Global ecological, social and economic impacts of marine plastic

This research takes a holistic approach to considering the consequences of marine plastic pollution. A semi-systematic literature review of 1191 data points provides the basis to determine the global ecological, social and economic impacts. An ecosystem impact analysis demonstrates that there is global evidence of impact with medium to high frequency on all subjects, with a medium to high degree of irreversibility. A novel translation of these ecological impacts into ecosystem service impacts provides evidence that all ecosystem services are impacted to some extent by the presence of marine plastic, with a reduction in provision predicted for all except one. This reduction in ecosystem service provision is evidenced to have implications for human health and wellbeing, linked particularly to fisheries, heritage and charismatic species, and recreation.

The leakage of sewer systems and the impact on the 'black and odorous water bodies' and WWTPs in China

China has achieved significant progress on wastewater treatment and aquatic environmental protection. However, leakage (in- and exfiltration) of sewer systems is still an issue. By using the statistical data of water and wastewater in 2016 in China, and the person loads (PLs) of water and wastewater in Singapore, the leakage fractions of hydraulic flow, organic carbon (COD), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) mass loading, and in-sewer COD biological removal in the sewer systems of China (except Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan), Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing were reported for the first time. The fractions of hydraulic flow infiltration (13%, Shanghai and Guangzhou) and exfiltration (39%, China) were calculated. Except Beijing, whose sewer networks are under appropriate management with small leakage fractions, the exfiltration fractions of COD (including in-sewer biological COD removal) ranged from 41% (Shanghai) to 66% (China) and averaged 55%; N ranged from 18% (Shanghai) to 48% (China) and averaged 33%; and P ranged from 23% (Shanghai and Guangzhou) to 44% (China) and averaged 30%. The exfiltrated sewage, COD, N and P not only wastes resources, but also contaminates the aquatic environment (especially groundwater) and contributes to 'black and odorous water bodies'. In- and exfiltration in the sewer network leads to low influent COD concentration, C/N ratio and high inorganic solids and inert particulate COD concentrations of many municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) causing high cost for nutrient removal, poor resource recovery, additional reactor/settler volume requirement and other operational problems. Therefore, tackling sewer leakage is of primary importance to today's environment in China. Recommendations for the inspection of sewer systems and the rehabilitation of damaged sewers as well as the development of design and operation guidelines of municipal WWTPs tailored to the specific local sewage characteristics and other conditions are proposed.

Effects of an invasive polychaete on benthic phosphorus cycling at sea basin scale: An ecosystem disservice

Macrofaunal activities in sediments modify nutrient fluxes in different ways including the expression of species-specific functional traits and density-dependent population processes. The invasive polychaete genus Marenzelleria was first observed in the Baltic Sea in the 1980s. It has caused changes in benthic processes and affected the functioning of ecosystem services such as nutrient regulation. The large-scale effects of these changes are not known. We estimated the current Marenzelleria spp. wet weight biomass in the Baltic Sea to be 60-87 kton (95% confidence interval). We assessed the potential impact of Marenzelleria spp. on phosphorus cycling using a spatially explicit model, comparing estimates of expected sediment to water phosphorus fluxes from a biophysical model to ecologically relevant experimental measurements of benthic phosphorus flux. The estimated yearly net increases (95% CI) in phosphorous flux due to Marenzelleria spp. were 4.2-6.1 kton based on the biophysical model and 6.3-9.1 kton based on experimental data. The current biomass densities of Marenzelleria spp. in the Baltic Sea enhance the phosphorus fluxes from sediment to water on a sea basin scale. Although high densities of Marenzelleria spp. can increase phosphorus retention locally, such biomass densities are uncommon. Thus, the major effect of Marenzelleria seems to be a large-scale net decrease in the self-cleaning capacity of the Baltic Sea that counteracts human efforts to mitigate eutrophication in the region.

Balancing environmental quality standards and infrastructure upgrade costs for the reduction of microcontaminant loads in rivers

Investments for upgrading wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) with tertiary treatment to reduce microcontaminant loads in surface waters at a catchment scale can be daunting. These investments are highly sensitive to the selection of environmental quality standards (EQSs) for the target microcontaminants. Our hypothesis is that there is a balance between EQS selection and investment that needs to be considered in decision-making. We used a customized microcontaminant fate and transport model coupled to an optimization algorithm to validate this hypothesis in the Llobregat river basin and for the pharmaceutical compound diclofenac. The algorithm optimizes the number of WWTPs in this catchment requiring an upgrade to minimize the total amount of diclofenac that exceeds the EQS in every river section and the total cost. We simulated and optimized 40 scenarios representing a combination of 4 potential EQSs (10, 30, 50 and 100 ng L^-1), 5 levels of uncertainty bounds in the predictions of river concentrations and 2 hydrological scenarios (average flows, flows annually exceeding 30% of the days; and environmental flows, flows annually exceeding 99% of the days). The results showthat there is a nonlinear relationship between the EQS and the required investment. The investment increases by 100% from an EQS of 100 ng L^-1 to 10 ng L^-1, significantly increasing (by 60%) from 30 to 10 ng L^-1. Thus, establishing an EQS of 30 ng L^-1 would balance environmental protection and costs. The selection of the hydrological conditions also plays a key role in the upgrade analysis because the costs for environmental flows are 50% higher than for average flows. Finally, we highlight that the investment in research would allow the reduction of uncertainties, hence allowing more qualified decisions to be made and a reduction in the WWTP upgrade costs (up to 4 €·household^-1·year^-1).

Exploring public views on marine litter in Europe: Perceived causes, consequences and pathways to change

Marine litter is a global challenge and society plays an important role via lifestyles and behaviour, including policy support. We analysed public perceptions of marine litter and contributing factors, using data from 1133 respondents across 16 European countries. People reported high levels of concern about marine litter, and the vast majority (95%) reported seeing litter when visiting the coast. The problem was attributed to product and packaging design and behaviour rather than lack of facilities or accidental loss of items. Retailers, industry and government were perceived as most responsible, but also least motivated and competent to reduce marine litter, whereas scientists and environmental groups were perceived as least responsible but most motivated and competent. Regression analyses demonstrated the importance of psychological factors such as values and social norms above sociodemographic variables. These findings are important for communications and interventions to reduce inputs of marine litter to the natural environment.

