Mothers know best: redirecting adolescent reward sensitivity toward safe behavior during risk taking

Identifying the role of siblings in adolescent decision-making: A developmental processes approach

Adolescence represents a period of opportunity in decision-making as developmental motivations and processes shift, particularly in social contexts. Sibling relationships may be especially influential in adolescent decision-making, as siblings spend a disproportionate amount of time with one another and can affect how adolescents think, feel, and behave. However, the ways in which siblings may shape adolescent decision-making through psychological, behavioral, and neurological processes, particularly their interactions, are less well known. This review introduces the developmental processes approach to understanding adolescent decision-making in the sibling context by reviewing patterns in the literature as to how each developmental process in sibling contexts may contribute to adolescent decision-making. Interdisciplinary collaborations across theories and methods (i.e., surveys, observations, and neuroimaging) can contribute to a more holistic understanding of how siblings may shape adolescent decision-making, for better and for worse. Further, this approach can inform practice through sibling-focused prevention programs and other sibling-focused programming (e.g., government, nonprofit) in promoting adaptive adolescent decision-making.

Does cognitive control mediate the relationship between peer presence and adolescent risk-taking? An ERP study

Peer presence influences risk-taking behavior, particularly in adolescence. Based on the dual system model, this event-related potential study examined whether and how the presence of a peer displayed a preference for risky behavior would increase adolescents' risk-taking by disrupting their cognitive control processes in either emotional or non-emotional contexts. A sample of 106 adolescents (17-19 years of age) completed two Stoop tasks and a Balloon Analog Risk Task under three peer presence conditions. Results revealed that compared to other conditions, the presence of a risk-averse peer caused adolescents to make safer decisions through improving their conflict monitoring (more negative N200-diff), whereas a risk-preference peer's presence led adolescents to more risky decisions through disrupting their conflict resolution (more positive N450-diff) but they were only observed on the Emotional Stroop task. These findings suggest that different peer presence contexts could increase or decrease adolescents' risk-taking behaviors by influencing their cognitive control under an emotional context rather than in a non-emotional context.

Neural response to monetary and social rewards in adolescent girls and their parents

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have indicated that the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system is heavily involved in all stages of reward processing. However, the majority of research has been conducted using monetary rewards and it is unclear to what extent other types of rewards, such as social rewards, evoke similar or different neural activation. There have also been few investigations into potential differences or similarities between reward processing in parents and offspring. The present study examined fMRI neural activation in response to monetary and social reward in a sample of 14-22-year-old adolescent girls (N = 145) and a biological parent (N = 124) and compared activation across adolescent-parent dyads (N = 82). Across all participants, both monetary and social reward elicited bilateral striatal activation, which did not differ between reward types or between adolescents and their parents. Neural activation in response to the different reward types were positively correlated in the striatum among adolescents and in the mPFC and OFC among parents. Overall, the present study suggests that both monetary and social reward elicit striatal activation regardless of age and provides evidence that neural mechanisms underlying reward processing may converge differentially among youth and adults.

Leveraging the developmental neuroscience of caregiving to promote resilience among youth exposed to adversity

Early adversity is a major risk factor for the emergence of psychopathology across development. Identifying mechanisms that support resilience, or favorable mental health outcomes despite exposure to adversity, is critical for informing clinical intervention and guiding policy to promote youth mental health. Here we propose that caregivers play a central role in fostering resilience among children exposed to adversity via caregiving influences on children's corticolimbic circuitry and emotional functioning. We first delineate the numerous ways that caregivers support youth emotional learning and regulation and describe how early attachment lays the foundation for optimal caregiver support of youth emotional functioning in a developmental stage-specific manner. Second, we outline neural mechanisms by which caregivers foster resilience-namely, by modulating offspring corticolimbic circuitry to support emotion regulation and buffer stress reactivity. Next, we highlight the importance of developmental timing and sensitive periods in understanding caregiving-related mechanisms of resilience. Finally, we discuss clinical implications of this line of research and how findings can be translated to guide policy that promotes the well-being of youth and families.

Gender-specific co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from middle childhood to early adolescence: Environmental and individual predictors

This study aimed to identify gender-specific co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems from middle childhood to early adolescence, along with key environmental and individual predictors among Chinese youth. A total of 1653 Chinese elementary school students (M age = 9.40; SD = 0.51; 54.57% boys) participated in assessments at six time points, using 6-month assessment intervals. Parallel process latent class growth modeling identified four trajectories for boys: Congruent-low (65.74%), moderate-decreasing internalizing and moderate-stable externalizing problems (18.40%), high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (8.20%), and high decreasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (7.65%). Three trajectories were identified for girls: Congruent-low (81.09%), moderate co-occurring (7.19%), and high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems (11.72%). Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that peer victimization served as an environmental risk predictor for the adverse co-developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems for boys and girls. High sensation-seeking and low self-control served as individual risk variables predicting the trajectories of high increasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems, and low self-control also predicted the trajectories of high decreasing-internalizing and low-stable externalizing problems for boys. The findings highlight the importance of gender differences in understanding the progression of internalizing and externalizing problems and inform effective strategies for prevention and intervention.

Task-independent neural bases of peer presence effect on cognition in children and adults

There is ample behavioral evidence that others' mere presence can affect any behavior in human and non-human animals, generally facilitating the expression of mastered responses while impairing the acquisition of novel ones. Much less is known about i) how the brain orchestrates the modulation of such a wide array of behaviors by others' presence and ii) when these neural underpinnings mature during development. To address these issues, fMRI data were collected in children and adults alternately observed and unobserved by a familiar peer. Subjects performed a numerosity comparison task and a phonological comparison task. While the former involves number-processing brain areas, the latter involves language-processing areas. Consistent with previous behavioral findings, adults' and children's performance improved in both tasks when observed by a peer. Across all participants, task-specific brain regions showed no reliable change in activity under peer observation. Rather, we found task-independent changes in domain-general brain regions typically involved in mentalizing, reward, and attention. Bayesian analyses singled out the attention network as the exception to the close child-adult resemblance of peer observation neural substrates. These findings suggest that i) social facilitation of some human education-related skills is primarily orchestrated by domain-general brain networks, rather than by task-selective substrates, and ii) apart from attention, peer presence neural processing is largely mature in children.

