogens or environmental endocrine disruptors. Estrogen receptors (ER) and estrogen responsive genes, therefore, need to be identified in order to understand the molecular basis of estrogenic actions. Recent identifications of ER subtypes and isoforms make understanding target organ responses to these estrogenic chemicals even more difficult. Indeed, many reports suggest that these chemicals do affect the reproductive and developmental processes of female laboratory rodents that had been perinatally exposed, and that interactions between sex steroid hormone receptors occur. Much information concerning the expression of sex steroid receptors in rodents has been reported concerning the normal development of the Müllerian duct. Thus, accumulated information on the expression of ER subtypes and isoforms as well as that of progesterone and androgen receptors in laboratory rodents is herein reviewed, in addition to the presentation of our own data.

Cell death, BAX activation, and HMGB1 release during infection with

Infection by a number of Chlamydia species leads to resistance of the host cell to apoptosis, followed by induction of host-cell death. In a population of infected cells that displays protection against staurosporine-induced apoptosis among the adherent cells, we find that cells that had been recovered from the supernatant share characteristics of both apoptosis and necrosis, as assayed by the propidium iodide (PI)-annexin V double-labeling technique. Cell death was observed in both an epithelial cell line and primary fibroblasts, although the primary cells had a higher propensity to die through apoptosis than the immortalized cell line. Staurosporine-mediated activation of the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 family member, BAX, was inhibited in the epithelial cell line infected for 32 h with the lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV/L2) but not the murine pneumonitis (MoPn) strain of C. trachomatis, but inhibition of staurosporine-mediated BAX activation disappeared after 48 h of infection with the LGV/L2 strain. Conversely, infection with MoPn (C. muridarum) but not LGV/L2 led to BAX activation after 72 h, as previously reported for shorter (48 h) infection with the guinea pig inclusion conjunctivitis (GPIC) serovar of C. psittaci (C. caviae). These results suggest that the ability to inhibit staurosporine-mediated BAX activation or to activate BAX due to the infection itself may vary as a function of the chlamydial strain. Interestingly, both the epithelial cells and the fibroblasts also released high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) during infection, although much less HMGB1 was released from fibroblasts, consistent with the higher level of apoptosis observed in the primary cells. HMGB1 is released preferentially by necrotic or permeabilized viable cells, but not apoptotic cells. In the extracellular space, HMGB1 promotes inflammation through interaction with specific cell-surface receptors. Higher levels of HMGB1 were also measured in the genital-tract secretions of mice infected vaginally with C. trachomatis, compared to uninfected controls. These results suggest that cells infected with Chlamydia release intracellular factors that may contribute to the inflammatory response observed in vivo.

Identification and characterization of a novel luciferase-like protein in the human female reproductive tract

A novel cDNA was cloned from human endometrium, matching a human gene with the interim name KIAA1463. An mRNA identified by 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends was found to be 3349 nt in length. PCR analysis also identified another transcript of 6626 nt, with an open reading frame encoding a 900 amino acid protein. A fold recognition program identified similarity to firefly luciferase containing an AMP-binding motif; hence, we refer to the predicted protein as the AMP binding/luciferase-like protein (ALLP). ALLP mRNA and protein were expressed throughout the female reproductive tract with the highest levels found in the ovary and uterus. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry showed predominant localization of the ALLP mRNA/protein in endometrial glandular epithelium and within the theca and granulosa cells in the ovary. In the endometrium expression of ALLP, mRNA and protein were higher during d 16-21 of the secretory phase of the cycle. Western blot analysis showed decreased expression of ALLP in the postmenopausal endometrium, and hormone replacement therapy increased the expression of ALLP. Endometrial adenocarcinoma cell lines expressed more ALLP, compared with cultured primary endometrial cells or normal endometrial tissue. The ubiquitous expression of ALLP in reproductive and nonreproductive tissues suggests that this protein, which is probably regulated by ovarian steroids, plays an important metabolic role and may be involved in such processes as implantation and tumorigenesis.

Immunolocalization of sex steroid hormone receptors in canine vaginal and vulvar tissue and their relation to sex steroid hormone concentrations

The aim of this immunohistochemical study was to describe the cellular distribution of the estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha), progesterone receptor (PR) and androgen receptor (AR) in canine vaginal and vulvar tissue. Samples were taken from dogs in different stages of the estrous cycle. Nuclear staining for ERalpha, PR and AR was observed in surface epithelium, stromal and smooth muscle cells. Receptors were also expressed in vulvar skin. Cytoplasmic staining for AR was observed in basal and parabasal cell layers of vulvar and vaginal epithelium. For all three receptors, staining intensity was generally higher in stromal cells compared with epithelial cells, suggesting that stromal cells may be more receptive to steroid hormone action. Therefore, as in other tissues of the female genital tract, stromal-epithelial interactions induced by sex steroid hormones may be of importance in canine vaginal and vulvar tissues. No cyclic changes in receptor immunostaining were observed. Significant positive correlations were found between receptor immunostaining in some vaginal and vulvar cell groups and the serum concentrations of estradiol-17beta and testosterone, but not with the serum progesterone concentration. Significant negative correlations were found between ERalpha immunostaining in epithelial and stromal cells of the vagina and the serum estradiol-17beta concentration, suggesting a negative feedback mechanism between estradiol-17beta and its receptor. Both cell types play a role in the differentiation of vaginal epithelium, under the influence of estradiol-17beta.

