1
|
Lo Faro AF, Sprega G, Beradinelli D, Tini A, Poyatos L, Papaseit E, Berretta P, Di Giorgi A, Farre M, Takaishvili N, Farkas T, Busardò FP, Chankvetadze B. Development of enantioselective high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the quantitative determination of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) and its phase-1 metabolites in human biological fluids. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 238:115768. [PMID: 37979525 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
In the present study enantioselective high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods were developed for the quantitative determination of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) and its major phase-1 metabolites 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) in human plasma, sweat, oral fluid (OF) and urine. The simultaneous separation of all these compounds and their respective enantioseparation was accomplished on two polysaccharide-based chiral columns. The Lux AMP column with a proprietary chiral selector enabled baseline separation of the enantiomers of MDMA, HMA and HMMA while MDA enantiomers could not be separated with this column under the experimental conditions used in this study. The Lux i-Amylose-3 column based on amylose tris(5-chloro-3-methylphenylcarbamate) as chiral selector baseline-separated the enantiomers of MDMA, HMMA and MDA while the enantiomers of HMA could not be separated. Thus, the various samples were analyzed by using both columns alternatively in combinations with acetonitrile containing 25% (v/v) 5 mM ammonium bicarbonate buffer at pH 11.0 as mobile phase. Analysis time was less than 4 min with the Lux AMP column and less than 6 min with the Lux i-Amylose-3 column. Both methods were validated and applied to the enantioselective determination of MDMA and its phase-I metabolites in human biological fluids, and enantioselective metabolism of MDMA was confirmed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Giorgia Sprega
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Diletta Beradinelli
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Anstasio Tini
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Lourdes Poyatos
- Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP, IGTP)- Universitat Aut`onoma de Barcelona, Unitat Docent HUGTiP, Badalona, Spain
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP, IGTP)- Universitat Aut`onoma de Barcelona, Unitat Docent HUGTiP, Badalona, Spain
| | - Paolo Berretta
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanit`a, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Di Giorgi
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanit`a, Rome, Italy
| | - Magì Farre
- Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP, IGTP)- Universitat Aut`onoma de Barcelona, Unitat Docent HUGTiP, Badalona, Spain
| | - Nino Takaishvili
- Tbilisi State University, Institute of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, School of Exact and Natural Sciences, 0179 Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Tivadar Farkas
- Phenomenex Inc., 411 Madrid Ave., Torrance 90501, CA, USA
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Bezhan Chankvetadze
- Tbilisi State University, Institute of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, School of Exact and Natural Sciences, 0179 Tbilisi, Georgia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Johnson-Ferguson L, Shanahan L, Bechtiger L, Steinhoff A, Zimmermann J, Baumgartner MR, Binz TM, Eisner M, Ribeaud D, Quednow BB. Associations of psychoactive substances and steroid hormones in hair: Findings relevant to stress research from a large cohort of young adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 157:106369. [PMID: 37639800 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Epidemiological studies increasingly use hair samples to assess people's cumulative exposure to steroid hormones, but how the use of different psychoactive substances may affect steroid hormone levels in hair is, so far, largely unknown. The current study addresses this gap by establishing the substance exposure correlates of cortisol, cortisone, and testosterone in hair, while also accounting for a number of relevant covariates. METHOD Data came from a large urban community-sample of young adults with a high prevalence of substance use (N = 1002, mean age=20.6 years, 50.2% female), who provided 3 cm of hair samples. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantified cortisol, cortisone, and testosterone, as well as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy"), cocaine, several opioids, and their respective metabolites. Multiple linear regression models with covariates were used to predict steroid hormone levels from substance exposure in a four-step approach: In the full sample, low and high substance hair concentrations (median split) were first tested against no use for each substance individually (step 1) and for all substances together (step 2). Then, within the participants with any substance in hair only, the continuous hair concentration of each substance in pg/mg (step 3) and finally of all substances together, were regressed (step 4). RESULTS Low, high, and continuous levels of THC in hair were robustly associated with higher levels of cortisol (sig. in step 1 low THC: β = 0.29, p = .021; high THC: β = 0.42, p = .001; step 2: low THC: β = 0.27, p = 0.036, and high THC: β = 0.40, p = .004, and step 4: β = 0.12, p = .041). Participants with high MDMA levels had higher levels of cortisone without adjusting for other substances (step 1: β = 0.34, p = .026), but this effect was not significant in the other models. While high THC levels were associated with lower levels of testosterone in step 2 (β = -0.35, p = .018), MDMA concentration was positively related to testosterone concentration with and without adjusting for other substances (step 3: β = 0.24, p = .041; step 4: β = 0.17, 95%, p = .015) in male participants. CONCLUSION The use of psychoactive substances, especially of cannabis and ecstasy, should be considered in studies investigating steroid hormones in hair.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Johnson-Ferguson
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Lilly Shanahan
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Laura Bechtiger
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annekatrin Steinhoff
- University Hospital of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3000 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Josua Zimmermann
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Zurich Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tina M Binz
- University Hospital of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bolligenstrasse 111, 3000 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Eisner
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Denis Ribeaud
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
van de Wetering R, Vorster JA, Geyrhofer S, Harvey JE, Keyzers RA, Schenk S. Behavioral metabolomics: how behavioral data can guide metabolomics research on neuropsychiatric disorders. Metabolomics 2023; 19:69. [PMID: 37530897 PMCID: PMC10397151 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-023-02034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Metabolomics produces vast quantities of data but determining which metabolites are the most relevant to the disease or disorder of interest can be challenging. OBJECTIVES This study sought to demonstrate how behavioral models of psychiatric disorders can be combined with metabolomics research to overcome this limitation. METHODS We designed a preclinical, untargeted metabolomics procedure, that focuses on the determination of central metabolites relevant to substance use disorders that are (a) associated with changes in behavior produced by acute drug exposure and (b) impacted by repeated drug exposure. Untargeted metabolomics analysis was carried out on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry data obtained from 336 microdialysis samples. Samples were collected from the medial striatum of male Sprague-Dawley (N = 21) rats whilst behavioral data were simultaneously collected as part of a (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced behavioral sensitization experiment. Analysis was conducted by orthogonal partial least squares, where the Y variable was the behavioral data, and the X variables were the relative concentrations of the 737 detected features. RESULTS MDMA and its derivatives, serotonin, and several dopamine/norepinephrine metabolites were the greatest predictors of acute MDMA-produced behavior. Subsequent univariate analyses showed that repeated MDMA exposure produced significant changes in MDMA metabolism, which may contribute to the increased abuse liability of the drug as a function of repeated exposure. CONCLUSION These findings highlight how the inclusion of behavioral data can guide metabolomics data analysis and increase the relevance of the results to the phenotype of interest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ross van de Wetering
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.
| | - Jan A Vorster
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Sophie Geyrhofer
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Joanne E Harvey
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Susan Schenk
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
De Felice B, Parolini M. Exposure to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) induced biochemical but not behavioral effects in Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 100:104163. [PMID: 37257268 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2023.104163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Among amphetamine like stimulants (ATS), the 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is often detected in sewage and surface waters, representing a potential threat for organisms because of its peculiar mechanism of action (i.e., stimulatory and hallucinogenic). The present study aimed at investigating biochemical (i.e., oxidative stress and energetic biomarkers) and behavioral (i.e., swimming activity) effects induced by a 21-days exposure to two concentrations (50 ng/L and 500 ng/L) of MDMA towards Daphnia magna. The amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the activity of antioxidant (SOD, CAT, GPx) and detoxifying (GST) enzymes and lipid peroxidation were measured as oxidative stress-related endpoints. Total energy content was estimated from the measurement of protein, carbohydrate and lipid content to assess energy reserves. The modulation of swimming activity was assessed as behavioral endpoint. Slight effects of MDMA exposure on oxidative stress responses and energy reserves were observed, while no alterations of the swimming behavior was noted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice De Felice
- University of Milan, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Via Celoria 26, I-20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Marco Parolini
- University of Milan, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Via Celoria 26, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Evans SE, Bagnall J, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Enantioselective degradation of amphetamine-like environmental micropollutants (amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA and MDA) in urban water. Environ Pollut 2016; 215:154-163. [PMID: 27182976 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper aims to understand enantioselective transformation of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine) and MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine) during wastewater treatment and in receiving waters. In order to undertake a comprehensive evaluation of the processes occurring, stereoselective transformation of amphetamine-like compounds was studied, for the first time, in controlled laboratory experiments: receiving water and activated sludge simulating microcosm systems. The results demonstrated that stereoselective degradation, via microbial metabolic processes favouring S-(+)-enantiomer, occurred in all studied amphetamine-based compounds in activated sludge simulating microcosms. R-(-)-enantiomers were not degraded (or their degradation was limited) which proves their more recalcitrant nature. Out of all four amphetamine-like compounds studied, amphetamine was the most susceptible to biodegradation. It was followed by MDMA and methamphetamine. Photochemical processes facilitated degradation of MDMA and methamphetamine but they were not, as expected, stereoselective. Preferential biodegradation of S-(+)-methamphetamine led to the formation of S-(+)-amphetamine. Racemic MDMA was stereoselectively biodegraded by activated sludge which led to its enrichment with R-(-)-enantiomer and formation of S-(+)-MDA. Interestingly, there was only mild stereoselectivity observed during MDMA degradation in rivers. This might be due to different microbial communities utilised during activated sludge treatment and those present in the environment. Kinetic studies confirmed the recalcitrant nature of MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sian E Evans