Establishing a causal role for left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex in value-directed memory encoding with high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation

One critical approach for promoting the efficiency of memory is to adopt selective encoding strategies to prioritize more valuable information. Past neuroimaging studies have shown that value-directed modulation of verbal memory depends heavily on the engagement of left-lateralized semantic processing regions, particularly in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC). In the present study, we used high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) to seek evidence for a causal role of left VLPFC in supporting the memory advantage for high-value items. Three groups of healthy young adult participants were presented with lists of words to remember, with each word accompanied by an arbitrarily assigned point value. During the first session, all participants received sham stimulation as they encoded five lists of 30 words each. Two of these lists were immediately tested with free recall, with feedback given to allow participants to develop metacognitive insight and strategies to maximize their point total. The second session had the exact same structure as the first, but the groups differed in whether they received continued sham stimulation (N = 22) or anodal stimulation of the left VLPFC (N = 21) or right VLPFC (N = 20). Those lists not tested with immediate recall were tested with recognition judgments after a one-day delay. Since no brain stimulation was applied during this Day 2 test, any performance differences can be attributed to the effects of stimulation on Day 1 encoding processes. Anodal stimulation of left VLPFC significantly boosted participants' memory encoding selectivity. In comparison, no such effect was seen in participants who received right VLPFC or sham stimulation. Estimates of recollection- and familiarity-based responding revealed that left VLPFC stimulation specifically amplified the effects of item value on recollection. These results demonstrate a causal role for left VLPFC in the implementation of selective value-directed encoding strategies, putatively by boosting deep semantic processing of high-value words. Our findings also provide further evidence on the hemispheric lateralization of value-directed verbal memory encoding.

Resting-State Connectivity and Response to Psychotherapy Treatment in Adolescents and Adults With OCD: A Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE

Cortical-subcortical hyperconnectivity related to affective-behavioral integration and cortical network hypoconnectivity related to cognitive control have been demonstrated in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); the study objective was to examine whether these connectivity patterns predict treatment response.

METHODS

Adolescents (ages 12-17) and adults (ages 24-45) were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of exposure and response prevention (ERP) or stress management therapy (SMT), an active control. Before treatment, resting-state connectivity of ventromedial prefrontal cortical (vmPFC), cingulo-opercular, frontoparietal, and subcortical regions was assessed with functional MRI. OCD severity was assessed with the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale before, during, and after treatment. Usable fMRI and longitudinal symptom data were obtained from 116 patients (68 female; 54 adolescents; 60 medicated).

RESULTS

ERP produced greater decreases in symptom scores than SMT. ERP was selectively associated with less vmPFC-subcortical (caudate and thalamus) connectivity in both age groups and primarily in unmedicated participants. Greater symptom improvement with both ERP and SMT was associated with greater cognitive-control (cingulo-opercular and frontoparietal) and subcortical (putamen) connectivity across age groups. Developmental specificity was observed across ERP and SMT treatments, such that greater improvements with ERP than SMT were associated with greater frontoparietal-subcortical (nucleus accumbens) connectivity in adolescents but greater connectivity between frontoparietal regions in adults. Comparison of response-predictive connections revealed no significant differences compared with a matched healthy control group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that less vmPFC-subcortical connectivity related to affect-influenced behavior may be important for ERP engagement, whereas greater cognitive-control and motor circuit connectivity may generally facilitate response to psychotherapy. Finally, neural predictors of treatment response may differ by age.

Exogenous testosterone administration is associated with differential neural response to unfamiliar peer's and own caregiver's voice in transgender adolescents

Changes in gonadal hormones during puberty are thought to potentiate adolescents' social re-orientation away from caregivers and towards peers. This study investigated the effect of testosterone on neural processing of emotional (vocal) stimuli by unfamiliar peers vs. parents, in transgender boys receiving exogenous testosterone as a gender-affirming hormone (GAH+) or not (GAH-). During fMRI, youth heard angry and happy vocal expressions spoken by their caregiver and an unfamiliar teenager. Youth also self-reported on closeness with friends and parents. Whole-brain analyses (controlling for age) revealed that GAH+ youth showed blunted neural response to caregivers' angry voices-and heightened response to unfamiliar teenage angry voices-in the anterior cingulate cortex. This pattern was reversed in GAH- youth, who also showed greater response to happy unfamiliar teenager vs. happy caregiver voices in this region. Blunted ACC response to angry caregiver voices-a pattern characteristic of GAH+ youth-was associated with greater relative closeness with friends over parents, which could index more "advanced" social re-orientation. Consistent with models of adolescent neurodevelopment, increases in testosterone during adolescence may shift the valuation of caregiver vs. peer emotional cues in a brain region associated with processing affective information.

Risk-Taking Behavior Among Male Adolescents: The Role of Observer Presence and Individual Self-Control

A number of studies have focused on the same-sex peer effect on and the developmental difference in adolescent risk-taking in terms of the dual systems model. Little research, however, addresses the effects of different observers, the role of different levels of individual self-control, and their interactions. To fill this gap, the present study examined the main and interactive effects of observer presence and individual self-control on male adolescents' risk-taking behavior with an experimental design. A total of 261 male adolescents (M_age = 15.79 ± 0.79, range = 14-18) completed an adapted Stoplight Task, which measures risk-taking behavior, in the presence of an observer, either peer or adult, either male or female. The results indicated that a same-sex peer's presence and low self-control were both risk factors of male adolescents' risk-taking, but did only low self-control male adolescents take serious risks when in the presence of a same-sex peer whereas those with high self-control consistently had low levels of risk-taking under any condition. An opposite-sex observer, particularly an opposite-sex adult's presence, played a similar protective role for male adolescents with low self-control. The findings suggest that a high level of self-control closely related to the cognitive control system may significantly buffer the negative effect of an adverse social stimulus which activates the social-emotional system on male adolescents' risk-taking; the findings also reveal that an opposite-sex adult's presence may contribute to a decrease in male adolescents' risk-taking by improving their cognitive control system.

Decision neuroscience and neuroeconomics: Recent progress and ongoing challenges

In the past decade, decision neuroscience and neuroeconomics have developed many new insights in the study of decision making. This review provides an overarching update on how the field has advanced in this time period. Although our initial review a decade ago outlined several theoretical, conceptual, methodological, empirical, and practical challenges, there has only been limited progress in resolving these challenges. We summarize significant trends in decision neuroscience through the lens of the challenges outlined for the field and review examples where the field has had significant, direct, and applicable impacts across economics and psychology. First, we review progress on topics including reward learning, explore-exploit decisions, risk and ambiguity, intertemporal choice, and valuation. Next, we assess the impacts of emotion, social rewards, and social context on decision making. Then, we follow up with how individual differences impact choices and new exciting developments in the prediction and neuroforecasting of future decisions. Finally, we consider how trends in decision-neuroscience research reflect progress toward resolving past challenges, discuss new and exciting applications of recent research, and identify new challenges for the field. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Reasoning and Decision Making Psychology > Emotion and Motivation.