Monetary valuation of salicylic acid, methylparaben and THCOOH in a Mediterranean coastal wetland through the shadow prices methodology

The presence of pharmaceutical and personal care products and drugs of abuse (PPCPs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) indicates discharge of the effluent may not be suitable for the ecological balance of water ecosystems, such as wetlands. These PPCPs degrade water quality, considered as an ecosystem service (ES), provoking serious environmental impacts. Assessing the monetary value of PPCPs can be used as a proxy for environmental status of the ES of water quality (ESWQ). Considering PPCPs as non-desirable outputs of WWTPs, the shadow prices methodology has been implemented using directional distance function to measure the environmental avoided cost of removing salicylic acid (SA), methylparaben (MP), and THCOOH from WWTPs effluents discharged to Albufera Natural Park (Spain). The SA shows the highest shadow price (138.16 €/μg), followed by THCOOH (48.15 €/μg), and MP (30.66 €/μg). These values are interpreted as the environmental cost that would be avoided if SA, MP, and THCOOH were removed from WWTPs effluents. The non-parametric tests show that wastewater treatment technology, together with population equivalent (as a proxy of the size of urban areas) and seasonality are factors that influence shadow prices obtained. The approach used in this study highlights the use of PPCPs as status indicators of ESWQ quantified in monetary units. As a way to synthesize the essential concepts to implement the shadow prices approach, this study proposes a flow diagram to represent the relationship between all the factors involved in this work. The use of shadow prices methodology proves that removing SA, MP, and THCOOH is associated with a measurable improvement in the ESWQ of Albufera Natural Park. The findings of this study will be useful for plant managers in order to make decisions about the removal of PPCPs in WWTPs effluents.

Effluent trading in river systems through stochastic decision-making process: a case study

The objective of this paper is to provide an efficient framework for effluent trading in river systems. The proposed framework consists of two pessimistic and optimistic decision-making models to increase the executability of river water quality trading programs. The models used for this purpose are (1) stochastic fallback bargaining (SFB) to reach an agreement among wastewater dischargers and (2) stochastic multi-criteria decision-making (SMCDM) to determine the optimal treatment strategy. The Monte-Carlo simulation method is used to incorporate the uncertainty into analysis. This uncertainty arises from stochastic nature and the errors in the calculation of wastewater treatment costs. The results of river water quality simulation model are used as the inputs of models. The proposed models are used in a case study on the Zarjoub River in northern Iran to determine the best solution for the pollution load allocation. The best treatment alternatives selected by each model are imported, as the initial pollution discharge permits, into an optimization model developed for trading of pollution discharge permits among pollutant sources. The results show that the SFB-based water pollution trading approach reduces the costs by US$ 14,834 while providing a relative consensus among pollutant sources. Meanwhile, the SMCDM-based water pollution trading approach reduces the costs by US$ 218,852, but it is less acceptable by pollutant sources. Therefore, it appears that giving due attention to stability, or in other words acceptability of pollution trading programs for all pollutant sources, is an essential element of their success.

A coupled Bio-EF process for mineralization of the pharmaceuticals furosemide and ranitidine: Feasibility assessment

A coupled Bio-EF treatment has been applied as a reliable process for the degradation of the pharmaceuticals furosemide (FRSM) and ranitidine (RNTD) in aqueous medium, in order to reduce the high energy consumption related to electrochemical technology. In the first stage of this study, electrochemical degradation of the drugs was assessed by the electro-Fenton process (EF) using a BDD/carbon-felt cell. Biodegradability of the drugs solutions was enhanced reaching BOD5/COD ratios close to the biodegradability threshold of 0.4, evidencing the formation of bio-compatible by-products (mainly short-chain carboxylic acids) which are suitable for biological post-treatment. Moreover, toxicity evaluation by the Microtox(®) method revealed that EF pre-treatment was able of detoxifying both, FRSM and RNTD solutions, constituting another indicator of biodegradability of EF treated solutions. In the second stage, electrolyzed solutions were treated by means of an aerobic biological process. A significant part of the short-chain carboxylic acids formed during the electrochemical phase was satisfactorily removed by the used selected microorganisms. The results obtained demonstrate the efficiency and feasibility of the integrated Bio-EF process.

Containment and attenuating layers: An affordable strategy that preserves soil and water from landfill pollution

The performance of a widely distributed natural clay to attenuate contaminants released from an old landfill was investigated. The objective is to evaluate its potential use as a barrier for waste containment systems. Core samples of the natural clay were collected below the landfill and their parameters distribution with depth was determined. Partition coefficients, retardation factors and percentage values of pollutants concentrations, revealed a rapid decrease of contaminants with depth. The background values of the pollutants were below the maximum limits for drinking and irrigation water and with no need of reactors, collectors, aeration or recirculation systems. Impermeable waste capping is discouraged in order to decrease leachate toxicity, decomposition time and conservative species, and in order to avoid high-reducing conditions that would mobilize redox-sensitive contaminants. A review on leachate-composition evolution and on natural-attenuation processes was undertaken to understand the interactions leachate-substratum, which is essential to properly estimate the leachate transport and implement the attenuation strategy. This strategy complements the traditional containment one regarding (1) the susceptibility of engineering liners to fail, (2) the inevitable diffusion of contaminants through them, (3) the remaining high number of old landfills before the requirements of liner systems and (4) the low-cost and feasibility for developing countries.

How to manage future groundwater resource of China under climate change and urbanization: An optimal stage investment design from modern portfolio theory

Groundwater management in China has been facing challenges from both climate change and urbanization and is considered as a national priority nowadays. However, unprecedented uncertainty exists in future scenarios making it difficult to formulate management planning paradigms. In this paper, we apply modern portfolio theory (MPT) to formulate an optimal stage investment of groundwater contamination remediation in China. This approach generates optimal weights of investment to each stage of the groundwater management and helps maximize expected return while minimizing overall risk in the future. We find that the efficient frontier of investment displays an upward-sloping shape in risk-return space. The expected value of groundwater vulnerability index increases from 0.6118 to 0.6230 following with the risk of uncertainty increased from 0.0118 to 0.0297. If management investment is constrained not to exceed certain total cost until 2050 year, the efficient frontier could help decision makers make the most appropriate choice on the trade-off between risk and return.