- University of Bath, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - John Bagnall
- University of Bath, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ort C, van Nuijs ALN, Berset JD, Bijlsma L, Castiglioni S, Covaci A, de Voogt P, Emke E, Fatta-Kassinos D, Griffiths P, Hernández F, González-Mariño I, Grabic R, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Mastroianni N, Meierjohann A, Nefau T, Östman M, Pico Y, Racamonde I, Reid M, Slobodnik J, Terzic S, Thomaidis N, Thomas KV. Spatial differences and temporal changes in illicit drug use in Europe quantified by wastewater analysis. Addiction 2014; 109:1338-52. [PMID: 24861844 PMCID: PMC4204159 DOI: 10.1111/add.12570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To perform wastewater analyses to assess spatial differences and temporal changes of illicit drug use in a large European population. DESIGN Analyses of raw wastewater over a 1-week period in 2012 and 2013. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Catchment areas of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across Europe, as follows: 2012: 25 WWTPs in 11 countries (23 cities, total population 11.50 million); 2013: 47 WWTPs in 21 countries (42 cities, total population 24.74 million). MEASUREMENTS Excretion products of five illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy, methamphetamine, cannabis) were quantified in wastewater samples using methods based on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. FINDINGS Spatial differences were assessed and confirmed to vary greatly across European metropolitan areas. In general, results were in agreement with traditional surveillance data, where available. While temporal changes were substantial in individual cities and years (P ranging from insignificant to <10(-3) ), overall means were relatively stable. The overall mean of methamphetamine was an exception (apparent decline in 2012), as it was influenced mainly by four cities. CONCLUSIONS Wastewater analysis performed across Europe provides complementary evidence on illicit drug consumption and generally concurs with traditional surveillance data. Wastewater analysis can measure total illicit drug use more quickly and regularly than is the current norm for national surveys, and creates estimates where such data does not exist.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Ort
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume ICastellón de la Plana, Spain
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS—Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario NegriMilan, Italy
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Pim de Voogt
- KWR Watercycle Research InstituteNieuwegein, the Netherlands
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Erik Emke
- KWR Watercycle Research InstituteNieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | | | - Paul Griffiths
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug AddictionLisbon, Portugal
| | - Félix Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume ICastellón de la Plana, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- IIAA—Institute of Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de CompostelaSantiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Roman Grabic
- University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of HydrocenosesVodnany, Czech Republic
| | | | - Nicola Mastroianni
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSICBarcelona, Spain
| | - Axel Meierjohann
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Åbo Akademi UniversityÅbo, Finland
| | - Thomas Nefau
- Laboratoire Santé Publique Environnement, University of Paris SudChâtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Marcus Östman
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå UniversityUmeå, Sweden
| | - Yolanda Pico
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, University of ValenciaValencia, Spain
| | - Ines Racamonde
- IIAA—Institute of Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de CompostelaSantiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Malcolm Reid
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA)Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Senka Terzic
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute BijenickaZagreb, Croatia
| | - Nikolaos Thomaidis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of AthensAthens, Greece
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA)Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Desrosiers NA, Barnes AJ, Hartman RL, Scheidweiler KB, Kolbrich-Spargo EA, Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Huestis MA. Oral fluid and plasma 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and metabolite correlation after controlled oral MDMA administration. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:4067-76. [PMID: 23471370 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6848-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2012] [Revised: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oral fluid (OF) offers a noninvasive sample collection for drug testing. However, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) in OF has not been adequately characterized in comparison to plasma. We administered oral low-dose (1.0 mg/kg) and high-dose (1.6 mg/kg) MDMA to 26 participants and collected simultaneous OF and plasma specimens for up to 143 h after dosing. We compared OF/plasma (OF/P) ratios, time of initial detection (t first), maximal concentrations (C max), time of peak concentrations (t max), time of last detection (t last), clearance, and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA)-to-MDMA ratios over time. For OF MDMA and MDA, C max was higher, t last was later, and clearance was slower compared to plasma. For OF MDA only, t first was later compared to plasma. Median (range) OF/P ratios were 5.6 (0.1-52.3) for MDMA and 3.7 (0.7-24.3) for MDA. OF and plasma concentrations were weakly but significantly correlated (MDMA: R(2) = 0.438, MDA: R(2) = 0.197, p < 0.0001). Median OF/P ratios were significantly higher following high dose administration: MDMA low = 5.2 (0.1-40.4), high = 6.0 (0.4-52.3, p < 0.05); MDA low = 3.3 (0.7-17.1), high = 4.1 (0.9-24.3, p < 0.001). There was a large inter-subject variation in OF/P ratios. The MDA/MDMA ratios in plasma were higher than those in OF (p < 0.001), and the MDA/MDMA ratios significantly increased over time in OF and plasma. The MDMA and MDA concentrations were higher in OF than in plasma. OF and plasma concentrations were correlated, but large inter-subject variability precludes the estimation of plasma concentrations from OF.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie A Desrosiers
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutic Research Branch, NIDA IRP, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Lee S, Kim J, In S, Choi H, Oh SM, Jang CG, Chung KH. Development of a simultaneous analytical method for selected anorectics, methamphetamine, MDMA, and their metabolites in hair using LC-MS/MS to prove anorectics abuse. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:1385-94. [PMID: 22460079 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5950-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Owing to the tight control of methamphetamine, it is presumed that phentermine, an amphetamine-type anorectic, has recently been considered a supplement for methamphetamine abusers in Korea. In addition, the abuse of other anorectics obtained by inappropriate means has become a social issue. Hair is a useful specimen to prove chronic drug use. Therefore, an analytical method for the simultaneous detection of phentermine, phendimetrazine, amfepramone, fenfluramine, mazindol, methamphetamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), as well as their metabolites, which covers the major amphetamines and anorectic agents in Korea, in hair was established and validated using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The drugs and their metabolites in hair were extracted using 1 % HCl in methanol and then filtered and analyzed by LC-MS/MS with electrospray ionization in positive mode. The validation results for selectivity, linearity, matrix effect, recovery, process efficiency, intra- and interassay precision and accuracy, and processed sample stability were satisfactory. The limits of detection ranged from 0.025 to 1 ng/10 mg hair and the limits of quantification were 0.25 ng/10 mg hair for every analyte except mazindol and phentermine, for which they were 10 ng/10 mg hair. The method was successfully applied for the segmental determination of selected anorectics, methamphetamine, MDMA, and their metabolites in hair from 39 drug suspects. Among the anorectics, phentermine and/or phendimetrazine were identified with or without methamphetamine in the hair samples. Closer supervision of the inappropriate use of anorectics is necessary. Also, hair analysis is useful for monitoring the abuse potential of unnoticed drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sooyeun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Dalseo-gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pal R, Megharaj M, Kirkbride KP, Heinrich T, Naidu R. Biotic and abiotic degradation of illicit drugs, their precursor, and by-products in soil. Chemosphere 2011; 85:1002-1009. [PMID: 21777940 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.06.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2011] [Revised: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This study presents the first systematic information on the degradation patterns of clandestine drug laboratory chemicals in soil. The persistence of five compounds - parent drugs (methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)), precursor (pseudoephedrine), and synthetic by-products N-formylmethylamphetamine and 1-benzyl-3-methylnaphthalene) - were investigated in laboratory scale for 1 year in three different South Australian soils both under non-sterile and sterile conditions. The results of the degradation study indicated that 1-benzyl-3-methylnaphthalene and methamphetamine persist for a long time in soil compared to MDMA and pseudoephedrine; N-formylmethylamphetamine exhibits intermediate persistence. The role of biotic versus abiotic soil processes on the degradation of target compounds was also varied significantly for different soils as well as with the progress in incubation period. The degradation of methamphetamine and 1-benzyl-3-methylnaphthalene can be considered as predominantly biotic as no measureable changes in concentrations were recorded in the sterile soils within a 1 year period. The results of the present work will help forensic and environmental scientists to precisely determine the environmental impact of chemicals associated with clandestine drug manufacturing laboratories.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raktim Pal
- Centre for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kirilly E. Long-term neuronal damage and recovery after a single dose of MDMA: expression and distribution of serotonin transporter in the rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2010; 12:413-423. [PMID: 20962361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
"Ecstasy", 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), an amphetamine analogue is one of the most widely used recreational drugs. In spite of the fact that neurotoxic effects of MDMA has been found in several species from rodents to non-human primates, and results increasingly point to damage also in human MDMA users, data about the sensitivity of different brain areas and the recovery after neuronal damage are scarce. Serotonin transporter (5-HTT) mRNA in the raphe nuclei also has not been examined. Humans with genetic predisposition for the slow metabolism of MDMA, the so-called "poor metabolizers" of debrisoquin are at higher risk. Five- 9% of the Caucasian population is considered to carry this phenotype. These studies were carried out in Dark Agouti rats, a special strain that show decreased microsomal CYP2D1 isoenzyme activity, and thus may serve as a model of vulnerable human users. These works were designed to characterize MDMA-induced damage and recovery of the serotonergic system including sleep and morphological changes within 180 days. In our experiments we investigated the 5-HTT mRNA expression in the brainstem and medullary raphe nuclei, 5-HTT immunoreactive (IR) fibre densities in several brain areas, and 16 functional measures of sleep in response to a single dose of +/- MDMA (15mg\kg). Furthermore, behavioural experiments were performed 21 days after MDMA treatment. We found similar changes in 5-HTT mRNA expression in the examined raphe nuclei, namely transient increases 7 days after MDMA treatment followed by transient decreases at 21 days. Significant (20-40%), widespread reductions in 5-HTT-IR fibre density were detected in most brain areas at 7 and 21 days after MDMA administration. All cortical, but only some brainstem areas were damaged. Parallel to the neuronal damage we observed significant reductions in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep latency, increased fragmentation of sleep and increases in delta power spectra in non-REM sleep. At 180 days almost all functional changes in sleep were normalized together with 5-HTT mRNA expression in the examined raphe nuclei and the recovery of 5-HTT-IR fibre density in most brain areas. Our results also suggest that the acute MDMA administration abolished aggressive behaviour but MDMA pretreatment and the consequent depletion of serotonergic terminals did not affect aggression. Our findings concerning the changes detected in 5-HTT mRNA expression and fibre density indicate lasting impairment of the serotonergic system and suggest that a single use of MDMA may be associated with long-lasting cognitive, learning, memory and mood deficits and sleep disturbances particularly when a constellation of genetic vulnerability and certain environmental factors are present. Our data provide further evidence for the connection between altered serotonergic functions and sleep disturbance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Kirilly