Adolescent novelty seeking is associated with greater ventral striatal and prefrontal brain response during evaluation of risk and reward

Adolescence is a period during which reward sensitivity is heightened. Studies suggest that there are individual differences in adolescent reward-seeking behavior, attributable to a variety of factors, including temperament. This study investigated the neurobiological underpinnings of risk and reward evaluation as they relate to self-reported pleasure derived from novel experiences on the revised Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (EATQ-R). Healthy participants (N = 265, ~50% male), aged 12-17 years, underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during a modified Wheel of Fortune task, where they evaluated choices with varying probability of winning different monetary rewards. Across all participants, there was increased brain response in salience, reward, and cognitive control circuitry when evaluating choices with larger (compared with moderate) difference in risk/reward. Whole brain and a priori region-of-interest regression analyses revealed that individuals reporting higher novelty seeking had greater activation in bilateral ventral striatum, left middle frontal gyrus, and bilateral posterior cingulate cortex when evaluating the choices for largest difference in risk/reward. These novelty seeking associations with brain response were seen in the absence of temperament-related differences in decision-making behavior. Thus, while heightened novelty seeking in adolescents might be associated with greater neural sensitivity to risk/reward, accompanying increased activation in cognitive control regions might regulate reward-driven risk-taking behavior. More research is needed to determine whether individual differences in brain activation associated with novelty seeking are related to decision making in more ecologically valid settings.

Neurobiological correlates of the social and emotional impact of peer victimization: A review

Peer victimization is very common during late childhood and adolescence. Despite the relatively reduced number of studies, the neurobiological underpinnings of the negative impact of peer victimization experiences have received increasing attention in recent years. The present selective review summarizes the most recent available evidence and provides a general overview of the impact of peer victimization experiences on social processing and decision-making at the neurobiological level, highlighting the most pressing areas requiring further research. Three key cognitive areas show a clear negative impact of peer victimization and bullying experiences: social valuation processing, reward and reinforcement learning and self-regulation processes. Victims show enhanced activation in key regions of the limbic system including the amygdala, rostral and dorsal anterior cingulate cortices, suggestive of enhanced sensitivity to social stimuli. They also show enhanced recruitment of lateral prefrontal regions crucially involved in cognitive and emotional regulation processes, and abnormal reward-related striatal function. The presence of psychopathology is a complex factor, increased as a consequence of peer victimization, but that also constitutes vulnerability to such experiences.

The role of early attachment and parental presence in adolescent behavioral and neurobiological regulation

Early attachment shapes brain development underlying emotion regulation. Given that sensitivity to affective cues is heightened during adolescence and effective emotion regulation strategies continue to develop, it is imperative to examine the role of early attachment and parental influence on adolescent regulation. Fifty-one children (M age=32.61 months) participated in a modified Strange Situation with their mother and approximately 10 years later (M age =13.2 years) completed an fMRI scan during which they were presented with appetitive and aversive affective cues (images of adolescent interactions) during a Go-Nogo task. They completed the task alone and in the presence of a parent. Behavioral multilevel models and whole-brain analyses showed attachment-related patterns, such that affective cues elicited greater behavioral and neural dysregulation in insecure (versus secure) adolescents.Furthermore, parental presence buffered behavioral and neural dysregulation toward socially aversive cues for adolescents with early insecure attachment, underscoring the salience of caregivers across development in promoting regulation in their offspring.

Adolescent decision making: A decade in review

Research in the past decade has highlighted the nuances of adolescent decision making. In this review article, we summarize several themes evident in the field of developmental science including the redefinition of adolescence and the ways in which adolescent decision-making capabilities converge with or diverge from those of adults. While the decision-making process is similar for adolescents and adults in contexts that encourage deliberation and reflection, adolescents and adults differ in contexts which preclude deliberation vis-à-vis high emotional arousal. We also discuss the reconceptualization of adolescent behavior, including risk taking, as adaptive. That is, characteristics of adolescence, including impulsivity, the importance of peers, and novelty seeking, are normative, evolutionarily advantageous, and essential for positive development. While these features manifest in negative, health-compromising ways (e.g., risky driving and criminal behavior), they also foster growth and exploration. We conclude with a discussion of potential avenues for future research.

How does social evaluation influence Hot and Cool inhibitory control in adolescence?

The aim of the present study is to examine whether in Hot, i.e., affectively charged contexts, or cool, i.e., affectively neutral contexts, inhibitory control capacity increases or decreases under social evaluation in adolescents and adults. In two experiments, adolescents and young adults completed two Stroop-like tasks under either a social evaluation condition or an alone condition. The social evaluation condition comprised the presence of a peer (Experiment 1) or an expert (Experiment 2) playing the role of an evaluator, while under the alone condition, the task was performed alone. In the Cool Stroop task, participants had to refrain from reading color names to identify the ink color in which the words were printed. In the Hot Stroop task, participants had to determine the emotional expression conveyed by faces from the NimStim database while ignoring the emotion word displayed beneath. The results were similar in both experiments. In adolescents, social evaluation by a peer (Experiment 1) or by an expert (Experience 2) facilitated Hot but not cool inhibitory control. In adults, social evaluation had no effect on Hot or cool inhibitory control. The present findings expand our understanding of the favorable influence of socioemotional context on Hot inhibitory control during adolescence in healthy individuals.

Revisiting the Neural Architecture of Adolescent Decision-Making: Univariate and Multivariate Evidence for System-Based Models

Understanding adolescent decision-making is significant for informing basic models of neurodevelopment as well as for the domains of public health and criminal justice. System-based theories posit that adolescent decision-making is guided by activity related to reward and control processes. While successful at explaining behavior, system-based theories have received inconsistent support at the neural level, perhaps because of methodological limitations. Here, we used two complementary approaches to overcome said limitations and rigorously evaluate system-based models. Using decision-level modeling of fMRI data from a risk-taking task in a sample of 2000+ decisions across 51 human adolescents (25 females, mean age = 15.00 years), we find support for system-based theories of decision-making. Neural activity in lateral PFC and a multivariate pattern of cognitive control both predicted a reduced likelihood of risk-taking, whereas increased activity in the NAcc predicted a greater likelihood of risk-taking. Interactions between decision-level brain activity and age were not observed. These results garner support for system-based accounts of adolescent decision-making behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Adolescent decision-making behavior is of great import for basic science, and carries equally consequential implications for public health and criminal justice. While dominant psychological theories seeking to explain adolescent decision-making have found empirical support, their neuroscientific implementations have received inconsistent support. This may be partly because of statistical approaches used by prior neuroimaging studies of system-based theories. We used brain modeling, an approach that predicts behavior from brain activity, of univariate and multivariate neural activity metrics to better understand how neural components of psychological systems guide decision behavior in adolescents. We found broad support for system-based theories such that neural systems involved in cognitive control predicted a reduced likelihood to make risky decisions, whereas value-based systems predicted greater risk-taking propensity.