A fuzzy rule based remedial priority ranking system for contaminated sites

Contaminated site remediation is generally difficult, time consuming, and expensive. As a result ranking may aid in efficient allocation of resources. In order to rank the priorities of contaminated sites, input parameters relevant to contaminant fate and transport, and exposure assessment should be as accurate as possible. Yet, in most cases these parameters are vague or not precise. Most of the current remediation priority ranking methodologies overlook the vagueness in parameter values or do not go beyond assigning a contaminated site to a risk class. The main objective of this study is to develop an alternative remedial priority ranking system (RPRS) for contaminated sites in which vagueness in parameter values is considered. RPRS aims to evaluate potential human health risks due to contamination using sufficiently comprehensive and readily available parameters in describing the fate and transport of contaminants in air, soil, and groundwater. Vagueness in parameter values is considered by means of fuzzy set theory. A fuzzy expert system is proposed for the evaluation of contaminated sites and a software (ConSiteRPRS) is developed in Microsoft Office Excel 2007 platform. Rankings are employed for hypothetical and real sites. Results show that RPRS is successful in distinguishing between the higher and lower risk cases.

Application of the environmental Gini coefficient in allocating water governance responsibilities: a case study in Taihu Lake Basin, China

The equitable allocation of water governance responsibilities is very important yet difficult to achieve, particularly for a basin which involves many stakeholders and policymakers. In this study, the environmental Gini coefficient model was applied to evaluate the inequality of water governance responsibility allocation, and an environmental Gini coefficient optimisation model was built to achieve an optimal adjustment. To illustrate the application of the environmental Gini coefficient, the heavily polluted transboundary Taihu Lake Basin in China, was chosen as a case study. The results show that the original environmental Gini coefficient of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was greater than 0.2, indicating that the allocation of water governance responsibilities in Taihu Lake Basin was unequal. Of seven decision-making units, three were found to be inequality factors and were adjusted to reduce the water pollutant emissions and to increase the water governance inputs. After the adjustment, the environmental Gini coefficient of the COD was less than 0.2 and the reduction rate was 27.63%. The adjustment process provides clear guidance for policymakers to develop appropriate policies and improve the equality of water governance responsibility allocation.

Baltic Sea nutrient reductions--what should we aim for?

Nutrient load reductions are needed to improve the state of the Baltic Sea, but it is still under debate how they should be implemented. In this paper, we use data from an environmental valuation study conducted in all nine Baltic Sea states to investigate public preferences of relevance to three of the involved decision-dimensions: First, the roles of nitrogen versus phosphorus reductions causing different eutrophication effects; second, the role of time - the lag between actions to reduce nutrient loads and perceived improvements; and third; the spatial dimension and the roles of actions targeting the coastal and open sea environment and different sub-basins. Our findings indicate that respondents view and value the Baltic Sea environment as a whole, and are not focussed only on their local sea area, or a particular aspect of water quality. We argue that public preferences concerning these three perspectives should be one of the factors guiding marine policy. This requires considering the entire range of eutrophication effects, in coastal and open sea areas, and including long-term and short-term measures.

Nutrient abatement potential and abatement costs of waste water treatment plants in the Baltic Sea region

We assess the physical potential to reduce nutrient loads from waste water treatment plants in the Baltic Sea region and determine the costs of abating nutrients based on the estimated potential. We take a sample of waste water treatment plants of different size classes and generalize its properties to the whole population of waste water treatment plants. Based on a detailed investment and operational cost data on actual plants, we develop the total and marginal abatement cost functions for both nutrients. To our knowledge, our study is the first of its kind; there is no other study on this issue which would take advantage of detailed data on waste water treatment plants at this extent. We demonstrate that the reduction potential of nutrients is huge in waste water treatment plants. Increasing the abatement in waste water treatment plants can result in 70 % of the Baltic Sea Action Plan nitrogen reduction target and 80 % of the Baltic Sea Action Plan phosphorus reduction target. Another good finding is that the costs of reducing both nutrients are much lower than previously thought. The large reduction of nitrogen would cost 670 million euros and of phosphorus 150 million euros. We show that especially for phosphorus the abatement costs in agriculture would be much higher than in waste water treatment plants.

Application of analytical hierarchy process for effective selection of agricultural best management practices

In this study an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used for ranking best management practices (BMPs) in the Saginaw River Watershed based on environmental, economic and social factors. Three spatial targeting methods were used for placement of BMPs on critical source areas (CSAs). The environment factors include sediment, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus reductions at the subbasin level and the watershed outlet. Economic factors were based on total BMP cost, including installation, maintenance, and opportunity costs. Social factors were divided into three favorability rankings (most favorable, moderately favorable, and least favorable) based on area allocated to each BMP. Equal weights (1/3) were considered for the three main factors while calculating the BMP rank by AHP. In this study three scenarios were compared. A comprehensive approach in which environmental, economic, and social aspects are simultaneously considered (Scenario 1) versus more traditional approaches in which both environmental and economic aspects were considered (Scenario 2) or only environmental aspects (sediment, TN, and TP) were considered (Scenario 3). In Scenario 1, only stripcropping (moderately favorable) was selected on all CSAs at the subbasin level, whereas stripcropping (49-69% of CSAs) and residue management (most favorable, 31-51% of CSAs) were selected by AHP based on the watershed outlet and three spatial targeting methods. In Scenario 2, native grass was eliminated by moderately preferable BMPs (stripcropping) both at the subbasin and watershed outlet levels due the lower BMP implementations cost compared to native grass. Finally, in Scenario 3, at subbasin level, the least socially preferable BMP (native grass) was selected in 100% of CSAs due to greater pollution reduction capacity compared to other BMPs. At watershed level, nearly 50% the CSAs selected stripcropping, and the remaining 50% of CSAs selected native grass and residue management equally.

A probabilistic model estimating oil spill clean-up costs--a case study for the Gulf of Finland

Existing models estimating oil spill costs at sea are based on data from the past, and they usually lack a systematic approach. This make them passive, and limits their ability to forecast the effect of the changes in the oil combating fleet or location of a spill on the oil spill costs. In this paper we make an attempt towards the development of a probabilistic and systematic model estimating the costs of clean-up operations for the Gulf of Finland. For this purpose we utilize expert knowledge along with the available data and information from literature. Then, the obtained information is combined into a framework with the use of a Bayesian Belief Networks. Due to lack of data, we validate the model by comparing its results with existing models, with which we found good agreement. We anticipate that the presented model can contribute to the cost-effective oil-combating fleet optimization for the Gulf of Finland. It can also facilitate the accident consequences estimation in the framework of formal safety assessment (FSA).