Multiple luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) protein variants, interspecies reactivity of anti-LHR mAb clone 3B5, subcellular localization of LHR in human placenta, pelvic floor and brain, and possible role for LHR in the development of abnormal pregnancy, pelvic floor disorders and Alzheimer's disease

Distinct luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) protein variants exist due to the posttranslational modifications. Besides ovaries, LHR immunoreactivity (LHRI) was also found in other tissues, such as the brain, fallopian tube, endometrium, trophoblast and resident tissue macrophages. The 3B5 mouse monoclonal antibody was raised against purified rat LHR. In rat, porcine and human ovaries, the 3B5 identified six distinct LHR bands migrating at approximately 92, 80, 68, 59, 52 and 48 kDa. Characteristic LHRI was detected in rat, human and porcine corpora lutea. During cellular differentiation, subcellular LHR distribution changed from none to granular cytoplasmic, perinuclear, surface, nuclear and no staining. There were also differences in vascular LHR expression--lack of LHRI in ovarian vessels and strong staining of vessels in other tissues investigated. In normal human term placentae, villous LHRI was associated with blood sinusoids and cytotrophoblast cells, and rarely detected in trophoblastic syncytium. In all abnormal placentae, the LHRI of sinusoids was absent, and syncytium showed either enhanced (immature placental phenotypes) or no LHRI (aged placental phenotype). LHRI in human brain was identified in microglial cells (CD68+ resident macrophages). Protein extracts from human vaginal wall and levator ani muscle and fascia showed strong approximately 92 and 68 kDa species, and LHRI was detected in smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, resident macrophages and nuclei of skeletal muscle fibers. Our observations indicate that, in contrast to the theory on the role of vascular hormone receptors in preferential pick up of circulating hormones, there is no need to enhance selective pick up rather only prevent LH/CG transport to inappropriate sites. Abnormal placental LHR expression may play a role in the development of abnormal pregnancy. Expression of LHR in the pelvic floor compartments suggests that high LH levels in postmenopausal women may contribute to the pelvic floor relaxation and increased incidence of pelvic floor disorders. Since chorionic gonadotropin increases secretion of a variety of cytokines by monocytes, and induces their inflammatory reaction and phagocytic activity, high LH levels in aging individuals may also activate microglia (mononuclear phagocyte system in the central nervous system) and contribute to the development of Alzheimer's disease and other inflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases.

Estrogen receptor knockout mice: phenotypes in the female reproductive tract

There is a broad spectrum of organ systems that respond to estrogen hormones, including the female and male reproductive tracts, mammary gland, the skeleton, cardiovascular system and central nervous system. The physiological effects of estrogens are mediated by the estrogen receptor, a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily of transcription factors. Two estrogen receptors have been identified: the originally described estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) and the more recently discovered estrogen receptor beta (ERbeta). Three different estrogen receptor knockout (ERKO) mouse models were generated, carrying a null mutation in the ERalpha gene (alphaERKO), the ERbeta gene (betaERKO) or both genes (alphabetaERKO). The generation of the different ERKO mice provides ideal models for studying the physiological consequences of the complete lack of estrogen receptor activity and the distinct roles of both estrogen receptors in various tissues. This review summarizes the phenotypes principally seen in the female reproductive system of the different ERKO mice.

Immunolocalization of retinol-binding protein, cellular retinoic acid-binding protein I and retinoid X receptor beta in the porcine reproductive tract during the oestrous cycle

Retinoid-binding proteins and nuclear receptors are expressed in the reproductive tissues of different species and their expression is hormonally regulated. In the present study, we demonstrated immunocytochemically the temporal and spatial localization of retinol-binding protein (RBP), cellular retinoic acid-binding protein I (CRABPI) and retinoid X receptor beta (RXRbeta) in porcine ovary, oviduct and uterus during the oestrous cycle. RBP and CRABPI were localized in the cytoplasm, whereas RXRbeta occurred in the nucleus. RBP was not detected in either the ovary or the oviduct at any stage of the oestrous cycle. CRABPI was present in luteal cells of the ovary only during dioestrus and in glandular and ciliated cells of the oviduct during oestrus. In the ovary, RXRbeta was always present in granulosa cells and germinal epithelium, with highest levels observed during oestrus. In the uterus, RXRbeta was present throughout the cycle in both the endometrium and the myometrium. However, changes in RXRbeta were observed in the endometrium, with highest levels observed during dioestrus. RBP and CRABPI could be observed in the endometrium only during dioestrus. The results show that the occurrence of retinoid-binding proteins and nuclear receptors in individual tissues of the reproductive tract are strongly dependent on the stage of the oestrous cycle. In the oviduct, the expression of CRABPI seems to be dependent on oestrogen, whereas in the uterus the expression of RBP and CRABPI is influenced by progesterone. The association of expression in different sections of the reproductive tissues investigated shows that the presence of specific proteins involved in retinoid metabolism was dependent on events associated with ovulation, the migration of the oocyte through the oviduct and the possible implantation of the blastocyst into the uterus.