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmacodynamics, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Shima N, Kamata H, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H, Sakuma T, Nemoto N. Direct determination of glucuronide and sulfate of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine, the main metabolite of MDMA, in human urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 857:123-9. [PMID: 17643356 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2007] [Revised: 07/01/2007] [Accepted: 07/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and reliable LC-ESI-MS procedure for the simultaneous determination of MDMA and its five metabolites including 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) conjugates has been established following the synthesis of two HMMA conjugates, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine-glucuronide (HMMA-Glu) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine-sulfate (HMMA-Sul). Pretreatment of urine samples with methanol and LC-MS employing a C(18) semi-micro column with a gradient elution program provided the successful separations and MS determinations of these analytes within 20 min. Upon applying the method to MDMA users' urine specimens, HMMA-Glu and HMMA-Sul have been directly determined, suggesting the superiority of sulfation to glucuronidation in the HMMA phase II metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noriaki Shima
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-Ward, Osaka, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bomsien S, Skopp G. An in vitro approach to potential methadone metabolic-inhibition interactions. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2007; 63:821-7. [PMID: 17598095 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-007-0327-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to assess the drug interaction potential of psychotropic medication on methadone N-demethylation using cDNA-expressed cytochrome P450 CYP enzymes. METHODS Methadone was incubated with various drugs (n = 10) and cDNA-expressed CYP3A4, CYP2D6, CYP2B6, CYP2C19 and CYP1A2 enzymes to screen for their inhibition potency. The nature of enzyme selective activity for inhibition was further investigated for potent inhibitors. To test for a mechanism-based component in inhibition, all substances were tested with preincubation and without. 2-Ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) concentration was determined by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry following liquid/liquid extraction. RESULTS Formation of EDDP was catalysed by CYP3A4, CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. The N-demethylation of methadone was preferentially inhibited by amitriptyline, buprenorphine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and zolpidem. Both amitriptyline and buprenorphine were strong, reversible inhibitors of CYP3A4. Similarly, amitriptyline and MDMA were identified as inhibitors of CYP2D6. Zolpidem revealed a mechanism-based inhibition of CYP3A4. CONCLUSION Amitriptyline, MDMA and zolpidem are likely to slow down conversion of methadone and to increase its area under the curve (AUC). A consideration of the in vitro evidence of drug-methadone interactions should help to improve patient care during methadone maintenance treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Bomsien
- Institute of Legal Medicine and Traffic Medicine, Ruprecht-Karls University, Vossstr. 2, 69115, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Van LM, Swales J, Hammond C, Wilson C, Hargreaves JA, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Kinetics of the time-dependent inactivation of CYP2D6 in cryopreserved human hepatocytes by methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Eur J Pharm Sci 2007; 31:53-61. [PMID: 17387004 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2007.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2006] [Revised: 02/04/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2007] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) was investigated in cryopreserved human hepatocytes as a time-dependent inactivator (TDI) of CYP2D6 using dextromethorphan (DEX) as a probe substrate. Inhibition kinetic parameters k(inact), the maximal rate of inactivation, and K(I), the inhibitor concentration at half the maximal activation rate, were determined. Time- and concentration-dependent inhibition were confirmed, and the influence of different elements of study design (e.g. cell number, stability of hepatocytes, dilution after preincubation) on estimated kinetic parameters were evaluated. Dilution factors (DF) of 1.2, 5 or total removal of inhibitor (by washing cells after preincubation, WR) resulted in k(inact) and K(I) (+/-S.E.) values of 0.02+/-0.002 min(-1) and 0.88+/-0.31 microM, 0.01+/-0.001 min(-1) and 1.23+/-0.70 microM, and 0.01+/-0.001 min(-1) and 2.10+/-1.32 microM, respectively; indicating that insufficient dilution may lead to overestimation of CYP2D6 inactivation. Accounting for MDMA depletion during the preincubation, corrected K(I) values were significantly lower (0.11+/-0.05 microM, 0.15+/-0.09 microM, 0.24+/-0.16 microM for DF of 1.2, 5, and WR, respectively). Inactivation efficiency in hepatocytes, as measured by k(inact)/K(I), was 10-fold less than that previously reported in human liver microsomes or recombinantly expressed systems. Possible causes for the observed differences between in vitro systems warrant further investigation. These may include differences in metabolic consumption of MDMA in each system, non-specific binding and presence of active efflux in hepatocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linh M Van
- University of Sheffield, Academic Unit of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Sheffield S10 2JF, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Capela JP, Macedo C, Branco PS, Ferreira LM, Lobo AM, Fernandes E, Remião F, Bastos ML, Dirnagl U, Meisel A, Carvalho F. Neurotoxicity mechanisms of thioether ecstasy metabolites. Neuroscience 2007; 146:1743-57. [PMID: 17467183 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2007] [Revised: 03/20/2007] [Accepted: 03/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or "ecstasy"), is a widely abused, psychoactive recreational drug that is known to induce neurotoxic effects. Human and rat hepatic metabolism of MDMA involves N-demethylation to 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), which is also a drug of abuse. MDMA and MDA are O-demethylenated to N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (N-Me-alpha-MeDA) and alpha-methyldopamine (alpha-MeDA), respectively, which are both catechols that can undergo oxidation to the corresponding ortho-quinones. Ortho-quinones may be conjugated with glutathione (GSH) to form glutathionyl adducts, which can be transported into the brain and metabolized to the correspondent N-acetylcysteine (NAC) adducts. In this study we evaluated the neurotoxicity of nine MDMA metabolites, obtained by synthesis: N-Me-alpha-MeDA, alpha-MeDA and their correspondent GSH and NAC adducts. The studies were conducted in rat cortical neuronal cultures, for a 6 h of exposure period, under normal (36.5 degrees C) and hyperthermic (40 degrees C) conditions. Our findings show that thioether MDMA metabolites are strong neurotoxins, significantly more than their correspondent parent catechols. On the other hand, N-Me-alpha-MeDA and alpha-MeDA are more neurotoxic than MDMA. GSH and NAC conjugates of N-Me-alpha-MeDA and alpha-MeDA induced a concentration dependent delayed neuronal death, accompanied by activation of caspase 3, which occurred earlier in hyperthermic conditions. Furthermore, thioether MDMA metabolites time-dependently increased the production of reactive species, concentration-dependently depleted intracellular GSH and increased protein bound quinones. Finally, thioether MDMA metabolites induced neuronal death and oxidative stress was prevented by NAC, an antioxidant and GSH precursor. This study provides new insights into the neurotoxicity mechanisms of thioether MDMA metabolites and highlights their importance in "ecstasy" neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J P Capela
- REQUIMTE (Rede de Química e Tecnologia), Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Aníbal Cunha, 164, 4099-030 Porto, Portugal.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Miranda M, Bosch-Morell F, Johnsen-Soriano S, Barcia J, Almansa I, Asensio S, Araiz J, Messeguer A, Romero FJ. Oxidative Stress in Rat Retina and Hippocampus after Chronic MDMA (‘ecstasy’) Administration. Neurochem Res 2007; 32:1156-62. [PMID: 17401664 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9285-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2006] [Accepted: 01/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The effects of MDMA administration on oxidative stress markers in rat eye and hippocampus, and the neuroprotective effects of the antioxidant 3,4-dihydro-6-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2,2-dimethyl-1(2H)-benzopyran (CR-6) have been studied. MDMA effects on liver were used for comparison with those in eye and hippocampus and to test CR-6 protective effects. Another goal was to test for apoptosis in retinal cells, as it is known that happens in liver and brain. After 1 week of ecstasy administration, malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration increased, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and glutathione (GSH) content decreased in liver, as previously described. MDA concentration increased and GPx activity decreased in hippocampus; whereas no change was observed in GSH concentration. MDMA decreased ocular GSH concentration and GPx activity; no change was observed in MDA concentration. The number of TUNEL-positive nuclei increased significantly in rat retinas after 1 week of MDMA administration. CR-6 normalized the modifications in liver, hippocampus and retina mentioned above.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Miranda
- Instituto CEU sobre Drogas y Conductas Adictivas (IDYCA), Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera, Avda. Seminario s/n, 46113, Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Felim A, Urios A, Neudörffer A, Herrera G, Blanco M, Largeron M. Bacterial Plate Assays and Electrochemical Methods: An Efficient Tandem for Evaluating the Ability of Catechol−Thioether Metabolites of MDMA (“Ecstasy”) to Induce Toxic Effects through Redox-Cycling. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:685-93. [PMID: 17355154 DOI: 10.1021/tx6003584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several catechol-thioether metabolites of MDMA (ecstasy), three monoadducts, 5-(glutathion-S-yl)-N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (1), 5-(N-acetylcystein-S-yl)-N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (2), and 5-(cystein-S-yl)-N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (3), and two bi-adducts, 2,5-bis(glutathion-S-yl)-N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (4) and 2,5-bis(N-acetylcystein-S-yl)-N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (5), have been synthesized through an environmentally friendly one-pot electrochemical procedure. Their cytotoxicity profiles were further characterized using simple Escherichia coli plate assays and compared with those of N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (HHMA), dopamine (DA), and its corresponding catechol-thioether conjugates (monoadducts 6-8 and bi-adducts 9 and 10). Toxicity mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS-TOX) was detected in the OxyR- assay, using cells sensitive to oxidative stress due to a deficiency in the OxyR protein. Toxicity arising from the high susceptibility of quinone toward endogenous nucleophiles (Q-TOX) was detected using OxyR+ cells, in the presence of tyrosinase, to promote catechol oxidation to the corresponding o-quinone. At the exclusion of 5-(cystein-S-yl) mono-conjugate 3, which was devoid of any toxicity, all compounds produced ROS-TOX, which was enhanced in the presence of tyrosinase, suggesting that the generated o-quinone (or o-quinone-thioether) species can enter redox cycles through its semiquinone radical, leading to the formation of ROS. The sequence order of toxicity was HHMA approximately = 1 approximately = 2 approximately =5 >> 7 > DA approximately = 4 > 10 > 6 > 8. In contrast, no Q-TOX arising from the binding of quinones with cellular nucleophiles was evidenced, even in the presence of tyrosinase. Finally, taking into account that several different pathways could contribute to the overall MDMA toxicity and that HHMA and catechol-thioether conjugates 1-5 have not been undoubtedly established as in vivo toxic metabolites of MDMA, it can be suggested that these compounds could participate in the toxic effects of this drug through the efficiency of redox active quinonoid centers generating ROS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Felim