Economic analysis of best management practices to reduce watershed phosphorus losses

In phosphorus-limited freshwater systems, small increases in phosphorus (P) concentrations can lead to eutrophication. To reduce P inputs to these systems, various environmental and agricultural agencies provide producers with incentives to implement best management practices (BMPs). In this study, we examine both the water quality and economic consequences of systematically protecting saturated, runoff-generating areas from active agriculture with selected BMPs. We also examine the joint water quality/economic impacts of these BMPs-specifically BMPs focusing on barnyards and buffer areas. Using the Variable Source Loading Function model (a modified Generalized Watershed Loading Function model) and net present value analysis (NPV), the results indicate that converting runoff-prone agricultural land to buffers and installing barnyard BMPs are both highly effective in decreasing dissolved P loss from a single-farm watershed, but are also costly for the producer. On average, including barnyard BMPs decreases the nutrient loading by about 5.5% compared with only implementing buffers. The annualized NPV for installing both buffers on only the wettest areas of the landscape and implementing barnyard BMPs becomes positive only if the BMPs lifetime exceeds 15 yr. The spatial location of the BMPs in relation to runoff producing areas, the time frame over which the BMPs are implemented, and the marginal costs of increasing buffer size were found to be the most critical considerations for water quality and profitability. The framework presented here incorporates estimations of nutrient loading reductions in the economic analysis, and is applicable to farms facing BMP adoption decisions.

Does the Coase theorem hold in real markets? An application to the negotiations between waterworks and farmers in Denmark

The Coase theorem depends on a number of assumptions, among others, perfect information about each other's payoff function, maximising behaviour and zero transaction costs. An important question is whether the Coase theorem holds for real market transactions when these assumptions are violated. This is the question examined in this paper. We consider the results of Danish waterworks' attempts to establish voluntary cultivation agreements with Danish farmers. A survey of these negotiations shows that the Coase theorem is not robust in the presence of imperfect information, non-maximising behaviour and transaction costs. Thus, negotiations between Danish waterworks and farmers may not be a suitable mechanism to achieve efficiency in the protection of groundwater quality due to violations of the assumptions of the Coase theorem. The use of standard schemes or government intervention (e.g. expropriation) may, under some conditions, be a more effective and cost efficient approach for the protection of vulnerable groundwater resources in Denmark.

Mercury policy in the Great Lakes states: past successes and future opportunities

While mercury (Hg) releases to air and water within the Great Lakes states have declined significantly, concentrations of mercury in fish remain a cause for concern regarding human and ecosystem health in the Great Lakes Basin. This paper assesses the priority that Hg source reduction ought to have in relation to some other environmental concerns, and explores the relative costs of various Hg reduction policies. Long-range transport of atmospheric mercury creates a collective action problem for states, since most of the mercury emitted within any given state deposits outside that state's borders, and since most of the mercury deposited within a state originated outside that state. This paper discusses some of the mechanisms that policy makers in the Great Lakes states employed to get beyond the collective action problem, including: providing an example for others to follow; using cross-jurisdiction cooperation to leverage the benefits of leadership on Hg reduction and control; and, promoting voluntary actions. Recommendations for future opportunities include: focusing reduction efforts on sources with the highest total mass of emissions rather than solely focusing on reduction of local deposition and utilizing all tools available in the clean air and clean water acts.

[Applications of habitat equivalency analysis in ecological damage assessment of oil spill incident]

Habitat equivalency analysis (HEA) is one of the methods commonly used by U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in natural resources damage assessment, but rarely applied in China. Based on the theory of HEA and the assessment practices of domestic oil spill incidents, a modification on the HEA was made in this paper, and applied to calculate the habitat value in oil spill incidents. According to the data collected from an oil spill incident in China, the modified HEA was applied in a case study to scale the compensatory-restoration. By introducing the ecological service equivalent factor to transfer various habitats, it was achieved to value of the injured habitats in ecological damage assessment of oil spill incident.

The early psychological impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on Florida and Alabama communities

BACKGROUND

Although public concern has focused on the environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the public health impact on a broad range of coastal communities is minimally known.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine the acute level of distress (depression, anxiety), mechanisms of adjustment (coping, resilience), and perceived risk in a community indirectly impacted by the oil spill and to identify the extent to which economic loss may explain these factors.

METHODS

Using a community-based participatory model, we performed standardized assessments of psychological distress (mood, anxiety), coping, resilience, neurocognition, and perceived risk on residents of fishing communities who were indirectly impacted (n = 71, Franklin County, Florida) or directly exposed (n = 23, Baldwin County, Alabama) to coastal oil. We also compared findings for participants who reported income stability (n = 47) versus spill-related income loss (n = 47).

RESULTS

We found no significant differences between community groups in terms of psychological distress, adjustment, neurocognition, or environmental worry. Residents of both communities displayed clinically significant depression and anxiety. Relative to those with stable incomes, participants with spill-related income loss had significantly worse scores on tension/anxiety, depression, fatigue, confusion, and total mood disturbance scales; had higher rates of depression; were less resilient; and were more likely to use behavioral disengagement as a coping strategy.

CONCLUSIONS

Current estimates of human health impacts associated with the oil spill may underestimate the psychological impact in Gulf Coast communities that did not experience direct exposure to oil. Income loss after the spill may have a greater psychological health impact than the presence of oil on the immediately adjacent shoreline.

Sustainable use of arsenic-removing sand filters in Vietnam: psychological and social factors

Elevated arsenic concentrations in drinking water pose a health threat to millions of people. Although point-of-use sand filters provide an effective technical solution for mitigating arsenic exposure, the actual reduction in health risk also depends on psychological factors that influence behaviors related to this device. For example, acquiring a sand filter must be preferred to competing options for investing effort and money and, once installed, the users must regularly maintain the filters. These key behaviors of sustainable use are related to psychological factors, such as problem awareness, benefits and costs, social and affective influences, and the perception of practical difficulties. This study investigated the sustainable use of arsenic-removing sand filters in Vietnam. Based on questionnaire surveys, data were gathered in 319 rural households and analyzed with regression models. Psychological factors explained significant variance in the investigated key behaviors. Significant factors included perceived improvements in water healthiness and taste, monetary costs, social norms, and affective influences. In questions with open answers, interviewees mentioned various practical problems, particularly those related to the inflexibility of the device and the effort of changing the sand. Interestingly, many interviewees operate the sand filters for removing iron from the water but are unaware of problems with arsenic.