Evidence for the association of FMRFamide-related peptides with the spermatheca of Locusta migratoria

The association of FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) with the spermatheca of Locusta migratoria was demonstrated using radioimmunoassay and immunohistochemical techniques. The physiological effects of various FaRPs on the neurally evoked contractions of the spermatheca were also examined. FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity (FLI) was demonstrated in processes and cell bodies situated in the VIIIth (terminal) abdominal ganglion. These included an anterior, central and posterior pair of ventral cell bodies positioned near the midline of the ganglion, in addition to two bilaterally paired dorsal cell bodies in the posterior region of the VIIIth abdominal ganglion. Two axons displaying FLI proceed down the ventral ovipositor nerve (VON) and into the receptaculum seminis nerve which innervates the anterior regions of the spermatheca. FLI was also noted in processes on the spermathecal muscle with the highest density occurring on the spermathecal sac and coil duct. FaRPs applied to the spermathecal muscle included GQERNFLRFamide, NFIRFamide, ADDRNFIRFamide, YGGFMRFamide, FMRFamide, ADVGHVFLRFamide and SchistoFLRFamide (PDVDHVFLRFamide). Dose-dependent physiological effects were only noted for FMRFamide, ADVGHVFLRFamide and SchistoFLRFamide. FMRFamide led to a dose-dependent increase in the amplitude of neurally evoked contractions with a threshold of approximately 5 x 10(-7) M. SchistoFLRFamide, and ADVGHVFLRFamide, had an inhibitory effect, decreasing the amplitude of neurally evoked spermathecal contractions.

A research-based tumor tissue bank of gynecologic oncology: characteristics of nucleic acids extracted from normal and tumor tissues from different sites

This article describes a gynecology and pathology-oriented tumor tissue bank that is approaching the research requirements of modern molecular oncology and compared characteristics of nucleic acids extracted from preserved tissues. Through August 2000, 8869 specimens, including fresh neoplastic tissues and normal counterparts, body fluids (ascites, tumor content, and blood), and cervical scrapings, were procured from 1853 patients. DNA and RNA were extracted from a random sampling of normal (n = 50) and tumor (n = 53) tissues from the uterine cervix (n = 47), endometrium (n = 24), and ovary (n = 32). As expected, tumor tissues conferred a higher yield of DNA (1.56 +/- 1.24 versus 0.94 +/- 0.72 microg/mg tissue, P = 0.001) and RNA (5.04 +/- 6.21 versus 2.12 +/- 1.76 microg/ml, P < 0.001) than normal tissues. However, the RNA message abundance, as measured by RNA yield/DNA yield, was not different between tumor and normal tissues. With a similar content of DNA in the endometrium, uterine cervix, and ovary, RNA yield was higher in the endometrium than the others (P = 0.013). In tumors from these three sites, similar yields of DNA and RNA were noted. Overall the yield of DNA remained unchanged from specimens preserved for as long as 7 years, although at this length of storage, RNA yield became lower and variable. This study provides the basic characteristics of nucleic acids derived from normal and tumor tissues and ensures future research utility of these frozen specimens.

Expression of erythropoietin in human female reproductive organs

Erythropoietin (Epo) is known to be a lineage specific cytokine which regulates the number of circulating erythrocytes. Most of it is produced in the kidney. Recently, Epo has been reported to be synthesized in the normal brain, placenta, and capillary endothelium. We also have found that uterine endometrium expresses Epo signals in an estrogen-dependent manner, and that Epo contributes to angiogenesis in the endometrium in mice. To clarify the functional activity of Epo in human reproductive organs, we examined Epo signaling in these organs by Southern analysis of RT-PCR products and studied the distribution of substances relevant to Epo signal transduction by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. Epo mRNA is expressed in the normal human cervix, endometrium and ovary, but it is not always detected in the specimens. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed Epo-receptor (EpoR) protein in: a) the endothelium of vessels, in glandular and surface epithelial cells, in decidual cells of the endometrium, and b) in follicles at various stages including oocytes, granulosa, theca interna cells and lutein cells of the ovary. Moreover, co-expression of JAK2 and phosphotyrosine, which reflects tyrosine phosphorylation via JAK2, and co-expression of EpoR and STAT5, which is a transcriptional factor relevant to mitogenic activity, were seen at these Epo-responsive sites. Western blotting analysis of these organs confirmed the immunohistochemical results. These findings imply that female reproductive organs can produce Epo, and that signal transduction of Epo contributes to the cyclic changes in the female reproductive organs.

Immunohistochemical localisation of androgen receptor during sex-specific morphogenesis in the fetal mouse

The distribution of androgen receptors (ARs) in paraffin serial sections of day 17 and day 18 male and female mouse embryos was investigated. In the cranial section of the genital tract AR expression was restricted to Wolffian structures while Müllerian ducts and surrounding mesenchyme were AR negative. In the fusion zone with the urogenital sinus the epithelial components of the vaginal bud were clearly distinguished by differential AR expression, which was faint in the Wolffian ducts, totally missing in the Müllerian ducts, and intense in the sinus ridges with the most intense expression in the morphogenetically active mesenchyme, indicating a new mechanism of negative control of vagina formation via androgens. Expression of ARs outside the genital tract was observed: (1) in loose interstitial mesenchyme extending into the retroperitoneal space up to the coeliac artery, indicating androgen effects during ascent of the kidneys and descent of intraperitoneal organs, (2) in the trigone of the bladder indicating androgen involvement in the development of the vesico-ureteral junction, and (3) in loose mesenchyme between striated muscle fibres and around pelvic skeletal elements, indicating mediation of androgen effects on the musculoskeletal system via loose mesenchyme.