Peers' Choices Influence Adolescent Risk-taking Especially When Explicit Risk Information is Lacking

This study examines the impact of peers' previous cautious versus risky choices on adolescents' risk-taking depending on the level of information about the risk. Adolescents completed an adaptation of the BART that manipulated social influence (cautious and risky) and risk information (i.e., informed, noninformed). Results showed that social influence impacts adolescents' decisions on the noninformed BART but not on the informed BART. In the noninformed BART, the peers' cautious choices strongly decreased risk-taking and led to greater performance. The peers' risky choices increase adolescents' risk-taking, but this effect is limited to situations involving minimal risk. Thus social experience may be a specific social context that represents a valuable source of information during adolescence, especially in situations with high uncertainty.

Where You Lead, I Will Follow: Exploring Sibling Similarity in Brain and Behavior During Risky Decision Making

This exploratory study examined whether social learning increases similarity in adolescent siblings' behavior and neural patterns during risky decision making. Participants included 86 adolescents (43 sibling dyads; younger siblings: M_age  = 12.2 years; 22 females; older siblings: M_age  = 14.6 years; 20 females) who completed questionnaires, and a decision-making task during an fMRI scan. Younger siblings became more similar to their older siblings' risky decision making after observing their older sibling take risks). Younger siblings who reported greater modeling of their older sibling, and less differentiation from them, showed increased neural similarity to their older siblings in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the right anterior insula and ventral striatum, respectively. These findings highlight siblings as salient social agents in how adolescents process risky decision making.

Neural Correlates of Conflicting Social Influence on Adolescent Risk Taking

Adolescence is often characterized by heightened risk-taking behaviors, which are shaped by social influence from parents and peers. However, little is understood about how adolescents make risky decisions under conflicting influence. The valuation system in the brain may elucidate how adolescents differentially integrate conflicting social information. Twenty-eight adolescents (M_age  = 12.7 years) completed a social influence task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. Behaviorally, adolescents took more risks only when their parent endorsed risky decisions but not when their peers endorsed risky decisions. At the neural level, adolescents showed enhanced vmPFC-striatum functional connectivity when they made risky decisions that followed their parents' risky decisions. Results suggest that parents' decisions may guide youths' risk-taking behavior under conflicting influence.

Neural meaning making, prediction, and prefrontal-subcortical development following early adverse caregiving

Early adversities that are caregiving-related (crEAs) are associated with a significantly increased risk for mental health problems. Recent neuroscientific advances have revealed alterations in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-subcortical circuitry following crEAs. While this work has identified alterations in affective operations (e.g., perceiving, reacting, controlling, learning) associated with mPFC-subcortical circuitry, this circuitry has a much broader function extending beyond operations. It plays a primary role in affective meaning making, involving conceptual-level, schematized knowledge to generate predictions about the current environment. This function of mPFC-subcortical circuitry motivates asking whether mPFC-subcortical phenotypes following crEAs support semanticized knowledge content (or the concept-level knowledge) and generate predictive models. I present a hypothesis motivated by research findings across four different lines of work that converge on mPFC-subcortical neuroanatomy, including (a) the neurobiology supporting emotion regulation processes in adulthood, (b) the neurobiology that is activated by caregiving cues during development, (c) the neurobiology that is altered by crEAs, and (d) the neurobiology of semantic-based meaning making. I hypothesize that the affective behaviors following crEAs result in part from affective semantic memory processes supported by mPFC-subcortical circuitry that over the course of development, construct affective schemas that generate meaning making and guide predictions. I use this opportunity to review some of the literature on mPFC-subcortical circuit development following crEAs to illustrate the motivation behind this hypothesis. Long recognized by clinical science and cognitive neuroscience, studying schema-based processes may be particularly helpful for understanding how affective meaning making arises from developmental trajectories of mPFC-subcortical circuitry.

The Development of Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking: Associations with Substance Use among At-Risk Adolescents

We investigated if the dual systems model could explain the increased rates of substance use among at-risk youth. This study sampled 365 adolescents, 289 of which had a family history of substance use disorder, assessed biannually between the ages 13-16 years old. Growth curve analyses revealed that higher levels of impulsivity were related to higher levels of sensation seeking and a slower rate of decline in impulsivity was related to a faster rate of increase in sensation seeking. Only family history status and sensation seeking were directly associated with substance use (marijuana, alcohol) at age 16, though family history status was also indirectly related to substance use through higher levels of impulsivity to higher levels of sensation seeking.

An exploration of amygdala-prefrontal mechanisms in the intergenerational transmission of learned fear

Humans learn about their environments by observing others, including what to fear and what to trust. Observational fear learning may be especially important early in life when children turn to their parents to gather information about their world. Yet, the vast majority of empirical research on fear learning in youth has thus far focused on firsthand classical conditioning, which may fail to capture one of the primary means by which fears are acquired during development. To address this gap in the literature, the present study examined observational fear learning in youth (n = 33; age range: 6-17 years) as they watched videos of their parent and an "unfamiliar parent" (i.e., another participant's parent) undergo fear conditioning. Youth demonstrated stronger fear learning when observing their parent compared to an unfamiliar parent, as indicated by changes in their self-reported liking of the stimuli to which their parents were conditioned (CS+, a geometric shape paired with an aversive noise; CS-, a geometric shape never paired with an aversive noise) and amygdala responses. Parent trait anxiety was associated with youth learning better (i.e., reporting a stronger preference for the CS- relative to CS+), and exhibiting stronger medial prefrontal-amygdala connectivity. Neuroimaging data were additionally acquired from a subset of parents during firsthand conditioning, and parental amygdala and mPFC activation were associated with youth's neural recruitment. Together, these results suggest that youth preferentially learn fears via observation of their parents, and this learning is associated with emotional traits and neural recruitment in parents.