Risk acceptance criterion for tanker oil spill risk reduction measures

This paper is aimed at investigating whether there is ample support for the view that the acceptance criterion for evaluating measures for prevention of oil spills from tankers should be based on cost-effectiveness considerations. One such criterion can be reflected by the Cost of Averting a Tonne of oil Spilt (CATS) whereas its target value is updated by elaborating the inherent uncertainties of oil spill costs and establishing a value for the criterion's assurance factor. To this end, a value of $80,000/t is proposed as a sensible CATS criterion and the proposed value for the assurance factor F=1.5 is supported by the retrieved Protection and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs' Annual Reports. It is envisaged that this criterion would allow the conversion of direct and indirect costs into a non-market value for the optimal allocation of resources between the various parties investing in shipping. A review of previous cost estimation models on oil spills is presented and a probability distribution (log-normal) is fitted on the available oil spill cost data, where it should be made abundantly clear that the mean value of the distribution is used for deriving the updated CATS criterion value. However, the difference between the initial and the updated CATS criterion in the percentiles of the distribution is small. It is found through the current analysis that results are partly lower than the predicted values from the published estimation models. The costs are also found to depend on the type of accident, which is in agreement with the results of previous studies. Other proposals on acceptance criteria are reviewed and it is asserted that the CATS criterion can be considered as the best candidate. Evidence is provided that the CATS approach is practical and meaningful by including examples of successful applications in actual risk assessments. Finally, it is suggested that the criterion may be refined subject to more readily available cost data and experience gained from future decisions.

Why metrics matter: evaluating policy choices for reactive nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay watershed

Despite major efforts, the reduction of reactive nitrogen (Nr) using traditional metrics and policy tools for the Chesapeake Bay has slowed in recent years. In this article, we apply the concept of the Nitrogen Cascade to the chemically dynamic nature and multiple sources of Nr to examine the temporal and spatial movement of different forms of Nr through multiple ecosystems and media. We also demonstrate the benefit of using more than the traditional mass fluxes to set criteria for action. The use of multiple metrics provides additional information about where the most effective intervention point might be. Utilizing damage costs or mortality metrics demonstrates that even though the mass fluxes to the atmosphere are lower than direct releases to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, total damage costs to all ecosystems and health are higher because of the cascade of Nr and the associated damages, and because they exact a higher human health cost. Abatement costs for reducing Nr releases into the air are also lower. These findings have major implications for the use of multiple metrics and the additional benefits of expanding the scope of concern beyond the Bay itself and support improved coordination between the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts while restoring the Chesapeake Bay.

Least-cost control of agricultural nutrient contributions to the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone

In 2008, the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico, measuring 20 720 km2, was one of the two largest reported since measurement of the zone began in 1985. The extent of the hypoxic zone is related to nitrogen and phosphorous loadings originating on agricultural fields in the upper Midwest. This study combines the tools of evolutionary computation with a water quality model and cost data to develop a trade-off frontier for the Upper Mississippi River Basin specifying the least cost of achieving nutrient reductions and the location of the agricultural conservation practices needed. The frontier allows policymakers and stakeholders to explicitly see the trade-offs between cost and nutrient reductions. For example, the cost of reducing annual nitrate-N loadings by 30% is estimated to be US$1.4 billion/year, with a concomitant 36% reduction in P and the cost of reducing annual P loadings by 30% is estimated to be US$370 million/year, with a concomitant 9% reduction in nitrate-N.

The costs of meeting the environmental objectives for the Baltic Sea: a review of the literature

The environmental targets of the recently agreed Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) targets are likely associated with a considerable cost, which motivates a search for low-cost policies. The following review shows there is a substantial literature on cost-efficient nutrient reduction strategies, including suggestions regarding low-cost abatement, but actual policies at international and national scale tend to be considerably more expensive due to lack of instruments that ensure a cost-efficient allocation of abatement across countries and sectors. Economic research on the costs of reducing hazardous substances and oil spill damages in the Baltic Sea is not available, but lessons from the international literature suggest that resources could be used more efficiently if appropriate analysis is undertaken. Common to these pollution problems is the need to ensure that all countries in the region are provided with positive incentives to implement international agreements.

Estimating costs and potentials of different methods to reduce the Swedish phosphorus load from agriculture to surface water

This paper reviews 17 measures to reduce phosphorus leakage from Swedish agriculture to surface waters. Our aim is to evaluate the possible contribution from agriculture to achieve environmental goals including the Baltic Sea Action Plan. Using a regional approach integrating the variability in field specific characteristics, typical costs and national potential for the included measures may be estimated without identifying, e.g., suitable individual fields for implementation. The result may be helpful to select suitable measures but may also influence the design of environmental targets before they are determined. We find that the cheapest measures are reduced phosphorus content in animal food and fertilizer application supervision in pig farms, both measures with annual potentials of around 50t each, and costs of euro7 to euro11 kg(-1)yr(-1). The total potential of the listed measures is an annual phosphorus reduction to surface waters of 242t. If the most expensive measures are excluded (>euro1000 kg(-1)yr(-1)) and including retention in lakes the phosphorus transport to the sea could be reduced by 165 t yr(-1). This amount can be compared with the Swedish commitment in the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) to reduce input to the Baltic Proper by 290 t yr(-1).

Operating costs for reducing total emission loads of key pollutants in municipal wastewater treatment plants in China

Total emission load reduction of COD, NH(4)-N, TN, and TP is the key measure in controlling water pollution and eutrophication. Municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) are major contributors in lowering energy consumption and reducing pollutant discharge. The flow-based operating costs have not been directly established to relate to costs of pollutant reduction based on an investigation of 11 MWWTPs in China. However, energy consumption to eliminate one kilogram of COD or NH(4)-N was observed to decrease when the total reduced pollutants is increased. Additional energy consumption required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus is allotted for mixers and internal return pumps. Major factors for operating costs include influent and effluent concentration, design capacity, and flow loading rate. Therefore, an operating cost model for the total emission load reduction of COD, NH(4)-N, TN, and TP was developed based on energy consumption and the above mentioned major factors. Using this model to calculate the operating costs for MWWTPs would facilitate more reduction of key pollutants than the flow-based method.