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d'Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l'Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
van Vugt-Lussenburg BMA, Stjernschantz E, Lastdrager J, Oostenbrink C, Vermeulen NPE, Commandeur JNM. Identification of Critical Residues in Novel Drug Metabolizing Mutants of Cytochrome P450 BM3 Using Random Mutagenesis. J Med Chem 2007; 50:455-61. [PMID: 17266197 DOI: 10.1021/jm0609061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we've described a site-directed triple mutant of cytochrome P450 BM3 (BM3) that is able to convert various drugs (van Vugt-Lussenburg, B. M. A., et al. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 346, 810-818). In the present study, random mutagenesis was used to improve the activity of this mutant. With three generations of error-prone PCR, mutants were obtained with 200-fold increased turnover toward drug substrates dextromethorphan and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine. The initial activities of these mutants were up to 90-fold higher than that of human P450 2D6. These highly active drug metabolizing enzymes have great potential for biotechnology. Using sequencing analysis, the mutations responsible for the increase in activity were determined. The mutations that had the greatest effects on the activity were F81I, E267V, and particularly L86I, which is not located in the active site. Computer modeling studies were used to rationalize the effects of the mutations. This study shows that random mutagenesis can be used to identify novel critical residues, and to increase our insight into P450s.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M A van Vugt-Lussenburg
- LACDR/ Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Pharmacochemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Verrico CD, Miller GM, Madras BK. MDMA (Ecstasy) and human dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters: implications for MDMA-induced neurotoxicity and treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 189:489-503. [PMID: 16220332 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-005-0174-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Accepted: 08/17/2005] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, designated as "Ecstasy" if illicitly marketed in tablet form) induces significant decrements in neuronal serotonin (5-HT) markers in humans, nonhuman primates, and rats as a function of dosing and dosing regimen. In rats, MDMA-mediated effects are attributed, in part, to selective high-affinity transport of MDMA into 5-HT neurons by the 5-HT transporter (SERT), followed by extensive 5-HT release. OBJECTIVES To clarify whether SERT-selective effects of MDMA at human monoamine transporters can account for the reported MDMA-induced selective toxicity of serotonin neurons in primate brain. METHODS We investigated the interaction of [(3)H](+/-, RS)- (+, S)- and (-, R)-MDMA with the human SERT, dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT), and norepinephrine (NE) transporter (NET) in stably transfected human embryo kidney (HEK)-293 cells. RESULTS The human DAT, NET, and SERT actively transported [(3)H]RS(+/-)-MDMA saturably, stereoselectively, and in a temperature-, concentration-, and transporter-dependent manner. MDMA exhibited the highest affinity for the NET>>SERT>or=DAT, the same rank order for MDMA inhibition of [(3)H]DA, [(3)H]NE, and [(3)H]5-HT transport and stimulated release of the [(3)H]monoamines, which differed from reports derived from rodent monoamine transporters. The extent of MDMA-induced release of 5-HT was higher compared with release of DA or NE. CONCLUSIONS The affinity of MDMA for the human SERT in transfected cells does not clarify the apparent selective toxicity of MDMA for serotonin neurons, although conceivably, its higher efficacy for stimulating 5-HT release may be a distinguishing factor. The findings highlight the need to investigate MDMA effects in DAT-, SERT-, and NET-expressing neurons in the primate brain and the therapeutic potential of NET or DAT inhibitors, in addition to SERT-selective inhibitors, for alleviating the pharmacological effects of MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Verrico
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neurochemistry, New England Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, 1 Pine Hill Drive, Southborough, MA 01772-9102, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Bertelsen KM, Greenblatt DJ, von Moltke LL. Apparent active transport of MDMA is not mediated by P-glycoprotein: a comparison with MDCK and Caco-2 monolayers. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2006; 27:219-27. [PMID: 16552717 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Amphetamines and their methylenedioxy derivatives generically display similar behavioral, physiologic and toxic effects. Inconsistent pharmacokinetic and toxicity data for methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) may suggest that active drug transporters are interacting with these compounds, and thus altering drug absorption and tissue distribution. In vitro models of CNS accumulation and intestinal drug transport were used to assess efflux transport of MDMA. Madin-Darby kidney cell epithelial (MDCK) monolayers displayed a 4-fold increase in accumulation in the basolateral to apical orientation relative to the apical to basolateral orientation, although no differential accumulation was noted between MDCK-WT and MDCK-MDR1 monolayers. Caco-2 monolayers demonstrated an approximate 2-fold increase in accumulation of MDMA. Exposure of various inhibitors of active drug transporters demonstrated mixed results; ritonavir, progesterone and indomethacin produced an approximately 50% reduction of MDMA transport, while verapamil, MK-571 and probenecid had no effect. Based on these data, it is concluded that MDMA efflux is mediated via the activity of a transporter distinct from P-glycoprotein. The possible inhibitory effects of amphetamines on rhodamine-123 transport were also assessed. MDMA, methylenedioxyamphetamine, amphetamine and methamphetamine, at physiologically relevant concentrations, did not significantly alter the transport of rhodamine-123 in Caco-2 monolayers or the LS180 cell line, suggesting that these compounds do not alter the function of P-glycoprotein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirk M Bertelsen
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Callaghan PD, Farrand K, Salem A, Hughes P, Daws LC, Irvine RJ. Repeated administration of the substituted amphetamine p-methoxyamphetamine produces reductions in cortical 5-HT transporter binding but not 5-HT content, unlike 3,4-methylenedioxyamethamphetamine. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 546:74-81. [PMID: 16925993 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2006] [Revised: 07/13/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide growth in p-methoxyamphetamine (PMA) usage amongst 'ecstasy' users indicates a proportionally greater incidence of acute toxicity compared to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). While longer-term use of MDMA appears to produce degeneration of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) neurons, PMA effects are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of repeated PMA administration on two indices of 5-HT axonal degeneration, cortical brain 5-HT transporter (SERT) density and 5-HT/5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA) content. Treatment of male rats once daily for 4 days (10 or 20 mg/kg) with PMA or MDMA resulted in significant reductions (20 mg/kg: 53% and 23% of vehicle treatment respectively) in [(3)H]-paroxetine binding (SERT density) one week after final drug administration. When rats were housed at a higher ambient temperature (28 degrees C vs. 22 degrees C) for 6 h after dosing, no additive effect was seen for either drug. A more intensive dosing regimen (10 or 20 mg/kg twice daily for 4 days) was used to examine PMA/MDMA effects on cortical 5-HT content. Two weeks after MDMA treatment, significant reductions in cortical 5-HT content (20 mg/kg: 39% of vehicle treatment) were seen. However, PMA did not alter cortical 5-HT content, yet reduced cortical 5-HIAA content (20 mg/kg: 72% of vehicle treatment). These data suggest PMA has severe long-term implications clinically for alteration of 5-HT neurotransmission that may differ from MDMA, but may not necessarily be interpreted as a degeneration of 5-HT fibres.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Callaghan
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Medical School North, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
van Vugt-Lussenburg BMA, Damsten MC, Maasdijk DM, Vermeulen NPE, Commandeur JNM. Heterotropic and homotropic cooperativity by a drug-metabolising mutant of cytochrome P450 BM3. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 346:810-8. [PMID: 16777067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.05.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we described a triple mutant of the bacterial cytochrome P450 BM3 as the first mutant with affinity for drug-like compounds. In this paper, we show that this mutant, but not wild-type BM3, is able to metabolise testosterone and several drug-like molecules such as amodiaquine, dextromethorphan, acetaminophen, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine that are known substrates of human P450s. Interestingly, the metabolism of 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine and acetaminophen could be stimulated up to 70-fold by the addition of caffeine, a known activator of rat P450 3A2. With testosterone metabolism, homotropic cooperativity was observed. This shows that heterotropic and homotropic cooperativity, known to occur in the P450 3A family, can also take place in BM3. BM3 therefore can be used as a model system to study atypical kinetics in mammalian P450s. Second, this study shows that BM3 can be engineered to a drug-metabolising enzyme, making it a promising candidate to use as biocatalyst in drug discovery and synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M A van Vugt-Lussenburg
- LACDR/Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Pharmacochemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Jeng W, Ramkissoon A, Parman T, Wells PG. Prostaglandin H synthase-catalyzed bioactivation of amphetamines to free radical intermediates that cause CNS regional DNA oxidation and nerve terminal degeneration. FASEB J 2006; 20:638-50. [PMID: 16581972 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-5271com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are implicated in amphetamine-initiated neurodegeneration, but the mechanism is unclear. Here, we show that amphetamines are bioactivated by CNS prostaglandin H synthase (PHS) to free radical intermediates that cause ROS formation and neurodegenerative oxidative DNA damage. In vitro incubations of purified PHS-1 with 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and methamphetamine (METH) demonstrated PHS-catalyzed time- and concentration-dependent formation of an amphetamine carbon- and/or nitrogen-centered free radical intermediate, and stereoselective oxidative DNA damage, evidenced by 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) formation. Similarly in vivo, MDA and METH caused dose- and time-dependent DNA oxidation in multiple brain regions, remarkably dependent on the regional PHS levels, including the striatum and substantia nigra, wherein neurodegeneration of dopaminergic nerve terminals was evidenced by decreased immunohistochemical staining of tyrosine hydroxylase. Motor impairment using the rotarod test was evident within 3 wk after the last drug dose, and persisted for at least 6 months. Pretreatment with the PHS inhibitor acetylsalicylic acid blocked MDA-initiated DNA oxidation and protected against functional motor impairment for at least 1.5 months after drug treatment. This is the first direct evidence for PHS-catalyzed bioactivation of amphetamines causing temporal and regional differences in CNS oxidative DNA damage directly related to structural and functional neurodegenerative consequences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Winnie Jeng
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Abanades S, Cabrero-Castel A, Barral D, Alvarez Y, Farré M. [Other factors that condition the long-term toxicity of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('ecstasy')]. Rev Neurol 2006; 42:447; author reply 447-8. [PMID: 16602067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
|
24
|
Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. A validated gas chromatographic-electron impact ionization mass spectrometric method for methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methamphetamine and metabolites in oral fluid. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 835:90-9. [PMID: 16580268 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2006] [Revised: 03/01/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
An analytical method to simultaneously quantify amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (MAMP), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-methamphetamine (HMMA) and 3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-amphetamine (HMA) in oral fluid is presented. Four hundred microlitres of oral fluid collected via expectoration was extracted by solid phase extraction. GC/MS-EI with selected ion monitoring (SIM) yielded linear curves 5-250 ng/mL for AMP, MAMP, MDMA and MDEA, 5-500 ng/mL for MDA and 25-1,000 ng/mL for HMA and HMMA. Recoveries were greater than 85%, accuracy 87-104%, and precision less than 8.3% coefficient of variation. This assay will be used to investigate distribution of sympathomimetic amines into human oral fluid following controlled drug administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Bonifacio A, Keizers PHJ, Commandeur JNM, Vermeulen NPE, Robert B, Gooijer C, van der Zwan G. Binding of bufuralol, dextromethorphan, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine to wild-type and F120A mutant cytochrome P450 2D6 studied by resonance Raman spectroscopy. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343:772-9. [PMID: 16563352 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2006] [Accepted: 03/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is one of the most important drug-metabolizing enzymes in humans. Resonance Raman data, reported for the first time for CYP2D6, show that the CYP2D6 heme is found to be in a six-coordinated low-spin state in the absence of substrates, and it is perturbed to different extents by bufuralol, dextromethorphan, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA). Dextromethorphan and MDMA induce in CYP2D6 a significant amount of five-coordinated high-spin heme species and reduce the polarity of its heme-pocket, whereas bufuralol does not. Spectra of the F120A mutant CYP2D6 suggest that Phe120 is involved in substrate-binding of dextromethorphan and MDMA, being responsible for the spectral differences observed between these two compounds and bufuralol. These differences could be explained postulating a different substrate mobility for each compound in the CYP2D6 active site, consistently with the role previously suggested for Phe120 in binding dextromethorphan and MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alois Bonifacio
- Laser Centre/Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Zhao YG, Shi HB, Zhang XJ, Zhou J, Men XW, Zheng XM, Hu LQ. [Effects of experimental varicocele on methylenedioxyamphetamine, total antioxidants content and sialic acid of the epididymis in adolescent rats]. Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue 2006; 12:154-5, 158. [PMID: 16519155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the changes of methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), total antioxidants content (TAC) and sialic acid (SA) from the unilateral epididymis of experimental varicocele in adolescent rats, and to illuminate the effects of varicocele on unilateral epididymis epithelium. METHODS Experimental left varicocele model of 16 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were established by partial ligation of left renal vein. The epididymis were collected for detecting the content of MDA, TAC and SA by using spectrophotometry. RESULTS There was statistically significant differences in the contents of three substances between experimental varicocele and sham-operated groups. CONCLUSION The content of MDA, TAC and SA will change and the sialic acid-secreting-function of unilateral epididymis will be injured because of varicocele.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Gang Zhao
- Department of Urology, Xiangfan Central Hospital Affiliated to Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Xiangfan, Hubei 441021, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Reveron ME, Monks TJ, Duvauchelle CL. Age-dependent (+)MDMA-mediated Neurotoxicity in Mice. Neurotoxicology 2005; 26:1031-40. [PMID: 15998542 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2005.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2005] [Revised: 05/03/2005] [Accepted: 05/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the present study the effects of a neurotoxic regimen of (+)-MDMA (20 mg/kgx4, s.c.) in 4- and 10-week-old C57Bl/6J mice during treatment and 7 days post-treatment were examined. Rectal temperatures monitored between (+)-MDMA injections (30 min post-injection/2 h intervals) revealed hyperthermic responses in both age groups, with the magnitude of the response significantly greater in older mice. Seven days post-treatment, immunoblot analyses of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) revealed significant reductions (-37 and -58%, respectively) in the older animals, but not in the younger group, compared to age-matched controls. Dopamine transporter (DAT) expression was significantly reduced in both 4- and 10-week-old animals (26 and 69.7%, respectively). (+)-MDMA-treated animals also exhibited significantly lower levels of striatal dopamine, and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid than controls, again the effect being more pronounced in the older animals. Although both age groups showed evidence of (+)-MDMA-induced toxicity, our data revealed that older animals exhibited a greater hyperthermic response to (+)-MDMA and were also are more susceptible to subsequent dopaminergic damage than the younger animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Elena Reveron
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Capela JP, Meisel A, Abreu AR, Branco PS, Ferreira LM, Lobo AM, Remião F, Bastos ML, Carvalho F. Neurotoxicity of Ecstasy Metabolites in Rat Cortical Neurons, and Influence of Hyperthermia. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 316:53-61. [PMID: 16183702 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.105.092577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or "Ecstasy") is a widely abused, psychoactive recreational drug. There is growing evidence that the MDMA neurotoxic profile may be highly dependent on both its hepatic metabolism and body temperature. Metabolism of MDMA involves N-demethylation to 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), which is also a drug of abuse. MDMA and MDA are O-demethylenated to N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine (N-Me-alpha-MeDA) and alpha-methyldopamine (alpha-MeDA), respectively, both of which are catechols that can undergo oxidation to the corresponding ortho-quinones. In the presence of glutathione (GSH), ortho-quinones may be conjugated with GSH to form glutathionyl adducts. In this study, we evaluated the neurotoxicity of MDMA and three of its metabolites obtained by synthesis, N-Me-alpha-MeDA, alpha-MeDA, and 5-(GSH)-alpha-MeDA [5-(glutathion-S-yl)-alpha-methyldopamine] in rat cortical neuronal serum-free cultures under normal (36.5 degrees C) and hyperthermic (40 degrees C) conditions. Cell viability was assessed, and the mechanism of cell death was also evaluated. Our study shows that these metabolites are more neurotoxic [5-(GSH)-alpha-MeDA being the most toxic] than the parent compound MDMA. The neurotoxicity of MDMA metabolites was partially prevented by the antioxidants N-acetylcystein and also, in a minor extent, by alpha-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone. All the tested compounds induced apoptotic cell death in cortical neurons, and their neurotoxic effect was potentiated under hyperthermic conditions. These data suggest that MDMA metabolites, especially under hyperthermic conditions, contribute to MDMA-induced neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- João Paulo Capela
- REQUIMTE, Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Aníbal Cunha 164, 4099-030 Porto, Portugal.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed the effectiveness of 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP), a highly selective antagonist of metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5 (mGluR5), in conditioned drug reward. In a previous study we showed that MPEP blocks expression of context-conditioned morphine- but not cocaine reward in the rat. The present study now examines the effectiveness of MPEP in the expression of context-conditioned food, MDMA ('ecstasy') or amphetamine reward. Therefore, three groups of rats were conditioned either to food, MDMA or amphetamine in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. After conditioning, CPP expression and locomotion were determined simultaneously in the presence and absence of the respective reward (i.e. food or drug), or after application of 50 mg/kg MPEP (the dose that was most effective in reducing morphine CPP expression in our previous study). As a result, MPEP reduced locomotion in all groups. Furthermore, only expression of amphetamine CPP was inhibited by MPEP, while expression of food and MDMA CPP was not affected, suggesting that the MPEP-induced inhibition of amphetamine CPP expression was not causally linked to the reduction of locomotion. Overall, we conclude that MPEP reduces expression of context-conditioned amphetamine but not MDMA or food reward.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Volker Herzig
- Neuropharmacology, Zoological Institute, Faculty of Biology, University of Tübingen, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
O'Shea E, Escobedo I, Orio L, Sanchez V, Navarro M, Green AR, Colado MI. Elevation of ambient room temperature has differential effects on MDMA-induced 5-HT and dopamine release in striatum and nucleus accumbens of rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30:1312-23. [PMID: 15688085 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) produces acute dopamine and 5-HT release in rat brain and a hyperthermic response, which is dependent on the ambient room temperature in which the animal is housed. We examined the effect of ambient room temperature (20 and 30 degrees C) on MDMA-induced dopamine and 5-HT efflux in the striatum and shell of nucleus accumbens (NAc) of freely moving rats by using microdialysis. Locomotor activity and rectal temperature were also evaluated. In the NAc, MDMA (2.5 or 5 mg/kg, i.p.) produced a substantial increase in extracellular dopamine, which was more marked at 30 degrees C. 5-HT release was also increased by MDMA given at 30 degrees C. In contrast, MDMA-induced extracellular dopamine and 5-HT increases in the striatum were unaffected by ambient temperature. At 20 degrees C room temperature, MDMA did not modify the rectal temperature but at 30 degrees C it produced a rapid and sustained hyperthermia. MDMA at 20 degrees C room temperature produced a two-fold increase in activity compared with saline-treated controls. The MDMA-induced increase in locomotor activity was more marked at 30 degrees C due to a decrease in the activity of the saline-treated controls at this high ambient temperature. These results show that high ambient temperature enhances MDMA-induced locomotor activity and monoamine release in the shell of NAc, a region involved in the incentive motivational properties of drugs of abuse, and suggest that the rewarding effects of MDMA may be more pronounced at high ambient temperature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esther O'Shea
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Piper BJ, Meyer JS. Memory deficit and reduced anxiety in young adult rats given repeated intermittent MDMA treatment during the periadolescent period. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2005; 79:723-31. [PMID: 15582680 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2004] [Revised: 09/30/2004] [Accepted: 10/01/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or "Ecstasy") is a popular recreational drug among adolescents that is often taken primarily on weekends. The goals of this study were to develop a model of the typical intermittent pattern of human MDMA use in periadolescent rats and to determine the behavioral consequences of MDMA exposure in this model. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received s.c. injections of 10 mg/kg of MDMA or saline twice daily with an interdose interval of 4 h. Treatments were given every fifth day from postnatal day (PD) 35 to PD 60. Beginning at PD 65, the animals were tested for open-field activity, object recognition memory, and anxiety-related behaviors in the elevated plus-maze. Brain tissues were collected at PD 70 for determination of radiolabeled paroxetine binding to the serotonin transporter (SERT) in the neocortex and hippocampus. Repeated MDMA administration led to a reduced rate of weight gain that was evident by PD 50. There was no treatment effect on ambulatory behavior in the open-field. However, the MDMA group displayed an impairment of object recognition memory and reduced anxiety as indicated by a twofold increase in open-arm duration in the elevated plus-maze. Only modest decreases in SERT binding were observed, although there was a significant negative correlation between hippocampal SERT levels and open-arm duration within the MDMA group. These findings demonstrate that intermittent MDMA exposure during the adolescent period of development can influence subsequent cognitive and affective functioning in the absence of severe serotonergic damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Piper