Hungry for inclusion: Exposure to peer victimization and heightened social monitoring in adolescent girls

Belonging to a social group is one of the most important factors contributing to well-being. The Belonging Regulation model proposes that humans possess a social monitoring system (SMS) that evaluates social inclusion and monitors belonging needs. Here, we used a prospective longitudinal design to examine links between peer victimization experienced across 7 years and social monitoring at the behavioral and neural level in adolescent girls (n = 38, Mage = 15.43 years, SD = .33). Participants completed a social evaluation task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan. More severe peer victimization was associated with increased activation to in-group versus out-group peers in the amygdala, ventral striatum, fusiform gyrus, and temporoparietal junction. Moreover, participants who displayed increased activation in these regions reported lower social self esteem and higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These results suggest that exposure to peer victimization across the school years is associated with heightened social monitoring at the neural level during adolescence, which has potential adverse implications for girls' adjustment and well-being.

Differential Behavioral and Neural Profiles in Youth With Conduct Problems During Risky Decision-Making

Neuroimaging work has examined neural processes underlying risk taking in adolescence, yet predominantly in low-risk youth. To determine whether we can extrapolate from current neurobiological models, this functional magnetic resonance imaging study investigated risk taking and peer effects in youth with conduct problems (CP; N = 19) and typically developing youth (TD; N = 25). Results revealed higher real-life risk taking, lower risky decisions, and no peer effects on a risk-taking task in CP youth. CP youth showed greater ventral striatum (VS) activity during safe than risky decisions, whereas TD youth showed greater VS activation during risky decisions. Differential VS activity explained higher real-life risk taking in CP youth. Findings provide preliminary evidence that risk-taking behavior in youth with CD problems is characterized by differential neural patterns.

Neural processes during adolescent risky decision making are associated with conformity to peer influence

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Adolescents’ neural responses to risky decisions may modulate their conformity to different types of peer influence.

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Neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) predicted conformity to risky peers while driving.

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Connectivity between VS and risk processing regions (including insula and ACC) predicted safer driving under risky influence.

Adolescents demonstrate both heightened sensitivity to peer influence and increased risk-taking. The current study provides a novel test of how these two phenomena are related at behavioral and neural levels. Adolescent males (N = 83, 16–17 years) completed the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) in an fMRI scanner. One week later, participants completed a driving task in which they drove alone and with a safety- or risk-promoting peer passenger. Results showed that neural responses during BART were associated with participants’ behavioral conformity to safe vs. risky peer influence while later driving. First, the extent that neural activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) scaled with decision stakes in BART was associated with conformity to risky peer influence. Additionally, stake-modulated functional connectivity between ventral striatum (VS) and risk processing regions (including ACC and insula) was associated with safer driving under risky peer influence (i.e. resistance to risky peer influence), suggesting that connectivity between VS and ACC as well as insula may serve a protective role under risky peer influence. Together, these results suggest that adolescents’ neural responses to risky decision making may modulate their behavioral conformity to different types of peer influence on risk taking.

Developmentally informed behaviour change techniques to enhance self-regulation in a health promotion context: a conceptual review

Self-regulation (SR), or the ability to manage thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in order to achieve a desired goal, is seen as underlying positive health behaviours. In adults, behaviour change techniques (BCTs) are recommended to promote SR across health domains; although establishing healthy habits early in life is important, studies of SR and health in children are rare. This conceptual review provides guidance on developmental considerations for applying BCTs to enhance SR capacity in children and youth with the goal of fostering positive behavioural health trajectories early in the lifespan. Key considerations include the nature of developmental changes in SR and interaction among SR processes; temporal associations between SR and health behaviours; and relevance of health goals for children and youth. Building on a meta-review of BCT's used to promote SR in adults and youth, this conceptual review highlights key SR milestones to consider in behaviour change-focused interventions from early childhood through adolescence and provides an overview of social-ecologic influences on SR development and associations between SR and health behaviours across these age periods. Implications for and examples of using developmentally-informed BCTs in interventions to enhance SR in children and youth are noted and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Maternal Buffering of Adolescent Dysregulation in Socially Appetitive Contexts: From Behavior to the Brain

Adolescents are more susceptible to dysregulation in positive social contexts, compared to children. We investigated whether maternal presence would buffer these effects in adolescence. Fifty-four adolescents and children (age range = 8-17 years, Mage  = 13.38 years) completed a social go-nogo task during an fMRI scan alone and in the presence of their mother. We found age-related patterns, such that older relative to younger youth displayed more disinhibition toward socially appetitive than socially aversive stimuli, which was buffered by maternal presence. Furthermore, with age, maternal buffering in socially appetitive contexts elicited heightened activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex connectivity. Findings underscore the importance of caregivers in promoting the neural regulation of their offspring during adolescence.

Early Adversity and the Neotenous Human Brain

Human brain development is optimized to learn from environmental cues. The protracted development of the cortex and its connections with subcortical targets has been argued to permit more opportunity for acquiring complex behaviors. This review uses the example of amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex circuitry development to illustrate a principle of human development-namely, that the extension of the brain's developmental timeline allows for the (species-expected) collaboration between child and parent in co-construction of the human brain. The neurobiology underlying affective learning capitalizes on this protracted timeline to develop a rich affective repertoire in adulthood. Humans are afforded this luxuriously slow development in part by the extended period of caregiving provided by parents, and parents aid in scaffolding the process of maturation during childhood. Just as adequate caregiving is a potent effector of brain development, so is adverse caregiving, which is the largest environmental risk factor for adult mental illness. There are large individual differences in neurobiological outcomes following caregiving adversity, indicating that these pathways are probabilistic, rather than deterministic, and prolonged plasticity in human brain development may also allow for subsequent amelioration by positive experiences. The extant research indicates that the development of mental health cannot be considered without consideration of children in the context of their families.

Neural Representation of Parental Monitoring and Links to Adolescent Risk Taking

Decades of developmental research have demonstrated the positive role of parental monitoring during adolescence, a time during which youth seek exploration and show heightened risk taking. The present study employed a novel neural pattern similarity approach to identify neural patterns underpinning parental monitoring, with attention to implications for adolescent risk taking. Mothers (N = 23) underwent an fMRI scan during which they completed a risk-taking task and viewed the risk-taking behavior of their adolescent child. Using a representational similarity analysis, we examined the neural pattern similarity between mothers’ anticipation of their child’s risk taking and their own decisions. Higher parental monitoring was reflected in greater similarity between neural pattern of anticipating their adolescents’ risk taking and experiencing their own safe outcomes. Moreover, greater neural pattern similarity between mothers’ anticipation and their own safe outcomes was associated with lower risk-taking propensity in adolescents. Taken together, the present study provides preliminary evidence for the neural patterns underpinning parental monitoring, highlighting the importance of incorporating parents’ brain as a window to understand parenting practices and adolescent risk taking.