Differential localization of ErbB2 in different tissues of the rat female reproductive tract: implications for the use of specific antibodies for ErbB2 analysis

ErbB2 has been implicated in numerous functions, including normal and aberrant development of a variety of tissues. Although no soluble ligand has been identified for ErbB2, we have recently shown that ASGP-2, the transmembrane subunit of the cell surface glycoprotein Muc4 (also called sialomucin complex, SMC), can act as an intramembrane ligand for ErbB2 and modulate its activity. Muc4/SMC is abundantly expressed at the apical surface of most epithelia of the rat female reproductive tract. Since Muc4/SMC can interact with ErbB2 when they are expressed in the same cell and membrane, we investigated whether these two proteins are co-expressed and co-localized in tissues of the female reproductive tract. Using an anti-ErbB2 antibody from Dako, we found moderate staining at the basolateral surface of the oviduct and also around the cell membrane of the most superficial and medial layers of the stratified epithelia of the vagina. In contrast, Neomarkers neu Ab1 antibody intensely stained the apical surface of the epithelium of the oviduct and the medial and basal layers of the stratified epithelia of the vagina, substantially overlapping the distribution of Muc4/SMC. Furthermore, Muc4/SMC and ErbB2 association in different tissues of the female reproductive tract was demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation analysis. Interestingly, phosphorylated ErbB2 detected by anti-phospho-ErbB2 is primarily present at the apical surface of the oviduct. Thus, our results show that differentially localized forms of ErbB2 are recognized by different antibodies and raise interesting questions about the nature of the different forms of ErbB2, the mechanism for differential localization, and possible functions of ErbB2 in the female reproductive tract. They also raise a cautionary note about the use of different ErbB2 antibodies for expression and localization studies.

Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of the heterogeneous prostate-like glands (paraurethral gland) seen in female Brown-Norway rats

Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of the prostate-like glands (paraurethral gland) seen spontaneously in female Brown-Norway (BN) rats were investigated by gross, and light and electron microscopic examination. At 9- to 10-weeks-old, the paraurethral gland was detected in 50 out of 52 female animals examined (96.2%), and it was observed as single or paired structures located ventrolaterally in the urethra just caudal to neck of the urinary bladder. Microscopically, the glandular acini consisted of flat to cuboidal secretory epithelium surrounded by the smooth muscle. The glands displayed modest secreting activity, and a few secreting materials were observed in the acinar lumens. The main peripheral ducts were located in the urethral wall, and drained into the urethra on both sides. Ultrastructurally, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), numerous mitochondria and lysosomes, and secretory granules in the apical portion of the epithelial cells were noted, and basal cells were also observed. These gland epithelial cells showed positive reactions when stained for androgen receptor (AR), prostate specific antigen (PSA), or prostate specific acid phosphatase (PSAP). The nature of this paraurethral gland resembled that of the prostate gland in male rats. Thus, the paraurethral glands seen in the females were considered homologous to the prostate gland in males.

Expression and localization of luteinizing hormone receptor in the female mouse reproductive tract

The presence of the LH receptor (LHR) in nongonadal tissues of the reproductive tract has been reported, but localization studies have not been performed. Our objectives were to demonstrate the presence of LHR in the reproductive tract and to localize receptor expression. Reproductive age rats and mice were obtained and (125)I-hCG binding assays were performed on membrane preparations from the uterus, ovary, liver, and testis. In situ hybridizations were performed using (35)S-labeled antisense and sense RNA probes prepared from nucleotides 1-591 of the mouse LHR cDNA. Specific hCG binding was detected in membrane preparations from the ovary, uterus, and testis but not in the liver in both the rat and mouse. In the ovary, LHR mRNA was localized in theca cells, large follicles, and corpora lutea as expected. In the uterus, LHR mRNA was expressed in stromal cells of the endometrium and in the uterine serosa. Uterine smooth muscle cells had low levels of expression, and the endometrial epithelium was negative. In the oviduct, high levels of LHR expression were noted on the serosa and in subepithelial cells. Oviductal smooth muscle had low expression, and the epithelium was negative. We conclude that functional, nongonadal LHR are expressed in the mouse reproductive tract. The presence and localization of LHR expression in the mouse reproductive tract lay the foundation for transgenic models to address the physiologic role of these receptors.

A novel member of the netrin family, beta-netrin, shares homology with the beta chain of laminin: identification, expression, and functional characterization

The netrins are a family of laminin-related molecules. Here, we characterize a new member of the family, beta-netrin. beta-Netrin is homologous to the NH(2) terminus of laminin chain short arms; it contains a laminin-like domain VI and 3.5 laminin EGF repeats and a netrin C domain. Unlike other netrins, this new netrin is more related to the laminin beta chains, thus, its name beta-netrin. An initial analysis of the tissue distribution revealed that kidney, heart, ovary, retina, and the olfactory bulb were tissues of high expression. We have expressed the molecule in a eukaryotic cell expression system and made antibodies to the expressed product. Both in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were used to describe the cellular source of beta-netrin and where beta-netrin is deposited. beta-Netrin is a basement membrane component; it is present in the basement membranes of the vasculature, kidney, and ovaries. In addition, beta-netrin is expressed in a limited set of fiber tracts within the brain, including the lateral olfactory tract and the vomeronasal nerve. Functional studies were performed and show that beta-netrin promotes neurite elongation from olfactory bulb explants. Together, these data suggest that beta-netrin is important in neural, kidney, and vascular development.