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abstract
In part because it is amphetamine derived, ecstasy has inherited some of its parent compound's reputation for being neurotoxic. However, whereas amphetamine and methamphetamine undoubtedly cause irreversible brain damage with long-term use, the jury is still out on the party drug ecstasy. The deadly reputation of ecstasy has been fuelled by the tragic fates of healthy young clubbers who have died after taking the drug. However, compared with other recreational drugs, there have been very few ecstasy-related deaths. Further, there is little evidence for short-term neurotoxicity of ecstasy at recreational doses. That is not to say that ecstasy leaves the user neutral. Chronic ecstasy use causes depletion of serotonin, which has subtle but important long-term effects on cognition and mood. Although it seems unlikely that we will be faced with a generation of party goers who suffer from premature Parkinson's disease, so little is known about the long-term effects of ecstasy on mood, emotional states and cognitive function that at present we cannot predict what impact their use of ecstasy will have on the middle-age of the average ecstasy user.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Morton
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1PD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
|
34
|
Keizers PHJ, Lussenburg BMA, de Graaf C, Mentink LM, Vermeulen NPE, Commandeur JNM. Influence of phenylalanine 120 on cytochrome P450 2D6 catalytic selectivity and regiospecificity: crucial role in 7-methoxy-4-(aminomethyl)-coumarin metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 68:2263-71. [PMID: 15498516 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The polymorphic human debrisoquine hydroxylase, cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6), is one of the most important phase I drug metabolising enzymes. It is responsible for metabolising a large number of compounds that mostly share similarity in having a basic N-atom and an aromatic moiety. In homology modelling studies, it has been suggested that in fixation of this aromatic moiety, there may be an important role for phenylalanine 120 (Phe(120)). In this study, the role of Phe(120) in ligand binding and catalysis was experimentally examined by mutating it into an alanine. Strikingly, this substitution led to a completely abolished 7-methoxy-4-(aminomethyl)-coumarin (MAMC) O-demethylating activity of CYP2D6. On the other hand, bufuralol metabolism was hardly affected (K(m) of 1-hydroxylation mutant: 1.2 microM, wild-type: 2.9 microM, 4-hydroxylation mutant: 1.5 microM, and wild-type: 3.2 microM) and neither was affected dextromethorphan O-demethylation (K(m) mutant: 1.2 microM, wild-type: 2 microM, k(cat) mutant: 4.5 min(-1), and wild-type: 3.3 min(-1)). However, the Phe(120)Ala mutant also formed 3-hydroxymorphinan, the double demethylated form of dextromethorphan, which was not detected using wild-type CYP2D6. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) was demethylenated by both mutant and wild-type CYP2D6 to 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (3,4-OH-MA K(m) of mutant: 55 microM and wild-type: 2 microM). In addition, the mutant formed two additional metabolites; 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and N-hydroxy-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (N-OH-MDMA). Inhibition experiments of dextromethorphan O-demethylation showed a decreased affinity of the Phe(120)Ala mutant for quinidine (IC(50) mutant: 240 nM and wild-type, 40 nM), while IC(50)s for quinine were equal (1 microM). These data indicate the importance of Phe(120) in the selectivity and regiospecificity in substrate binding and catalysis by CYP2D6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter H J Keizers
- LACDR/Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Pharmacochemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Armstrong BD, Noguchi KK. The Neurotoxic Effects of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Methamphetamine on Serotonin, Dopamine, and GABA-ergic Terminals: An In-Vitro Autoradiographic Study In Rats. Neurotoxicology 2004; 25:905-14. [PMID: 15474609 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2004.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2004] [Accepted: 06/10/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Damage to serotonin (5-HT) terminals following doses of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is well documented, and this toxicity is thought to be related to dopamine release that is potentiated by the 5-HT(2A/2C) agonist effects of the drug. Although MDMA and methamphetamine (METH) have some similar dopaminergic activities, they differ in their 5-HT agonistic properties. It is reasoned that the study of the resultant toxicity following equimolar doses of MDMA and METH on both dopamine and 5-HT terminals should offer a comparison of the ability of these drugs to induce neurotoxicity. In order to measure the toxic effects to the brain, rats were given equimolar doses of MDMA (40 mg/kg/day) and METH (32 mg/kg/day) in subcutaneously implanted osmotic minipumps for a period of 5 days, and in-vitro autoradiography using [3H]-paroxetine, [3H]-mazindol, [3H]-methylspiperone, and [3H]-flunitrazepam, was performed on brain sections. The results showed that METH was more toxic to 5-HT terminals than MDMA in forebrain regions, including the anterior cingulate, caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, and septum. METH was also more toxic than MDMA to dopamine terminals in the habenula, and posterior retrosplenial cortex. Therefore, we find that METH was more toxic to 5-HT and dopamine terminals in specific brain regions in both pre and post-synaptic sites following continuous equimolar dosing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Armstrong
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Science, University of California at Los Angeles, NPI 760 Westwood Plaza Room 67-373, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Several studies suggest that MDMA-induced acute toxicity and long-term neurotoxicity is dependent on the metabolic disposition of MDMA. Differences in MDMA metabolism among animal species might therefore account for different sensitivities to its neurotoxic effects. The kinetic parameters of enzymes that regulate the formation of neurotoxic metabolites of MDMA differ among species, as does the ability of MDMA to self-inhibit these enzymes and the degree of genetic polymorphisms exhibited by these enzymes. Such features limit allometric scaling across animal models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael de la Torre
- Institut Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica, Pharmacology Unit (IMIM), Dr. Aiguader 80, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Daumann J, Fischermann T, Pilatus U, Thron A, Moeller-Hartmann W, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in ecstasy (MDMA) users. Neurosci Lett 2004; 362:113-6. [PMID: 15193766 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2004] [Revised: 03/01/2004] [Accepted: 03/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The popular recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) has well-recognized neurotoxic effects upon central serotonergic systems in animal studies. In humans, the use of MDMA has been linked to cognitive problems, particularly to deficits in long-term memory and learning. Recent studies with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) have reported relatively low levels of the neuronal marker N-acetylaspartate (NAA) in MDMA users, however, these results have been ambiguous. Moreover, the only available 1H MRS study of the hippocampus reported normal findings in a small sample of five MDMA users. In the present study, we compared 13 polyvalent ecstasy users with 13 matched controls. We found no differences between the NAA/creatine/phosphocreatine (Cr) ratios of users and controls in neocortical regions, and only a tendency towards lower NAA/Cr ratios in the left hippocampus of MDMA users. Thus, compared with cognitive deficits, 1H MRS appears to be a less sensitive marker of potential neurotoxic damage in ecstasy users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Daumann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Khorana N, Pullagurla MR, Young R, Glennon RA. Comparison of the discriminative stimulus effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and cocaine: asymmetric generalization. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004; 74:281-7. [PMID: 15194206 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2003] [Revised: 12/09/2003] [Accepted: 01/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Evidence suggests that +/- 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and psychostimulants produce similar but non-identical stimulus effects in animals. To examine this hypothesis, groups of rats were trained to discriminate either MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) or cocaine (8 mg/kg) from saline vehicle using a two-lever operant procedure under a variable interval (VI) 15 s schedule of reinforcement. Once the animals were trained, tests of stimulus generalization were conducted with +/- MDMA, cocaine, S+ MDMA, and R- MDMA. As previously demonstrated, both S+ MDMA and R- MDMA (ED50 = 0.8 and 1.2 mg/kg, respectively) substituted for +/- MDMA. Stimulus generalization also occurred upon administration of cocaine (ED50 = 4.6 mg/kg) to the +/- MDMA-trained animals. In the cocaine-trained animals, however, stimulus generalization did not occur to +/- MDMA, S+ MDMA nor R- MDMA. Receptor binding profiles for MDMA and cocaine were compared in an effort to identify any novel and common receptor-based mechanism(s) to explain stimulus generalization of MDMA-trained animals to the effects of cocaine, but only their actions on neurotransmitter transporters seem applicable. Taken together, the results indicate that stimulus substitution between MDMA and cocaine is asymmetric and suggest that although similarities exist between the stimulus actions of MDMA and cocaine, differences might be explained by their differential effects on increasing synaptic concentrations of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and/or norepinephrine (NE).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nantaka Khorana
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0540, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
RATIONALE In the mouse but not the rat, d-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (d-MDMA) is a dopaminergic neurotoxicant. Various stressors and hypothermia protect against d-MDMA-induced neurotoxicity through unknown mechanisms, one of which could be a reduction in the distribution of d-MDMA to the brain. OBJECTIVES We determined striatal levels of d-MDMA in relation to body temperature in mice exposed to a neurotoxic regimen of d-MDMA in the presence or absence of various stressors. METHODS Female C57BL6/J mice received a neurotoxic regimen of d-MDMA (15.0 mg/kg s.c. as the base every 2 hx4) alone or in combination with manipulations with a known neuroprotective status. d-MDMA levels were determined by HPLC with fluorometric detection while rectal temperature provided core temperature status. Levels of dopamine, tyrosine hydroxylase and GFAP were used to assess neurotoxicity. RESULTS Restraint, ethanol co-treatment and cold stress were neuroprotective, caused hypothermia and increased striatal d-MDMA levels by 4- to 7-fold. Corticosterone treatment, as a stress mimic, did not alter striatal d-MDMA or temperature and was not protective. The protective glutamate receptor antagonist, MK-801, doubled striatal d-MDMA levels and caused hypothermia. CONCLUSIONS Although stress and other protective manipulations can alter the striatal concentration of d-MDMA their hypothermia-inducing properties appear a more likely determinant of their neuroprotection against the striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity of d-MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Anne Johnson