Integrating ecological and economic modeling of eutrophication: toward optimal solutions for a coastal area suffering from sediment release of phosphorus

This paper puts forward a model for managing eutrophication that integrates the salient ecological and economic characteristics of a coastal area suffering from severe nutrient enrichment. The model links the development of phosphorus concentration over time to nutrient emissions from agriculture and habitation. It accounts for differences in agricultural and municipal abatement options and their costs, as well as the need to undertake irreversible investments to set up wastewater treatment facilities. Furthermore, it considers sediment release of phosphorus as a function of annual nutrient loads. The model is parameterized for a 30-km-wide area off the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Finland. The socially optimal policy, which minimizes the sum of monetary damage caused by eutrophication and the costs of nutrient abatement over time, is determined using a dynamic programming approach. The results suggest that considerable investments are warranted to bring wastewater treatment facilities up to date. Continued efforts to reduce agricultural nutrient loading are nevertheless also called for. The analysis provided is a first step toward an integrated analysis of eutrophication that accounts for complexities inherent in the problem, such as sediment release of phosphorus and irreversible investments in abatement technology. The results are sensitive in particular to ecological assumptions and parameterization, and further research is needed in these areas.

An interval-parameter waste-load-allocation model for river water quality management under uncertainty

A simulation-based interval quadratic waste load allocation (IQWLA) model was developed for supporting river water quality management. A multi-segment simulation model was developed to generate water-quality transformation matrices and vectors under steady-state river flow conditions. The established matrices and vectors were then used to establish the water-quality constraints that were included in a water quality management model. Uncertainties associated with water quality parameters, cost functions, and environmental guidelines were described as intervals. The cost functions of wastewater treatment units were expressed in quadratic forms. A water-quality planning problem in the Changsha section of Xiangjiang River in China was used as a study case to demonstrate applicability of the proposed method. The study results demonstrated that IQWLA model could effectively communicate the interval-format uncertainties into optimization process, and generate inexact solutions that contain a spectrum of potential wastewater treatment options. Decision alternatives can be generated by adjusting different combinations of the decision variables within their solution intervals. The results are valuable for supporting local decision makers in generating cost-effective water quality management strategies.

Degradation of xenobiotics originating from the textile preparation, dyeing, and finishing industry using ozonation and advanced oxidation

Effluents from textile preparation, dyeing, and finishing processes contain high concentrations of biologically difficult-to-degrade or even inert auxiliaries. Under these circumstances, it most often becomes inevitable to apply energy-intense and hence "imperative" treatment technologies (so-called advanced oxidation processes, AOPs) to achieve an acceptable reduction in the organic content of the effluent, thereby improving the biocompatibility of the originally refractory wastewater. The present experimental study focused on three problematic dyehouse effluent streams in order to alleviate the problem of toxicity and recalcitrance arising from the use of certain textile chemicals at source. For that purpose, the textile preparation stage was simulated by a nonionic surfactant (NS), the polyamide dyeing stage by a synthetic tannin (syntan; ST), and an aqueous biocidal finishing (BF) solution was employed to mimic typical textile finishing effluent. Synthetic effluent streams bearing NS, ST, or BF were subjected to treatment with different, well-established AOPs (ozonation at varying pH; advanced oxidation with H(2)O(2)/UV-C at varying H(2)O(2) concentrations) in order to degrade the active ingredients of the auxiliary formulations, thereby eliminating their toxicity and recalcitrance. Baseline experiments were conducted in order to optimize AOP conditions that were consecutively applied to observe changes in the originally poor effluent biodegradability and high toxicity. Obtained experimental findings revealed that (i) the COD content of NS could be reduced by at least 50% after H(2)O(2)/UV-C treatment at pH 9.0 accompanied by a nearly twofold improvement in its already fair biodegradability; (ii) the inhibitory effect of the biochemically reluctant ST on heterotrophic biomass was completely eliminated upon ozonation (dose=900 mg h(-1)) at pH 3.5; and (iii) the microbial toxicity exerted by BF totally disappeared after ozonation (dose=600 mg h(-1)) at pH 7.2. However, the achievement of detoxification and/or biodegradability improvement was accompanied with high electrical energy requirements.

The Prestige oil spill and its economic impact on the Galician fishing sector

The sinking of the Prestige oil tanker on 18 November 2002 off the coast of Galicia, Spain, had important economic, environmental and social ramifications. The aim of this paper is to carry out an initial analysis of the costs related to a halt in fishing activities in Galicia between November 2002 and December 2003. This involves three different steps: an assessment of the cost of the preventative and palliative measures introduced by Spanish public administrations (compensation for affected fishermen and shellfish fisherman); an indirect evaluation of the implications of the disaster (via a study of data on production); and a direct appraisal of the economic impact of the event (reduction in income), using questionnaires completed by a representative sample of fishermen and shellfish fisherman. The results obtained from these three methods of estimating losses are compatible. By December 2003, losses to the Galician fishing sector stood at an estimated EUR 76 million.

Rural communities' preferences for arsenic mitigation options in Bangladesh

In the context of arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, this paper analyses rural people's preferences for arsenic-free drinking water options. A particular focus is on rural households' willingness to pay for piped water supply which can provide a sustainable solution to the arsenic problem, and how the preference for piped water supply compares with that for various other household/community-based arsenic mitigation technologies. The analysis is based on data collected in a survey of over 2700 households in rural Bangladesh. Six arsenic mitigation technologies were selected for the study: three-kolshi (pitcher) method, activated alumina method (household-based and community-based), dugwell, pond sand filter and deep tubewell (handpump). The survey results indicate that, after taking into consideration the initial and recurring costs, convenience, associated risks and the advantages and disadvantages of each selected technology, the preference of the rural people is overwhelmingly in favor of deep tubewells, followed by the three-kolshi method. The analysis reveals a strong demand for piped water in both arsenic-affected and arsenic-free rural areas, and scope of adequate cost recovery. Between piped water and other arsenic mitigation technologies, the preference of the rural people is found to be predominantly in favor of the former.