Prostatic secretory protein (PSP94) expression in human female reproductive tissues, breast and in endometrial cancer cell lines

PSP94 (beta microseminoprotein, beta MSP) is one of the three major proteins secreted by the normal human prostate gland. Using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Southern blotting, PSP94 transcripts were shown in human endometrium, myometrium, ovary, breast, placenta and in the human endometrial cancer cell lines KLE and AN3 CA. Primers used in these studies were specific for human prostate PSP94, and were derived from its flanking non-coding regions. The results were confirmed by sequence analysis of two independently derived clones from normal human breast tissues and the other two from KLE cells respectively. The sequences were identical with the coding sequence of human prostate PSP94 cDNA. Using RNA from the endometrial tissues, two different transcripts of approximately 487 bp, equivalent to prostate PSP94 and approximately 381 bp, corresponding to prostate PSP57, its alternately spliced form, were amplified by RT-PCR. Human ovary, breast, placenta and endometrial cancer cell lines (KLE, AN3 CA), however, showed only the full length, approximately 487 bp, PSP94 transcript. We further demonstrated by in situ hybridization that PSP94 mRNA is expressed specifically in the glandular epithelial cells, and not in the stroma of both the human endometrial and breast tissues. Further, using image analysis of in situ hybridization data, the levels of PSP94 mRNA in the cycling endometrial tissues and in breast confirmed the differential levels of expression in the cycling endometrium (P<0.005). This study distinctly demonstrated significant expression of PSP94 mRNA in human uterine, breast and other female reproductive tissues as well in the endometrial cancer cell lines, suggesting that it may have a role in these tissues as a local autocrine paracrine factor.

Comparison of cytosolic p53 protein levels in the female genital tract and breast, and their tumors

Under normal conditions, p53 protein is thought to maintain genomic stability. We measured this parameter in healthy tissues from female breast and genital tract using a quantitative, highly sensitive luminometric assay. An organ-specific pattern of p53 expression became evident: breast parenchyma (n = 40, median p53: 0.0346 ng/mg protein) and ovarian tissue (n = 12, 0.063 ng/mg) demonstrated markedly higher p53 levels than endometrium (n = 24, 0.0065 ng/mg), myometrium (n = 31, 0.005 ng/mg) or uterine cervix tissue (n = 25, 0. 002 ng/mg). Malignant tumors derived from these organs maintained the pattern of p53 expression with ovarian cancers (n = 14, median: 0.84 ng/mg) exceeding all other tissue types examined. Generally, p53 concentrations in malignant tumors, but also in uterine myomas were significantly higher than those in healthy controls. Breast cancer tissues, subgrouped according to prognostic parameters, demonstrated the highest p53 concentrations in samples with atypical histology, grading II-III, negative steroid receptors, and in cases of positive axillary lymph nodes. The frequency of elevated p53 concentrations in cancer cytosols, based on organ-specific normal concentrations, varied between 62% in breast cancers and 100% in cervical carcinomas. Uterine myomas showed 6% of elevated values. Grade II-III breast carcinomas overexpressed p53 more often than those with grading I (p < 0.05). In all carcinomas, the frequencies of overexpressed p53 protein markedly exceeded the frequencies of mutated p53 gene mutations reported in the literature. In conclusion, our data indicate that the extent of p53 expression and overexpression is organ dependent. When data of other studies on primary breast cancers are included, elevated levels of p53 protein in malignant tumors to some extent may indicate p53 gene mutations and worse prognosis if they exceed a higher threshold.

Differential distribution of oestrogen receptor-alpha and -beta mRNAs in the female reproductive organ of rats as revealed by in situ hybridization

The cellular distribution of two oestrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, ERalpha and ERbeta mRNAs, was studied in the entire female reproductive organ of the rat using in situ hybridization. Expression of ERalpha and ERbeta mRNAs was predominant in the reproductive tract and ovary respectively. ERalpha mRNA had the most pronounced expression in epithelial cells and subepithelial stromal cells from the oviduct to the vagina, while in the ovary it was moderately detected in only the theca folliculi and interstitial glands. The oviduct showed a region-dependent expression of ERalpha mRNA: the isthmus had the most intense signals while the infundibulum revealed a low intensity of expression. Signals for ERbeta mRNA in the ovary were most intense in the granulosa cells of healthy follicles, whereas degenerating follicles lacked any significant expression. Less intense signals for ERbeta mRNA were localized in the theca folliculi and corpus luteum. Detectable levels of ERbeta mRNA were observed in the subepithelial stromal cells from the oviduct to the vagina. This study shows that the two ER subtypes are differentially expressed in cells and compartments of the reproductive organ, suggesting that the mediation of oestrogen action in these tissues may be accomplished through the respective predominant receptor.

Neuromusculature of the ovijector of ascaris suum (Ascaroidea, nematoda): an ultrastructural and immunocytochemical study

This study used electron microscopy and confocal scanning laser microscopy interfaced with cytochemistry to study neuromuscular interrelationships in the ovijector of Ascaris suum. An extensive nerve plexus with both FaRPergic and non-FaRPergic components extends over the outer surface of the ovijector. The non-FaRPergic component is derived from nerve branches of the ventral nerve cord, whereas the FaRPergic component emanates from two large FMRFamide-immunoreactive neurons. In the vagina vera, most myofibrils are circular in orientation and a number of them divide and run for short distances in longitudinal and diagonal directions, their myofilaments are also orientated in a variety of directions. Parallel nerve fibres run in tracts along the length of the vagina vera with branches that penetrate the muscle layers. The vagina uteri possesses a thicker hypodermis than that of the vagina vera. It appears rich in secretory and phagocytic vesicles and the luminal side is invested with an electron-dense substance. The musculature of the vagina uteri is less well developed than that of the vagina vera, being restricted to circular myofibrils, with an apparent diagonal arrangement of myofilaments. Also, the innervation is less extensive in the vagina uteri with many fibres returning to the vagina vera to rejoin the nerve net and others continuing into the uteri.