- Chronic Stress Laboratory, Toxicology and Molecular Biology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health/Centers for Disease Control, 1095 Willowdale Road, Morgantown, VA 26505, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Colado MI, O'Shea E, Green AR. Acute and long-term effects of MDMA on cerebral dopamine biochemistry and function. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 173:249-63. [PMID: 15083264 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-004-1788-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2003] [Accepted: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES The majority of experimental and clinical studies on the pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) tend to focus on its action on 5-HT biochemistry and function. However, there is considerable evidence for MDMA having marked acute effects on dopamine release. Furthermore, while MDMA produces long-term effects on 5-HT neurones in most species examined, in mice its long-term effects appear to be restricted to the dopamine system. The objective of this review is to examine the actions of MDMA on dopamine biochemistry and function in mice, rats, guinea pigs, monkeys and humans. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION MDMA appears to produce a major release of dopamine from its nerve endings in all species investigated. This release plays a significant role in the expression of many of the behaviours that occur, including behavioural changes, alterations of the mental state in humans and the potentially life-threatening hyperthermia that can occur. While MDMA appears to be a selective 5-HT neurotoxin in most species examined (rats, guinea pigs and primates), it is a selective dopamine neurotoxin in mice. Selectivity may be a consequence of what neurotoxic metabolites are produced (which may depend on dosing schedules), their selectivity for monoamine nerve endings, or the endogenous free radical trapping ability of specific nerve endings, or both. We suggest more focus be made on the actions of MDMA on dopamine neurochemistry and function to provide a better understanding of the acute and long-term consequences of using this popular recreational drug.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Isabel Colado
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Sumnall HR, O'Shea E, Marsden CA, Cole JC. The effects of MDMA pretreatment on the behavioural effects of other drugs of abuse in the rat elevated plus-maze test. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2004; 77:805-14. [PMID: 15099927 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2003] [Revised: 02/13/2004] [Accepted: 02/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Few preclinical studies have found long-term behavioural consequences of the serotonergic neurotoxicity produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This study investigated whether pretreatment with MDMA altered the behavioural effects of other drugs of abuse. Adult male Lister hooded rats (n=10/group) were pretreated with 10 mg/kg MDMA or 1 ml/kg saline vehicle intraperitoneally every 2 h for 6 h. Fourteen days later, the behavioural effects of d-amphetamine (2 mg/kg), cocaine (10 mg/kg), ethanol (2.0 g/kg), heroin (0.5 mg/kg), or MDMA (10 mg/kg) were assessed in the elevated plus-maze test. MDMA pretreatment produced approximately 20-25% decrease in hippocampal 5-HT and 5-HIAA concentrations, and [(3)H]paroxetine binding when analysed 2 weeks later. Despite inducing neurotoxicity, this regimen had no effect upon the plus-maze behaviour induced by ethanol, heroin, and MDMA. Acutely, and independent of neurotoxic pretreatment, MDMA produced a clear anxiogenic-like behavioural profile with a reduction of open arm entries and suppression of explorative behaviours. Despite being acutely anxiogenic, pretreatment with a neurotoxic regimen of MDMA has little effect on the anxiety-related effects of other drugs of abuse. It is possible that extended time points would produce significant changes, although the available evidence suggests that the plus-maze may not be a suitable model for detection of behavioural dysfunction after neurotoxic MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H R Sumnall
- Department of Psychology, Eleanor Rathbone Building, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZA, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) are ring-substituted amphetamine derivatives with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties. The recreational use of these amphetamines, especially MDMA, is prevalent despite warnings of irreversible damage to the central nervous system. MDA and MDMA are primarily serotonergic neurotoxicants. Because (1) neither MDA nor MDMA produces neurotoxicity when injected directly into brain, (2) intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of some major metabolites of MDA and MDMA fails to reproduce their neurotoxicity, (3) alpha-methyldopamine (alpha-MeDA) and N-methyl-alpha-MeDA are metabolites of both MDA and MDMA, (4) alpha-MeDA and N-methyl-alpha-MeDA are readily oxidized to the corresponding ortho-quinones, which can undergo conjugation with glutathione (GSH), and (5) quinone thioethers exhibit a variety of toxicologic activities, we initiated studies on the potential role of thioether metabolites of alpha-MeDA and N-methyl-alpha-MeDA in the neurotoxicity of MDA and MDMA. Our studies have revealed that the thioether conjugates stimulate the acute release of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine and produce a behavioral response commensurate with the "serotonin syndrome." Direct injection of the conjugates into rat brain also produces long-term depletions in serotonin (5-HT) concentrations, elevations in GFAP expression, and activation of microglial cells. The data are consistent with the view that thioether metabolites of alpha-MeDA and N-methyl-alpha-MeDA contribute to the neurotoxicity of the parent amphetamines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Terrence J Monks
- Center for Cellular and Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-1074, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Robledo P, Balerio G, Berrendero F, Maldonado R. Study of the behavioural responses related to the potential addictive properties of MDMA in mice. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2004; 369:338-49. [PMID: 14758467 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-003-0862-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2003] [Accepted: 12/11/2003] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We investigated several behavioural responses induced by repeated administration of MDMA in mice that could be related to its potential abuse liability. Mice treated with MDMA at the dose of 10 mg/kg displayed a significant conditioned place preference with respect to saline treated controls, while lower doses (0.3, 1.0, 3.3 mg/kg) had no effect. The development of physical dependence was also investigated. Mice were treated with MDMA (10 mg/kg) twice daily for 5 days. On day 6, following a single administration of MDMA mice received the following monoaminergic antagonists: metergoline (0.1 and 1 mg/kg), ritanserin (0.25 and 1 mg/kg), timolol (2 and 10 mg/kg), prazosin (0.25 and 1 mg/kg), SCH 23390 (0.05 and 0.25 mg/kg), raclopride (0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg) or vehicle, and several somatic manifestations of withdrawal were evaluated for 45 min. Metergoline induced paw tremor, face rubbing, as well as an increase in locomotor activity in mice chronically treated with MDMA. Ritanserin, and timolol induced only paw tremor, while SCH 23390 and raclopride did not produce any somatic manifestation indicative of abstinence. The possible modification of the rewarding properties of MDMA (10 mg/kg) by the monoaminergic antagonists producing the most relevant somatic signs of withdrawal namely, metergoline (0.1 and 1 mg/kg) and timolol (2 and 10 mg/kg) were tested in the conditioned place preference paradigm. Results showed that metergoline did not significantly modify the rewarding properties of MDMA, whereas only the highest dose of timolol was able to decrease MDMA reward. No signs of dopaminergic neurotoxicity were observed following chronic treatment with MDMA as revealed by [(3)H] mazindol binding. The possible motivational and affective components of the withdrawal syndrome were assessed in the suppression of operant responding for food, the conditioned place aversion, and the lit/dark paradigms. Results showed that the somatic symptoms observed were not accompanied by any aversive/dysphoric or anxiogenic-like behaviours. These results reveal the rewarding properties of MDMA in mice, and suggest that chronic MDMA administration does not induce classical manifestations of physical dependence in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Robledo
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Facultat de Ciències de la Salut i de la Vida, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, c/ Dr. Aiguader 80, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Easton N, Fry J, O'Shea E, Watkins A, Kingston S, Marsden CA. Synthesis, in vitro formation, and behavioural effects of glutathione regioisomers of alpha-methyldopamine with relevance to MDA and MDMA (ecstasy). Brain Res 2003; 987:144-54. [PMID: 14499958 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(03)03319-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) to rats produces serotonergic nerve terminal degeneration. However, they are not neurotoxic when injected directly into the brain, suggesting the requirement for peripheral metabolism of MDMA to a neurotoxic metabolite. Alpha-methyldopamine (alpha-MeDA) is a major metabolite of MDA. There are indications that a glutathione metabolite of alpha-MeDA and/or 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine may be responsible for the neurotoxicity and some of the behavioural effects produced by MDMA and/or MDA. The present study details the synthesis, purification and separation of the 5-(glutathion-S-yl)-alpha-MeDA and 6-(glutathion-S-yl)-alpha-MeDA regioisomers of alpha-MeDA. Incubation of MDA with human liver microsomes demonstrated that production of both glutathione adducts are related to cytochrome P450 2D6 isoform activity. Following intracerebroventricular administration (180 nmol) of either GSH adduct into Dark Agouti or Sprague-Dawley rats only 5-(glutathion-S-yl)-alpha-MeDA produced behavioural effects characterised by hyperactivity, teeth chattering, tremor/trembling, head weaving, splayed posture, clonus and wet dog shakes. Pre-treatment with a dopamine receptor antagonist (haloperidol, 0.25 mg/kg; i.p.) attenuated hyperactivity, teeth chattering, low posture and clonus and potentiated splayed postural effects. These results indicate that MDA can be converted into two glutathione regioisomers by human liver microsomes, but only the 5-(glutathion-S-yl)-alpha-MeDA adduct is behaviourally active in the rat.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine/chemistry
- 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine/metabolism
- 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine/pharmacology
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Cytochrome P-450 CYP2D6/metabolism
- Deoxyepinephrine/analogs & derivatives
- Deoxyepinephrine/chemistry
- Deoxyepinephrine/metabolism
- Deoxyepinephrine/pharmacology
- Female
- Glutathione/chemistry
- Glutathione/metabolism
- Glutathione/pharmacology
- Humans
- Male
- Microsomes, Liver/drug effects
- Microsomes, Liver/metabolism
- N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine/chemistry
- N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine/metabolism
- N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Stereoisomerism
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Easton
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Green AR, Mechan AO, Elliott JM, O'Shea E, Colado MI. The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy"). Pharmacol Rev 2003; 55:463-508. [PMID: 12869661 DOI: 10.1124/pr.55.3.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 783] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The amphetamine derivative (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) is a popular recreational drug among young people, particularly those involved in the dance culture. MDMA produces an acute, rapid enhancement in the release of both serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine from nerve endings in the brains of experimental animals. It produces increased locomotor activity and the serotonin behavioral syndrome in rats. Crucially, it produces dose-dependent hyperthermia that is potentially fatal in rodents, primates, and humans. Some recovery of 5-HT stores can be seen within 24 h of MDMA administration. However, cerebral 5-HT concentrations then decline due to specific neurotoxic damage to 5-HT nerve endings in the forebrain. This neurodegeneration, which has been demonstrated both biochemically and histologically, lasts for months in rats and years in primates. In general, other neurotransmitters appear unaffected. In contrast, MDMA produces a selective long-term loss of dopamine nerve endings in mice. Studies on the mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity in both rats and mice implicate the formation of tissue-damaging free radicals. Increased free radical formation may result from the further breakdown of MDMA metabolic products. Evidence for the occurrence of MDMA-induced neurotoxic damage in human users remains equivocal, although some biochemical and functional data suggest that damage may occur in the brains of heavy users. There is also some evidence for long-term physiological and psychological changes occurring in human recreational users. However, such evidence is complicated by the lack of knowledge of doses ingested and the fact that many subjects studied are or have been poly-drug users.