Experience during adolescence shapes brain development: From synapses and networks to normal and pathological behavior

Adolescence is a period of dramatic neural reorganization creating a period of vulnerability and the possibility for the development of psychopathology. The maturation of various neural circuits during adolescence depends, to a large degree, on one's experiences both physical and psychosocial. This occurs through a process of plasticity which is the structural and functional adaptation of the nervous system in response to environmental demands, physiological changes and experiences. During adolescence, this adaptation proceeds upon a backdrop of structural and functional alterations imparted by genetic and epigenetic factors and experiences both prior to birth and during the postnatal period. Plasticity entails an altering of connections between neurons through long-term potentiation (LTP) (which alters synaptic efficiency), synaptogenesis, axonal sprouting, dendritic remodeling, neurogenesis and recruitment (Skaper et al., 2017). Although most empirical evidence for plasticity derives from studies of the sensory systems, recent studies have suggested that during adolescence, social, emotional, and cognitive experiences alter the structure and function of the networks subserving these domains of behavior. Each of these neural networks exhibits heightened vulnerability to experience-dependent plasticity during the sensitive periods which occur in different circuits and different brain regions at specific periods of development. This report will summarize some examples of adaptation which occur during adolescence and some evidence that the adolescent brain responds differently to stimuli compared to adults and children. This symposium, "Experience during adolescence shapes brain development: from synapses and networks to normal and pathological behavior" occurred during the Developmental Neurotoxicology Society/Teratology Society Annual Meeting in Clearwater Florida, June 2018. The sections will describe the maturation of the brain during adolescence as studied using imaging technologies, illustrate how plasticity shapes the structure of the brain using examples of pathological conditions such as Tourette's' syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and a review of the key molecular systems involved in this plasticity and how some commonly abused substances alter brain development. The role of stimulants used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the plasticity of the reward circuit is then described. Lastly, clinical data promoting an understanding of peer-influences on risky behavior in adolescents provides evidence for the complexity of the roles that peers play in decision making, a phenomenon different from that in the adult. Imaging studies have revealed that activation of the social network by the presence of peers at times of decision making is unique in the adolescent. Since normal brain development relies on experiences which alter the functional and structural connections between cells within circuits and networks to ultimately alter behavior, readers can be made aware of the myriad of ways normal developmental processes can be hijacked. The vulnerability of developing adolescent brain places the adolescent at risk for the development of a life time of abnormal behaviors and mental disorders.

Incorporating the social context into neurocognitive models of adolescent decision-making: A neuroimaging meta-analysis

Neurobiological models of adolescent decision-making emphasize developmental changes in brain regions involved in affect (e.g., ventral striatum) and cognitive control (e.g., lateral prefrontal cortex). Although social context plays an important role in adolescent decision-making, current models do not discuss brain regions implicated in processing social information (e.g., dorsomedial prefrontal cortex). We conducted a coordinate-based meta-analysis using the Multilevel peak Kernel Density Analysis (MKDA) method to test the hypothesis that brain regions involved in affect, cognitive control, and social information processing support adolescent decision-making in social contexts (N = 21 functional neuroimaging studies; N = 1292 participants). Results indicated that dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal gyrus/insula and ventral striatum are consistently associated with adolescent decision-making in social contexts. Activity within these regions was modulated by the type of social context and social actors involved. Findings suggest including brain regions involved in social information processing into models of adolescent decision-making. We propose a 'constructionist' model, which describes psychological processes and corresponding neural networks related to affect, cognitive control, and social information processing.

Culture Modulates the Neural Correlates Underlying Risky Exploration

Most research on cultural neuroscience focuses on one dimension of culture: group membership or individual orientation. However, it is especially important to examine the intersection between the two to better understand the acculturation process. To examine the role of culture in the neural correlates of risky exploration, the current study recruited 22 American and 24 Chinese international students. Participants reported on their independent self-construal, a measure defining the self in terms of emphasizing unique attributes, and underwent an functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan while completing a risk-taking task. At the group level, American (vs. Chinese) participants showed greater risky exploration on the task. Moreover, while independent self-construal was not related to American individuals' behavioral performance and neural correlates of risky exploration, Chinese participants who reported greater independent self-construal recruited greater activation in regions of the cognitive control system [e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)] and affective system [e.g., anterior insula (AI)], which was related to greater risky exploration. Taken together, our findings suggest that culture as group membership and individual orientation may interact with each other and relate to neural systems underlying risky exploration. This study highlights the importance of studying the role of culture at both group and individual level, which is particularly critical to understand individuals as they acculturate to a new environment.

ERP study on the associations of peripheral oxytocin and prolactin with inhibitory processes involving emotional distraction

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment is a major health and social welfare problem, with serious and longstanding consequences. Impulse control ability plays an important role in reducing the risk of child maltreatment. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations of oxytocin (OXT) and prolactin (PRL) with behavior inhibition using children's facial expressions (angry or neutral) as emotional distractions. This may clarify a part of the neuroendocrinological mechanism that modulates impulse control ability in the context of child caregiving.

METHODS

Participants were 16 females who had never been pregnant. Following venous blood sampling for OXT and PRL levels, participants performed an emotional Go/Nogo task during their follicular and luteal phases to test inhibitory control ability. Behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERPs) during the task were measured.

RESULTS

The results showed that there were significant fixed effects of OXT on behavioral performance, as measured by sensitivity (d-prime). This suggests that high peripheral OXT levels may be associated with better performance on the emotional Go/Nogo task, regardless of emotional distractors. PRL was associated with inhibitory processes as reflected by the Nogo-N2 and Nogo-P3. Particularly, high PRL levels were associated with the Nogo-N2 latency extension with the emotional distractors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that OXT might be associated with improving behavioral performance regardless of emotional processes. It is suggested that processes related to PRL are related to premotor activities of behavioral inhibitions and emotions.

Hunting for What Works: Adolescents in Addiction Treatment

Although adolescents are developmentally distinct from adults, they often receive addiction treatment based on adult models. This is problematic because adolescents face significantly different conditions in addiction treatment, including distinct basic biological and neurodevelopmental stages, unique sociodevelopmental concerns, distinctive addiction trajectories, and, in turn, disparate treatment goals and outcomes. In sum, it can be difficult for even savvy clinicians to know how to approach addiction treatment with this important age group. In an effort to help clinicians and researchers consider substance use via a neurodevelopmental lens, we approached this review with 4 goals: (i) characterize the prevalence, and related health and safety implications of substance use within this age group; (ii) identify the nature of the adolescent brain, including characteristic features of this phase of neurodevelopment relevant to adolescent substance use treatment; (iii) provide an overview of current adolescent addiction interventions and avenues to improve clinical treatment and clinical research efforts for adolescents; and (iv) examine the intersection between the nature of the developing brain and adolescent substance use, and utilize that information to inform alternative routes and directions for substance use treatment in this critical age group. This review concludes by offering a novel neurodevelopmental model and framework to examine substance use interventions, along with a series of recommendations to optimize adolescent substance use treatment and clinical research.