Sialomucin complex (Muc4) expression in the rat female reproductive tract

Previous studies in our laboratory demonstrated the presence of sialomucin complex (SMC)/Muc4 covering the rat uterine luminal epithelium. SMC/Muc4 expression in the uterus is regulated by estrogen and progesterone and lost at the time of receptivity. In contrast to this hormonal regulation at the uterine luminal surface, SMC/Muc4 in the uterine glandular epithelium, oviduct, cervix, and vagina was constitutively expressed at all stages of the estrous cycle. Furthermore, SMC was expressed in the cervix and vagina of the ovariectomized rat, even though it is not found in the uterine luminal epithelium. Both soluble and membrane-bound forms of SMC were present in these tissues. Immunohistochemical analyses showed distinctive localization patterns of SMC in the various tissues during the estrous cycle. Moreover, the previously unreported expression of SMC/Muc4 in the isthmus, ampulla, and infundibulum of the oviduct suggests potential functions in gamete development. These results indicate that SMC/Muc4 is expressed in most tissues of the female reproductive tract, in which it may have multiple functions. However, hormonal regulation appears to be restricted to the uterine luminal epithelium.

Association of indicators of bacterial vaginosis with a female genital tract factor that induces expression of HIV-1

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship of bacterial vaginosis and bacterial vaginosis-associated microorganisms with an HIV-inducing factor (HIF) found in cervicovaginal lavage.

DESIGN

A total of 26 cervicovaginal lavage specimens collected from 17 women were used in this study to determine if HIF was significantly associated with features consistent with bacterial vaginosis.

METHODS

Patients were evaluated for various clinical features including age, HIV status and stage, CD4 cell counts, clinical diagnosis of gynecological infections, vaginal pH, Gram stains of vaginal fluid, phase of menstruation, and presence of cervical dysplasia. Cervicovaginal lavage specimens were analyzed for the presence of HIF by U1 bioassay. The presence of Gardnerella vaginalis, and general Mycoplasmataceae, and specifically Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, M. fermentans, M. genitalium in cervicovaginal lavage were determined by semiquantitative PCR.

RESULTS

Eleven cervicovaginal lavage samples from seven women were HIF-positive and 15 cervicovaginal lavage samples from 11 women were HIF-negative (patient No. 8 had two HIF-negative cervicovaginal lavage and one HIF-positive cervicovaginal lavage). The following parameters were significantly associated with HIF: abnormal vaginal fluid pH (>4.5) (P = 0.006), Gram stains indicative of bacterial vaginosis (P = 0.007), normal menstrual cycle (P = 0.0007) and PCR detection and relative quantity of M. hominis (P = 0.0003, P = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that HIF is closely associated with features of bacterial vaginosis.

Distribution of progesterone receptor in female mouse tissues

Two novel antibodies against the mammalian progesterone receptor (PR) were raised and characterized to study the distribution of PR and the effect of estrogen on PR expression in various female murine tissues by immunohistochemistry. There were estrogen-independent constitutive PR expressions in the smooth muscle cells of uterus, uterine blood vessels, urinary bladder, duodenum, and jejunum of ovariectomized mice. Uterine stromal cells, capsular cells of kidney and adrenal gland, and the epithelial cells of submandibular gland expressed PR constitutively. PR expression was detected in some thymic cells and the number of PR-positive thymic cells increased markedly after estrogen treatment. Estrogen induced PR expression in the epithelial cells of uterus, vagina, urethra, and skin and the stromal cells of vagina, urethra, and pancreatic ducts, as well as the smooth muscle cells of some blood vessels. These results suggest cell-specific progesterone actions in the urinary tract, skin, and gastrointestinal organs, on the immune functions, and on the regulation of local blood flow.

Molecular cloning of cDNA for equine follistatin and its gene expression in the reproductive tissues of the mare

A cDNA clone encoding equine follistatin was isolated from an equine ovarian cDNA library. Out of 1.2 x 10(5) independent clones screened, one positive clone was isolated and its cDNA sequence determined. The isolated clone, named EQ-FS-1, contained a complete open reading frame encoding 344 amino acid residues. The similarity of its deduced amino acid sequence to these of other mammalian species was greater than 95%. Although its expression level varied among the tissues examined, follistatin mRNA was detected in the equine uteroplacental tissues, follicles and corpora lutea by Northern blot analysis. In situ hybridization revealed that the expression of follistatin mRNA in the equine follicle was restricted exclusively to granulosa cells. When the expression pattern of follistatin mRNA in the equine uteroplacental tissues from mid- to late-pregnancy was examined, it was shown that its expression level tended to decrease after mid-pregnancy. These results suggest that follistatin acts in the reproductive tissues of the mare in maintaining pregnancy.

Localization of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in the bovine reproductive tract

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) can increase embryo development to the blastocyst stage in cattle. The objective of the present study was to determine whether GM-CSF is present in the reproductive tract. Using Western blotting, immunoreactive GM-CSF was detected in uterine flushings from cows at days 0, 7, and 14 of the estrous cycle and from cows at days 14-17 of pregnancy. Also, GM-CSF was localized immunohistochemically to endometrium and oviduct. Patterns of immunohistochemical localization and intensity of reaction product were similar for all days of the estrous cycle. While present in several cell types, immunoreactive product in the endometrium was greatest in epithelium (especially luminal epithelium). Immunoreactive GM-CSF was also localized to epithelium in ampullary and isthmic regions of the oviduct, with intensity greater in ampulla. Staining was observed for both ciliated and non-ciliated cells. In conclusion, the bovine oviduct and endometrium contain immunoreactive GM-CSF and this molecule is present in uterine secretions. Thus, this cytokine is a potentially important intracellular regulator of endometrial, oviductal and embryonic function during early pregnancy in the cow.