Collapse
|
46
|
Bowyer JF, Young JF, Slikker W, Itzak Y, Mayorga AJ, Newport GD, Ali SF, Frederick DL, Paule MG. Plasma levels of parent compound and metabolites after doses of either d-fenfluramine or d-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) that produce long-term serotonergic alterations. Neurotoxicology 2003; 24:379-90. [PMID: 12782103 DOI: 10.1016/s0161-813x(03)00030-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Plasma levels of parent compounds and metabolites were determined in adult rhesus monkeys after doses of either 5mg/kg d-fenfluramine (FEN) or 10mg/kg d-3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) i.m. twice daily for four consecutive days. These treatment regimens have been previously shown to produce long-term serotonin (5-HT) depletions. Peak plasma levels of 2.0+/-0.4 microM FEN were reached within 40min after the first dose of FEN, and then declined rapidly, while peak plasma levels (0.4+/-0.1 microM) of the metabolite norfenfluramine (NFEN) were not reached until 6h after dosing. After the seventh (next to last) dose of FEN, peak plasma levels of FEN were 35% greater than after the first dose while peak NFEN-levels were 500% greater. The t(1/2) for FEN was 2.6+/-0.3h after the first dose and 3.2+/-0.2h after the seventh. The estimated t(1/2) for NFEN was more than 37.6+/-20.5h. Peak plasma levels of 9.5+/-2.5 microM MDMA were reached within 20min after the first dose of MDMA, and then declined rapidly, while peak plasma levels (0.9+/-0.2 microM) of the metabolite 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) were not reached until 3-6h after dosing. After the seventh (next to last) dose of MDMA, peak plasma levels of MDMA were 30% greater than the first dose while peak MDA levels were elevated over 200%. The t(1/2) for MDMA was 2.8+/-0.4h after the first and 3.9+/-1.1h after the seventh dose. The estimated t(1/2) for MDA was about 8.3+/-1.0h. Variability in plasma levels of MDMA and MDA between subjects was much greater than that for FEN and NFEN. This variability in MDMA and MDA exposure levels may have lead to variability in the subsequent disruption of some behaviors seen in these same subjects. There were 80% reductions in the plasma membrane-associated 5-HT transporters 6 months after either the FEN or MDMA dosing regimen indicating that both treatments produced long-term serotonergic effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John F Bowyer
- Division of Neurotoxicology and Biometry and Risk Assessment, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, 72079-9502, Jefferson, AR, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a relatively novel drug of abuse and as such little is currently known of its behavioural pharmacology. This review aims to examine whether MDMA represents a novel class of abused drug. MDMA is known as a selective serotonergic neurotoxin in a variety of animal species but acutely it is a potent releaser and/or reuptake inhibitor of presynaptic serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, and acetylcholine. Interaction of these effects contributes to its behavioural pharmacology, in particular its effects on body temperature. Drug discrimination studies indicate that MDMA and related drugs produce unique interoceptive effects which have led to their classification as entactogens. This is supported by results from other behavioural paradigms although there is evidence for dose dependency of MDMA-specific effects. MDMA also produces conditioned place preference but is not a potent reinforcer in self-administration studies. These unique behavioural effects probably underlie its current popularity. MDMA is found in the street drug ecstasy but it may not be appropriate to equate the two as other drugs are routinely found in ecstasy tablets
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jon C Cole
- Department of Psychology, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZA, Liverpool, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Pubill D, Canudas AM, Pallàs M, Camins A, Camarasa J, Escubedo E. Different glial response to methamphetamine- and methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2003; 367:490-9. [PMID: 12684743 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-003-0747-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2002] [Accepted: 03/06/2003] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The consequences of the neurotoxic insult induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, an amphetamine derivative with specific action on the serotonergic system) were compared with those of methamphetamine (a derivative with specific action on dopaminergic system) in rats. Both drugs induced a very similar loss of body weight, especially evident 24 h after treatment. Their hyperthermic profile was also very similar and was dependent on ambient temperature, corroborating the thermo-dysregulatory effect of both substances. Methamphetamine (four injections of 10 mg kg(-1) s.c. at 2-h intervals) induced the loss of dopaminergic (35%) but not of serotonergic, terminals in the rat striatum and, simultaneously, a significant increase in striatal peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor density, pointing to a glial reaction. Evidence for this drug-induced astrogliosis was the increased heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) expression in striatum, cortex and hippocampus. MDMA (20 mg kg(-1) s.c. b.i.d. for 4 days) induced a similar dopaminergic lesion in the striatum 3 days post-treatment, which reversed 4 days later. An important neurotoxic effect on serotonergic terminals was also observed in the cortex, striatum and hippocampus 3 days post-treatment, which partially reversed 4 days later in the striatum and hippocampus. No microglial activation was noticeable at either 3 or 7 days after MDMA treatment. This lack of effect on microglial cells was assessed by [(3)H]PK 11195 binding and OX-6 immunostaining, which were unchanged in the striatum and cortex after MDMA treatment. A non-significant tendency to increase was noted in the hippocampus 3 days after MDMA treatment. Furthermore, in MDMA-treated rats, neither HSP27 expression nor an increase in HSP27 immunoreactivity were detected. This result, together with the lack of increase in glial fibrilliary acidic protein (GFAP) immunoreactivity, indicate no astroglial activation at either 3 or 7 days post-treatment. Without microglial activation, an inflammatory process would not accompany the lesion induced by MDMA. The differences in glial activation between methamphetamine and MDMA observed in the present study could have implications for the prognosis of the injury induced by these drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Pubill
- Unitat de Farmacologia i Farmacognòsia, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Nucli Universitari de Pedralbes, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Abstract
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) is a very popular drug of abuse. This has led to new intense concerns relevant to its nefarious neuropsychiatric effects. These adverse events might be related to the neurotoxic effects of the drug. Although the mechanisms of MDMA-induced neurotoxicity remain to be fully characterized, exposure to the drug can cause acute and long-term neurotoxic effects in animals and nonhuman primates. Recent studies have also documented possible toxic effects in the developing fetus. Nevertheless, there is still much debate concerning the effects of the drug in humans and how to best extrapolate animal and nonhuman primate data to the human condition. Herein, we review the evidence documenting the adverse effects of the drug in some animal models. We also discuss possible mechanisms for the development of MDMA neurotoxicity. Data supporting deleterious effects of this drug on the developing fetus are also described. Much remains to be done in order to clarify the molecular and biochemical pathways involved in the long-term neuroplastic changes associated with MDMA abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johnalyn Lyles
- Molecular Neuropsychiatry Branch, National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
De Letter EA, Espeel MFA, Craeymeersch MEC, Lambert WE, Clauwaert KM, Dams R, Mortier KA, Piette MHA. Immunohistochemical demonstration of the amphetamine derivatives 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) in human post-mortem brain tissues and the pituitary gland. Int J Legal Med 2003; 117:2-9. [PMID: 12592588 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-002-0290-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2001] [Accepted: 12/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Abuse of amphetamine derivatives such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) is an important issue in current forensic practice and fatalities are not infrequent. Therefore, we investigated an immunohistochemical method to detect the amphetamine analogues MDMA and MDA in human tissues. For the staining procedure, the Catalysed Signal Amplification (CSA) method using peroxidase (HRP) provided by Dako and specific monoclonal antibodies were used. Appropriate controls for validation of the technique were included. The distribution of these designer drugs was studied in various brain regions including the four lobes, the basal ganglia, hypothalamus, hippocampus, corpus callosum, medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellar vermis and, additionally, in the pituitary gland. A distinct positive reaction was observed in all cortical brain regions and the neurons of the basal ganglia, the hypothalamus, the hippocampus and the cerebellar vermis but in the brainstem, relatively weak staining of neurons was seen. The reaction presented as a mainly diffuse cytoplasmic staining of the perikaryon of the neurons, and often axons and dendrites were also visualised. In addition, the immunoreactivity was present in the white matter. In the pituitary gland, however, distinct immunopositive cells were observed, with a prominent heterogeneity. The immunohistochemical findings were supported by the toxicological data. This immunostaining technique can be used as evidence of intake or even poisoning with MDMA and/or MDA and can be an interesting tool in forensic practice when the usual samples for toxicological analysis are not available. Furthermore, this method can be used to investigate the distribution of these substances in the human body.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Els A De Letter
- Ghent University, Department of Forensic Medicine, J. Kluyskensstraat 29, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|