Differential effects of parent and peer presence on neural correlates of risk taking in adolescence

Adolescence is a developmental period associated with increased health-risk behaviors and unique sensitivity to the input from the social context, paralleled by major changes in the developing brain. Peer presence increases adolescent risk taking, associated with greater reward-related activity, while parental presence decreases risk taking, associated with decreased reward-related activity and increased cognitive control. Yet the effects specific to peers and parents are still unknown. The current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study compared within-person peer and parent influences on risky decision-making during adolescence (ages 12–15 years; N = 56). Participants completed the Yellow Light Game (YLG), a computerized driving task, during which they could make safe or risky decisions, in the presence of a peer and their parent. Behavioral findings revealed no effects of social context on risk taking. At the neural level, a collection of affective, social and cognitive regions [ventral striatum (VS), temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)] was more active during decision-making with peers than parents. Additionally, functional connectivity analyses showed greater coupling between affective, social and cognitive control regions (VS-insula, VS-TPJ) during decision-making with parents than peers. These findings highlight the complex nature of social influence processes in peer and parent contexts, and contribute to our understanding of the opportunities and vulnerabilities associated with adolescent social sensitivity.

The intrinsic neural architecture of inhibitory control: The role of development and emotional experience

Inhibitory control is a key determinant of goal-directed behavior. Its susceptibility to reward implies that its variations may not only reflect cognitive ability, but also sensitivity to goal-relevant information. Since cognitive ability and motivational sensitivity vary as a function of age and mood, we hypothesized that their relevance for predicting individual differences in inhibition would similarly vary. Here, we tested this prediction with respect to the brain's intrinsic functional architecture. Specifically, we reasoned that age and affective functioning would both moderate the relationship between inhibition and resting state expression of the dynamic neural organization patterns linked to engaging in cognitive effort versus those involved in manipulating motivationally salient information. First, we used task fMRI data from the Human Connectome Project (N = 359 participants) to identify the brain organization patterns unique to effortful cognitive processing versus manipulation of motivationally relevant information. We then assessed the association between inhibitory control and relative expression of these two neural patterns in an independent resting state dataset from the Nathan Kline Institute-Rockland lifespan sample (N = 247). As hypothesized, the relation between inhibition and intrinsic functional brain architecture varied as a function of age and affective functioning. Among those with superior affective functioning, better inhibitory control in adolescence and early adulthood was associated with stronger resting state expression of the brain pattern that typified processing of motivationally salient information. The opposite effect emerged beyond the age of 49. Among individuals with poorer affective functioning, a significant link between inhibition and brain architecture emerged only before the age of 28. In this group, superior inhibition was associated with stronger resting state expression of the neural pattern that typified effortful cognitive processing. Our results thus imply that motivational relevance makes a unique contribution to superior cognitive functioning during earlier life stages. However, its relevance to higher-order mentation decreases with aging and increased prevalence of mood-related problems, which raises the possibility that patterns of neurobehavioral responsiveness to motivational salience may constitute sensitive markers of successful lifespan development.

Differential effects of parent and peer presence on neural correlates of risk taking in adolescence

Adolescence is a developmental period associated with increased health-risk behaviors and unique sensitivity to the input from the social context, paralleled by major changes in the developing brain. Peer presence increases adolescent risk taking, associated with greater reward-related activity, while parental presence decreases risk taking, associated with decreased reward-related activity and increased cognitive control. Yet the effects specific to peers and parents are still unknown. The current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study compared within-person peer and parent influences on risky decision-making during adolescence (ages 12-15 years; N = 56). Participants completed the Yellow Light Game (YLG), a computerized driving task, during which they could make safe or risky decisions, in the presence of a peer and their parent. Behavioral findings revealed no effects of social context on risk taking. At the neural level, a collection of affective, social and cognitive regions [ventral striatum (VS), temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)] was more active during decision-making with peers than parents. Additionally, functional connectivity analyses showed greater coupling between affective, social and cognitive control regions (VS-insula, VS-TPJ) during decision-making with parents than peers. These findings highlight the complex nature of social influence processes in peer and parent contexts, and contribute to our understanding of the opportunities and vulnerabilities associated with adolescent social sensitivity.

Neural correlates of sibling closeness and association with externalizing behavior in adolescence

Sibling relationships have been linked to adolescent externalizing behaviors, but the neurobiological factors that underlie this association have not been identified. This study investigated sibling closeness and birth order as a predictor of adolescent externalizing behavior via differences in neural processes during safe decision-making. A total of 77 adolescents (range = 12–15 years, M_age = 13.45 years, 40 females) completed a computerized driving task during a functional MRI scan. Results showed that adolescents’ perceptions of sibling closeness were associated with greater neural activation in the anterior insula, ventral striatum and left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex when making safe decisions, suggesting that the quality of sibling relationships modulates adolescent neurocognition even without being present. Furthermore, moderated mediation analyses revealed that higher sibling closeness was associated with lower externalizing behavior via left anterior insula activation during safe decision-making, but only for adolescents without older siblings (i.e. eldest children) compared to adolescents who had multiple older siblings. Importantly, these findings persisted above and beyond parental and peer closeness and sibling characteristics (i.e. sex, relatedness, birth order), highlighting the significant influence of sibling relationships on adolescent externalizing behavior through the brain.

Neurobiology of substance use in adolescents and potential therapeutic effects of exercise for prevention and treatment of substance use disorders

Substance use (e.g., alcohol, marijuana, opioids, cocaine., etc,) use often initiates during adolescence, a critical period of physiological and social development marked by an increase in risk-taking due, in part, to heightened motivation to obtain arousal from rewards. Substance use during adolescence has been associated with a greater risk of substance use disorders (SUD) in adulthood. Although use rates for most substances have remained relatively stable, the frequency of marijuana use and the perception that regular marijuana use is not harmful has increased in adolescents. Furthermore, the nonmedical use of opioids has increased, particularly in the South, Midwest, and rural low-income communities. Substance use in adolescence has been associated with adverse structural and functional brain changes and, may exacerbate the natural "imbalance" between frontal/regulatory and cortical-subcortical circuits, leading to further heightened impulsive and reward-driven behaviors. Exercise increases growth and brain-derived neurotrophic factors that stimulate endogenous dopaminergic systems that, in turn, enhance general plasticity, learning, and memory. Exercise may help to reinforce the "naïve" or underdeveloped connections between neurological reward and regulatory processes in adolescence from the "bottom up" and "offset" reward seeking from substances, while concomitantly improving cardiovascular health, as well as academic and social achievement. In this review, we provide an overview of the current state of substance use in adolescents and rationale for the utilization of exercise, particularly "assisted" exercise, which we have shown increases neural activity in cortical-subcortical regions and may modulate brain dopamine levels during adolescence, a unique window of heightened reward sensitivity and neural plasticity, for the prevention and adjunctive treatment of SUD.