Evaluation of immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1) protease and IgA1 protease-inhibitory activity in human female genital infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1) protease, an enzyme that selectively cleaves human IgA1, may be a virulence factor for pathogenic organisms such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Host protection from the effects of IgA1 protease includes antibody-mediated inhibition of IgA1 protease activity, and it is believed that the relative balance between IgA1 protease and inhibitory antibodies contributes to the pathogenesis of disease caused by IgA1 protease-producing organisms. We have examined the levels of these two opposing factors in genital tract secretions and sera from women with uncomplicated infection with N. gonorrhoeae. When IgA1 in cervical mucus was examined by Western blotting, no evidence of cleavage fragments characteristic of IgA1 protease activity was seen in gonococcus-infected or control patients. Cleavage fragments typical of IgA1 protease were detected, however, after the addition of exogenous IgA1 protease to cervical mucus. Degraded IgA1 was detected in some vaginal wash samples, but the fragment pattern was not typical of IgA1 protease activity. All N. gonorrhoeae isolates from the infected patients produced IgA1 protease in vitro. All but two serum samples and 16 of 65 cervical mucus samples displayed inhibitory activity against gonococcal IgA1 protease, but there was no significant difference in the level of inhibitory activity between gonococcus-infected and noninfected patients in either cervical mucus or serum. There was no difference in the levels of IgA1 protease-inhibitory activity in serum or cervical mucus collected from patients at recruitment and 2 weeks later. These results suggest that cleavage of IgA1 by gonococcal IgA1 protease within the lumen of the female lower genital tract is unlikely to be a significant factor in the pathogenesis of infections by N. gonorrhoeae.

Isolation and characterization of an estrogen binding protein which may integrate the plethora of estrogenic actions in non-reproductive organs

A putative estrogen receptor (pER) from mouse liver has been characterized. The heterodimer protein (81-84 kDa) consists of two covalently bound subunits (61-67 and 17-27 kDa) with following characteristics: sedimentation constant--4.9 S; IP--4.8; dissociation constant (Kd) for estradiol-17beta binding--0.7 nmol; binding sites--0.746 pmol/mg protein; relative binding affinity--estradiol-17beta--100, estrone--80 and estriol--30; specificity--does not bind, other natural steroids, synthetic estrogens, antiestrogens and bioflavonoids. Importantly, immunosuppressants, neuroleptic and carcinogens influence 3H-estradiol-17beta binding to pER. Interestingly, pER is a serine phosphatase and this may have relevancy to estrogen action in Alzheimer's disease. The polyclonal anti-pER antibody does not react with estrogen receptors (ER). ER antibody does not react with pER. Remarkably, anti-pER antibody reacts with calcineurin, a brain phosphatase and anti-calcineurin antibody reacts with pER. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that pER is undetectable in reproductive organs (except ovary). It is localized on the plasma or the nuclear membranes in some, in cytoplasm and/or nucleus in other cells of non-reproductive organs (skeletal, neural, vascular, hair and retina), and in tumors (mammary, endometrial and prostate cancers, and prostatic hyperplasia). The information presented justifies the proposition that pER may mediate the estrogenic actions in non-reproductive organs.

A conserved Hox axis in the mouse and human female reproductive system: late establishment and persistent adult expression of the Hoxa cluster genes

The mammalian female reproductive system arises from the uniform paramesonephric duct. The molecular mechanisms that establish differential development along this axis are unknown. We determined the pattern and timing of genes of the Hoxa axis in the development of the Müllerian tract. Hoxa-9, Hoxa-10, Hoxa-11, and Hoxa-13 are all expressed along the length of the paramesonephric duct in the embryonic mouse. After birth, a spatial Hox axis is established, corresponding to the postnatal differentiation of this organ system in the mouse. Hoxa-9 is expressed in the fallopian tubes, Hoxa-10 in the uterus, Hoxa-11 in the uterus and uterine cervix, and Hoxa-13 in the upper vagina. This expression pattern follows the paradigm of spatial colinearity but is a novel exception to temporal colinearity that has been considered typical of Hox genes. These genes remain expressed in the adult mouse and are expressed in the same pattern in the human. The female reproductive system undergoes dramatic structural and functional changes during the estrous cycle and in pregnancy, retaining a high degree of developmental plasticity. The late establishment of a Hox axis and persistent expression of Hox genes in the adult may play an important role in preserving this plasticity.

Preputial sebocyte 5alpha-reductase isoform specificity

We determined whether the 5alpha-reductase (5alpha-R) isozyme specificity in rat preputial sebocytes is in accordance with that of sebaceous glands (type 1 isoform) or with that of other genital tract androgen-dependent organs (type 2). Immunostaining indicated expression of type 1 5alpha-R in preputial epithelial cells in the gland as well as in culture. Northern blots and ribonuclease protection assays both showed the presence of the type 1 isozyme in preputial sebocytes, with little if any expression of the type 2 messenger RNA. Ribonuclease protection assay demonstrated that both homogenized preputial gland and freshly dispersed preputial cells express 2-fold more 5alpha-R type 1 messenger RNA than does skin and 7-fold more than cultured preputial cells. Since cultured preputial cells do not fully differentiate in monolayer culture, these findings suggest that 5alpha-R is increasingly expressed as sebaceous cells differentiate. The predominance of the type 1 isoform in preputial sebocytes is important because it indicates programming by a skin- and sebocyte-specific signal in the midst of the genital tract where the type 2 isoform otherwise predominates.