Valuing river characteristics using combined site choice and participation travel cost models

This paper presents new welfare measures for marginal changes in river quality in selected English rivers. The river quality indicators used include chemical, biological and habitat-level attributes. Economic values for recreational use of three types of river-upland, lowland and chalk-are presented. A survey of anglers was carried out and using these data, two travel cost models were estimated, one to predict the numbers of trips and the other to predict angling site choice. These models were then linked to estimate the welfare associated with marginal changes in river quality using the participation levels as estimated in the trip prediction model. The model results showed that higher flow rates, biological quality and nutrient pollution levels affect site choice and influence the likelihood of a fishing trip. Consumer surplus values per trip for a 10% change in river attributes range from pound 0.04 to pound 3.93 ( pound 2001) depending on the attribute.

The influence of metal source uncertainty on cost-effective allocation of mine water pollution abatement in catchments

In mine water pollution abatement, it is commonly assumed that known mine waste sites are the major pollution sources, thus neglecting the possibility of significant contribution from other old and diffuse sources within a catchment. We investigate the influence of different types of pollution source uncertainty on cost-effective allocation of abatement measures for mine water pollution. A catchment-scale cost-minimization model is developed and applied to the catchment of the river Dalälven, Sweden, in order to exemplify important effects of such source uncertainty. Results indicate that, if the pollution distribution between point and diffuse sources is partly unknown, downstream abatement measures, such as constructed wetlands, at given compliance boundaries are often cost-effective. If downstream abatement measures are not practically feasible, the pollution source distribution between point and diffuse mine water sources is critical for cost-effective solutions to abatement measure allocation in catchments. In contrast, cost-effective solutions are relatively insensitive to uncertainty in total pollutant discharge from mine water sources.

Cost-effectiveness of removing amalgam from dental wastewater

Mercury in the form of amalgam is commonly introduced into dental wastewater as a result of amalgam placements and removals. Dental wastewater is primarily discharged to municipal sewers that convey industrial and residential wastewater to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) for treatment prior to discharge to surface waters. In some localities, the sewage sludge generated by POTWs from the treatment of wastewater is incinerated, resulting in the emission of mercury to the atmosphere. Some of the mercury emitted from the incinerators is deposited locally or regionally and will enter surface waters. An assessment was conducted of the use of mercury in amalgam in California and the discharge of that mercury from dental facilities to surface waters via the effluent from POTWs and air emissions from sewage sludge incinerators (SSIs). The annual use of mercury in amalgam placements conducted in California was estimated to be approximately 2.5 tons. The annual discharge of mercury in the form of amalgam from dental facilities to POTWs as a result of amalgam placements and removals was estimated as approximately one ton. The discharge of mercury to surface waters in California via POTW effluents and SSI emissions was estimated to total approximately 163 pounds. A cost-effectiveness analysis determined that the annual cost to the California dental industry to reduce mercury discharges to surface waters through the use of amalgam separators would range from 130,000 dollars to 280,000 dollars per pound.

An overview and analysis of site remediation technologies

This paper presents an analysis of the site restoration techniques that may be employed in a variety of contaminated site cleanup programs. It is recognized that no single specific technology may be considered as a panacea for all contaminated site problems. An easy-to-use summary of the analysis of the important parameters that will help in the selection and implementation of one or more appropriate technologies in a defined set of site and contaminant characteristics is also included.

Phycoremediation: key issues for cost-effective nutrient removal processes

Phycoremediation applied to the removal of nutrients from animal wastewater and other high organic content wastewater is a field with a great potential and demand considering that surface and underground water bodies in several regions of the world are suffering of eutrophication. However, the development of more efficient nutrient removal algal systems requires further research in key areas. Algae growth rate controls directly and indirectly the nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiency. Thus, maximum algae productivity is required for effective nutrient removal and must be considered as a key area of research. Likewise, low harvesting costs are also required for a cost-effective nutrient removal system. The use of filamentous microalgae with a high autoflocculation capacity and the use of immobilized cells have been investigated in this respect. Another key area of research is the use of algae strains with special attributes such as tolerance to extreme temperature, chemical composition with predominance of high added value products, a quick sedimentation behavior, or a capacity for growing mixotrophically. Finally, to combine most of the achievements from key areas and to design integrated recycling systems (IRS) should be an ultimate and rewarding goal.

Effectiveness and reliability of arsenic field testing kits: are the million dollar screening projects effective or not?

The exposure of millions to arsenic contaminated water from hand tube wells is a major concern in many Asiatic countries. Field kits are currently used to classify tube wells as delivering arsenic below 50 microg/L (the recommended limit in developing countries) as safe, painted green or above 50 microg/L, unsafe and painted red. More than 1.3 million tube wells in Bangladesh alone have been tested by field kits. A few million U.S. dollars have already been spent and millions are waiting for the ongoing projects. However, the reliability of the data generated through field kits is now being questioned. Samples from 290 wells were tested by field kits and by a reliable laboratory technique to ascertain the reliability of field kits. False negatives were as high as 68% and false positives up to 35%. A statistical analysis of data from 240 and 394 other wells yielded similar rates. We then analyzed 2866 samples from previously labeled wells and found 44.9% mislabeling in the lower range (<50 microg/L) although mislabeling was considerably reduced in the higher range. Variation of analytical results due to analysts and replicates were pointed out adopting analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique. Millions of dollars are being spent without scientific validation of the field kit method. Facts and figures demand improved, environmentally friendly laboratory techniques to produce reliable data.

Partial validation of the Dutch model for emission and transport of nutrients (STONE)

The Netherlands has to cope with large losses of N and P to groundwater and surface water. Agriculture is the dominant source of these nutrients, particularly with reference to nutrient excretion due to intensive animal husbandry in combination with fertilizer use. The Dutch government has recently launched a stricter eutrophication abatement policy to comply with the EC nitrate directive. The Dutch consensus model for N and P emission to groundwater and surface water (STONE) has been developed to evaluate the environmental benefits of abatement plans. Due to the possibly severe socioeconomic consequences of eutrophication abatement plans, it is of utmost importance that the model is thoroughly validated. Because STONE is applied on a nationwide scale, the model validation has also been carried out on this scale. For this purpose the model outputs were compared with lumped results from monitoring networks in the upper groundwater and in surface waters. About 13,000 recent point source observations of nitrate in the upper groundwater were available, along with several hundreds of observations showing N and P in local surface water systems. Comparison of observations from the different spatial scales available showed the issue of scale to be important. Scale issues will be addressed in the next stages of the validation study.