Ventral striatal response during decision making involving risk and reward is associated with future binge drinking in adolescents

Beginning to engage in heavy alcohol use during adolescence, as opposed to later in life, is associated with elevated risk for a variety of negative consequences, including the development of an alcohol use disorder. Behavioral studies suggest that poor decision making predicts alcohol use during adolescence; however, more research is needed to determine the neurobiological risk factors that underlie this association. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, brain activation during decision making involving risk and reward was assessed in 47 adolescents (14-15 years old) with no significant history or alcohol or drug use. After baseline assessment, participants completed follow-up interviews every 3 months to assess the duration to onset of binge drinking. Adolescents who made a greater number of risky selections and had greater activation in the nucleus accumbens, precuneus, and occipital cortex during decision making involving greater potential for risk and reward began binge drinking sooner. Findings suggest that heightened activation of reward circuitry during decision making under risk is a neurobiological risk factor for earlier onset of binge drinking. Furthermore, brain activation was a significant predictor of onset to binge drinking, even after controlling for decision-making behavior, suggesting that neurobiological markers may provide additional predictive validity over behavioral assessments. Interventions designed to modify these behavioral and neurobiological risk factors may be useful for curbing heavy alcohol use during adolescence.

The Influence of Different Kinds of Incentives on Decision-Making and Cognitive Control in Adolescent Development: A Review of Behavioral and Neuroscientific Studies

A number of recent hypothetical models on adolescent development take a dual-systems perspective and propose an imbalance in the maturation of neural systems underlying reward-driven and control-related behavior. In particular, such models suggest that the relative dominance of the early emerging subcortical reward system over the later emerging prefrontal-guided control system leads to higher risk-taking and sensation-seeking behavior in mid-adolescents. Here, we will review recent empirical evidence from behavioral and neuroscientific studies examining interactions between these systems and showing that empirical evidence in support for the view of a higher sensitivity to rewards in mid-adolescents is rather mixed. One possible explanation for this may be the use of different kinds and amounts of incentives across studies. We will therefore include developmental studies comparing the differential influence of primary and secondary incentives, as well as those investigating within the class of secondary incentives the effects of monetary, cognitive, or social incentives. We hypothesized that the value of receiving sweets or sours, winning or losing small or large amounts of money, and being accepted or rejected from a peer group may also changes across development, and thereby might modulate age differences in decision-making and cognitive control. Our review revealed that although developmental studies directly comparing different kinds of incentives are rather scarce, results of various studies rather consistently showed only minor age differences in the impact of incentives on the behavioral level. In tendency, adolescents were more sensitive to higher amounts of incentives and larger uncertainty of receiving them, as well as to social incentives such as the presence of peers observing them. Electrophysiological studies showed that processing efficiency was enhanced during anticipation of incentives and receiving them, irrespective of incentive type. Again, we found no strong evidence for interactions with age across studies. Finally, functional brain imaging studies revealed evidence for overlapping brain regions activated during processing of primary and secondary incentives, as well as social and non-social incentives. Adolescents recruited similar reward-related and control-related brain regions as adults did, but to a different degree. Implications for future research will be discussed.

Salience network response to changes in emotional expressions of others is heightened during early adolescence: relevance for social functioning

Adolescence is a unique developmental period when the salience of social and emotional information becomes particularly pronounced. Although this increased sensitivity to social and emotional information has frequently been considered with respect to risk behaviors and psychopathology, evidence suggests that increased adolescent sensitivity to social and emotional cues may confer advantages. For example, greater sensitivity to shifts in the emotions of others is likely to promote flexible and adaptive social behavior. In this study, a sample of 54 children and adolescents (age 8-19 years) performed a delayed match-to-sample task for emotional faces while undergoing fMRI scanning. Recruitment of the anterior cingulate and anterior insula when the emotion of the probe face did not match the emotion held in memory followed a quadratic developmental pattern that peaked during early adolescence. These findings indicate meaningful developmental variation in the neural mechanisms underlying sensitivity to changes in the emotional expressions. Across all participants, greater activation of this network for changes in emotional expression was associated with less social anxiety and fewer social problems. These results suggest that the heightened salience of social and emotional information during adolescence may confer important advantages for social behavior, providing sensitivity to others' emotions that facilitates flexible social responding.

Not just social sensitivity: Adolescent neural suppression of social feedback during risk taking

Adolescence is a period of sensitivity to social stimuli. In particular, research has focused on the increased sensitivity to risks and social information seen during adolescence. However, recent evidence also suggests that adolescents can flexibly use information in service of their goals, raising an interesting question: are adolescents able to selectively discount social information if it conflicts with their goals? To test this question, fifty-five children and adolescents (ages 8-17 years) completed a social variant of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task during an fMRI session. Adolescents showed decreased tracking of negative social feedback in regions involved in salience-monitoring (e.g. insula) and social processing (e.g., TPJ, pSTS). Age-related changes in neural processing of risk and social feedback contributed to better performance for older participants. These results suggest that adolescents are able to suppress goal-irrelevant social feedback, rather than being uniformly hyper-sensitive to social information.

Chronic peer victimization heightens neural sensitivity to risk taking

Although behavioral and experimental studies have shown links between victimization and antisocial behavior, the neural correlates explaining this link are relatively unknown. In the current study, we recruited adolescent girls from a longitudinal study that tracked youths' reports of peer victimization experiences annually from the second through eighth grades. Based on these reports, 46 adolescents were recruited: 25 chronically victimized and 21 nonvictimized. During a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan, participants completed a risk-taking task. Chronic peer victimization was associated with greater risk-taking behavior during the task and higher levels of self-reported antisocial behavior in everyday life. At the neural level, chronically victimized girls showed greater activation in regions involved in affective sensitivity, social cognition, and cognitive control, which significantly mediated victimization group differences in self-reported antisocial behavior.