Folate receptors in malignant and benign tissues of human female genital tract

We have characterized the folate receptor in malignant and benign tissues of human female genital tract (Fallopian tube and benign and malignant tissues of uterus). Radioligand binding displayed characteristics similar to those of other folate binding proteins. Those include a high-affinity type of binding (K = 10(10)M-1), apparent positive cooperativity, a slow dissociation at pH 7.4 becoming rapid at pH 3.5, and inhibition of binding by folate analogues. The gel filtration profile of Triton X-100 solubilized tissue contained two large peaks of 3H-folate labelled protein (> = 130 and 100 kDa) as well as a 25 kDa peak. Only a single band of 70 kDa was seen on SDS-PAGE immunoblotting. The large molecular size forms on gel filtration appear to represent folate receptors having a hydrophobic membrane anchor inserted into Triton X-100 micelles. The folate receptor of female genital tract showed cross-reactivity in ELISA and positive immunostaining with rabbit antibodies against human milk folate binding protein. Variations in the ratio of immunoresponse to total high affinity folic acid binding suggests the presence of multiple isoforms of the receptor in different types of malignant and benign tissues.

Neuropeptide Y1 receptors in the rat genital tract

Using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, the expression of type 1 neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors (Y1-Rs) has been demonstrated in the rat genital tract. In the male Y1-R mRNA and Y1-R-like immunoreactivity (LI) were found in smooth muscles of predominantly arterioles and small arteries inside testis. Fibers showing NPY-LI could not be detected within testis but only in the tunica albuginea. These Y1-Rs are suggested to mediate vasoconstriction, possibly activated by NPY released from nerves in the tunica albuginea. In the female rat Y1-R mRNA, but not Y1-R-LI was found in vascular smooth muscles of arteries in the ovary and oviduct. In the oviduct Y1-R mRNA was also detected in the non-vascular smooth muscle layer. Fibers showing NPY-LI were found around blood vessels both in the ovary and oviduct. In the female genital tract also Y1-Rs may thus be involved in regulatory mechanisms mediating, for example, vasoconstriction.

PreproVIP-derived peptides in the human female genital tract: expression and biological function

The aim of the study was to elucidate the localization, distribution, colocalization and biological effect of preproVIP-derived peptides in the human female genital tract. Radioimmunoassays applying antisera against the five functional domains of the VIP precursor in combination with immunohistochemistry were used. The effect of preproVIP 22-79, preproVIP 111-122 and preproVIP 156-170 on genital smooth muscle activity in the Fallopian tube was investigated in vitro and compared to that of VIP. All the preproVIP-derived peptides were expressed throughout the genital tract in neuronal elements closely related to the epithelial lining, perivascular tissue and non-vascular smooth muscle. Colocalization of the peptides was evidenced by double immunostaining. In contrast to VIP, preproVIP 22-79, preproVIP 111-122 and preproVIP 156-170 did not cause a significant inhibition of smooth muscle activity. The findings indicate that tissue-specific differences in post-translational processing of preproVIP exist in the female genital tract.

Mouse vaginal opening is an apoptosis-dependent process which can be prevented by the overexpression of Bcl2

In the mouse, opening of the vaginal cavity to the skin is a late event, occurring around the fifth week of life; it can be induced in sexually immature mice by beta-estradiol injections. We have generated two lines of transgenic mice expressing the human Bcl2 protein in a variety of tissues. The vaginal cavity of the transgenic females remained permanently closed, a condition completely resistant to beta-estradiol injections; this was accompanied by a considerable distension of the genital tract. Histologic studies of vaginal sections at the time of opening to the skin in normal mice showed, by the TUNEL method which detects nuclei with fragmented DNA characteristic of apoptosis, that this event coincides with extensive apoptosis in the lower part of the vaginal mucosa, a process prevented in the bcl2 transgenic mice, which express Bcl2 in suprabasal epithelial cells and in subepithelial cells of the vaginal mucosa. In contrast, two lines of mice bearing a Bcl2 transgene placed under the control of a K10 keratin promoter, whose expression is restricted to the suprabasal layers of the epidermis, had a normal phenotype. Eyelids' formation and opening of the external ear canals, which also occur after birth in the mouse, were not altered in any of these transgenic lines; histological study of eye and ear sections at the time of these events failed to detect apoptosis. In conclusion, the tissue remodeling required to complete maturation of the mouse female genital tract at the time of puberty is an hormonally triggered apoptosis-dependent process.

Detection of human defensin 5 in reproductive tissues

OBJECTIVES

This study was undertaken to determine whether tissue-specific defensins are expressed within female reproductive tissues.

STUDY DESIGN

Messenger ribonucleic acid from amnion, chorion, endometrium, endocervix, myometrium, placenta, small intestine, peripheral blood lymphocytes, and cervical, endometrial, and trophoblast cell lines was reverse transcribed with a 3'-RACE adapter. 3'-RACE polymerase chain reaction was conducted with an upstream human defensin 5 primer and 3'-RACE adapter primer. Polymerase chain reaction products hybridizing to a human defensin 5 probe were cloned for sequence analysis. Sequence data were compared against a nucleotide sequence database, and secondary structure predictions were made.

RESULTS

Chorionic tissue, endocervical tissue, endometrial tissue, and an endometrial cell line all demonstrated a single hybridizing 362 bp polymerase chain reaction product. Sequence analysis of all clones demonstrated near-perfect identity with human defensin 5.

CONCLUSIONS

Human endocervix, endometrium, and chorion express defensin 5 at the level of transcription. These findings suggest that a previously unrecognized mechanism of protecting female reproductive tissues against infection, by means of a natural antimicrobial system (defensins), may be present.