Chemistry and microbiology of permeable reactive barriers for in situ groundwater clean up

Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) are receiving a great deal of attention as an innovative, cost-effective technology for in situ clean up of groundwater contamination. A wide variety of materials are being proposed for use in PRBs, including zero-valent metals (e.g., iron metal), humic materials, oxides, surfactant-modified zeolites (SMZs), and oxygen- and nitrate-releasing compounds. PRB materials remove dissolved groundwater contaminants by immobilization within the barrier or transformation to less harmful products. The primary removal processes include: (1) sorption and precipitation, (2) chemical reaction, and (3) biologically mediated reactions. This article presents an overview of the mechanisms and factors controlling these individual processes and discusses the implications for the feasibility and long-term effectiveness of PRB technologies.

A new economical method to remove humic substances in water: adsorption onto a recycled polymeric material with surfactant addition

Cationic surfactants were used to enhance the adsorption of dissolved organic matter (DOM), contained in the effluent of municipal wastewater, onto polypropylene (PPL), a polymeric synthetic adsorbent made from recycled plastics. Both batch and continuous up-flow column experiments were carried out. The DOM, in the form of humic acid, was treated with a range of cationic surfactants, then, adsorption experiments were conducted to evaluate the adsorption of the mixture onto PPL in both its soluble and precipitated forms. This research validated the feasibility of the proposed system in which anionic humic acid is removed from the aqueous phase by forming neutral hydrophobic molecules with cationic surfactants and subsequently by adsorbing them on the hydrophobic surface of PPL.

Recommendations for water supply in arsenic mitigation: a case study from Bangladesh

Arsenic problems have been observed in several countries around the world. The challenges of arsenic mitigation are more difficult for developing and poor countries due to resource and other limitations. Bangladesh is experiencing the worst arsenic problem in the world, as about 30 million people are possibly drinking arsenic contaminated water. Lack of knowledge has hampered the mitigation initiatives. This paper presents experience gained during an action research on water supply in arsenic mitigation in rural Singair, Bangladesh. The mitigation has been implemented there through integrated research and development of appropriate water supply options and its use through community participation. Political leaders and women played key roles in the success of the mitigation. More than one option for safe water has been developed and/or identified. The main recommendations include: integration of screening of tubewells and supply of safe water, research on technological and social aspects, community, women and local government participation, education and training of all stakeholders, immediate and appropriate use of the available knowledge, links between intermediate/immediate and long term investment, effective coordination and immediate attention by health, nutrition, agriculture, education, and other programs to this arsenic issue.

Design and construction techniques for permeable reactive barriers

Adequate site characterization, bench-scale column testing, and hydrogeologic modeling formed the basis for the design and construction of permeable reactive barriers for groundwater remediation at various sites, such as Dover Air Force Base, DE and Naval Air Station, Moffett Field, CA. Dissolved chlorinated solvents, such as perchloroethylene (PCE) and trichloroethylene (TCE), have been the focus at many sites because the passive nature of the reactive barrier operation makes such barriers particularly useful for treating groundwater contaminants that can persist in the aquifer for several years. A combination of conventional and innovative site characterization, design, and construction techniques were used at these sites to increase the potential cost effectiveness of field application.

Results of the reactant sand-fracking pilot test and implications for the in situ remediation of chlorinated VOCs and metals in deep and fractured bedrock aquifers

Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), such as the Waterloo Funnel and Gate System, first implemented at Canadian Forces Borden facility in 1992, are a passive remediation technology capable of controlling the migration of, and treating contaminated groundwater in situ. Most of the PRBs installed to date have been shallow installations created by backfilling sheet-pile shored excavations with iron filing reactive media. More recently continuous trenchers [R. Puls, Installation of permeable reactive barriers using continuous trenching equipment, Proceedings of the RTDF Permeable Barriers Work Group, Virginia Beach, VA, September 1997] and Caissons [J. Vogan, Caisson installation of a pilot scale, permeable reactive barrier in situ treatment zone at the Sommersworth Landfill, NH, Presented to the RTDF Permeable Barriers Work Group, Alexandria, VA, April 1996], and vertical fracturing emplacements [G. Hocking, Vertical hydraulic fracture emplacement of permeable reactive barriers, Progress Report delivered to the Permeable Reactive Barriers Workgroup of the Remedial Technology Development Forum, Beaverton, OR, April 1998] have been used to create reactive barriers in soil. None of the prior methods are capable of adequately addressing groundwater contamination in deep and fractured bedrock aquifers. The purpose of the RSF pilot study was to install reactive media into an impacted bedrock aquifer, and to evaluate the effectiveness of in situ treatment of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (CVOCs) and metals in that type of aquifer. Three discrete fractures were identified and treated and were subjected to testing before and after treatment. Between 300 and 1700 lb. of 1 mm diameter reactive proppants were injected into each zone to facilitate treatment. Monitoring data obtained from adjacent observation wells verified that fracking fluids reached at least 42 ft from the treatment well following hydrofracturing. The concentrations of many of the CVOCs decreased up to 98% based on the results of pre- and post-RSF treatment analyses. Consistent with other research, concentrations of CVOCs were noted to decrease including trichloroethene (TCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE), 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA), 1, 1-dichloroethane (1,1-DCA), and 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE) and increases were noted in concentrations of cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cis-1,2-DCE) and chloroform suggesting that the rate of transformation of the parent compounds to these daughter products is higher than the rate of destruction of the daughter products. The RSF pilot study demonstrated that: (1) zero valent iron foam proppants have the physical and chemical properties necessary to effectively treat CVOCs and metals in groundwater when inserted under high pressures into fractured bedrock. (2) Iron foam reactive media can be placed in bedrock using high pressure hydraulic fracturing equipment and polysaccharide viscosifiers. (3) The extent of the treatment can be monitored in situ using tracers and pressure transducers. (4) Well capacity is increased by improving hydraulic conductivity through hydraulic fracturing and proppant injection. The approximate cost of all of the effort expended in the pilot study was about US$200,000. Full-scale implementations are projected to cost between US$100,000 and US$1,000,000 and would depend on site specific conditions such as the extent and level of impacted groundwater requiring treatment. This technology can potentially be implemented to create treatment zones for the passive treatment of CVOC and metal impacted groundwater in fractured rock aquifers offering a cost-effective alternative to a pump and treat forever scenario.