Endocytosis of receptor tyrosine kinases

Functional and clinical roles of stromal PDGF receptors in tumor biology

PDGF receptors play pivotal roles in both developmental and physiological processes through the regulation of mesenchymal cells involved in paracrine instructive interactions with epithelial or endothelial cells. Tumor biology studies, alongside analyses of patient tissue samples, provide strong indications that the PDGF signaling pathways are also critical in various types of human cancer. This review summarizes experimental findings and correlative studies, which have explored the biological mechanisms and clinical relevance of PDGFRs in mesenchymal cells of the tumor microenvironment. Collectively, these studies support the overall concept that the PDGF system is a critical regulator of tumor growth, metastasis, and drug efficacy, suggesting yet unexploited targeting opportunities. The inter-patient variability in stromal PDGFR expression, as being linked to prognosis and treatment responses, not only indicates the need for stratified approaches in upcoming therapeutic investigations but also implies the potential for the development of PDGFRs as biomarkers of clinical utility, interestingly also in settings outside PDGFR-directed treatments.

A Pvr-AP-1-Mmp1 signaling pathway is activated in astrocytes upon traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by external mechanical forces is a major health burden worldwide, but the underlying mechanism in glia remains largely unclear. We report herein that Drosophila adults exhibit a defective blood-brain barrier, elevated innate immune responses, and astrocyte swelling upon consecutive strikes with a high-impact trauma device. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis of these astrocytes revealed upregulated expression of genes encoding PDGF and VEGF receptor-related (Pvr, a receptor tyrosine kinase), adaptor protein complex 1 (AP-1, a transcription factor complex of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway) composed of Jun-related antigen (Jra) and kayak (kay), and matrix metalloproteinase 1 (Mmp1) following TBI. Interestingly, Pvr is both required and sufficient for AP-1 and Mmp1 upregulation, while knockdown of AP-1 expression in the background of Pvr overexpression in astrocytes rescued Mmp1 upregulation upon TBI, indicating that Pvr acts as the upstream receptor for the downstream AP-1-Mmp1 transduction. Moreover, dynamin-associated endocytosis was found to be an important regulatory step in downregulating Pvr signaling. Our results identify a new Pvr-AP-1-Mmp1 signaling pathway in astrocytes in response to TBI, providing potential targets for developing new therapeutic strategies for TBI.

PDGF-induced internalisation promotes proteolytic cleavage of PDGFRβ in mesenchymal cells

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced signalling via PDGF receptor β (PDGFRβ) leads to activation of downstream signalling pathways which regulate multiple cellular responses. It is unclear how PDGFRβ is degraded; both lysosomal and proteasomal degradation have been suggested. In this study, we have characterised the proteolytic cleavage of ligand-activated PDGFRβ, which results in two fragments: a larger fragment containing the extracellular domain, the transmembrane segment, and a part of the intracellular juxtamembrane region with a molecular mass of ∼130 kDa, and an intracellular ∼70 kDa fragment released into the cytoplasm. The proteolytic processing did not take place without internalisation of PDGFRβ. In addition, chelation of intracellular Ca2+ inhibited proteolytic processing. Inhibition of the proteasome affected signal transduction by increasing the phosphorylation of PDGFRβ, PLCγ, and STAT3 while reducing it on Erk1/2 and not affecting Akt. The proteolytic cleavage was observed in fibroblasts or cells that had undergone epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

CDX2-Suppressed Colorectal Cancers Possess Potentially Targetable Alterations in Receptor Tyrosine Kinases and Other Colorectal-Cancer-Associated Pathways

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer, a prevalent gastrointestinal carcinoma, has a high risk for recurrence when locally advanced and remains lethal when in an advanced stage. Prognostic biomarkers may help in better delineating the aggressiveness of this disease in individual patients and help to tailor appropriate therapies. CDX2, a transcription factor of gastrointestinal differentiation, has been proposed as a biomarker for good outcomes and could also be a marker of specific sub-types amenable to targeted therapies.

METHODS

Colorectal cancers from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) colorectal cohort and colon cancers from the Sidra-LUMC AC-ICAM cohort were categorized according to their expressions of CDX2 mRNA. Groups with CDX2 suppression were compared with cancers showing no suppression regarding their clinical and genomic characteristics.

RESULTS

CDX2-suppressed colorectal cancers showed a high prevalence of Microsatellite Instability (MSI) and a lower prevalence of chromosomal Instability (CIN) compared to non-CDX2-suppressed cancers. In addition, CDX2-suppressed cancers had a higher prevalence of mutations in several receptor tyrosine kinase genes, including EGFR, ERBB3, ERBB4, RET, and ROS1. In contrast, CDX2-suppressed cancers displayed lower mutation frequencies than non-CDX2-suppressed cancers in the genes encoding for the two most frequently mutated tumor suppressors, APC and TP53, and the most frequently mutated colorectal cancer oncogene, KRAS. However, CDX2-suppressed colorectal cancers had a higher prevalence of mutations in alternative genes of the WNT/APC/β-catenin and KRAS/BRAF/MEK pathways. In addition, they showed frequent mutations in DNA damage response (DDR) genes, such as BRCA2 and ATM.

CONCLUSION

CDX2-suppressed colorectal cancers constitute a genomically distinct subset of colon and rectal cancers that have a lower prevalence of KRAS, APC, and TP53 mutations, but a high prevalence of mutations in less commonly mutated colorectal cancer genes. These alterations could serve as targets for personalized therapeutics in this subset.

GAS6 and AXL Promote Insulin Resistance by Rewiring Insulin Signaling and Increasing Insulin Receptor Trafficking to Endosomes

Growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) is a secreted protein that acts as a ligand for TAM receptors (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK). In humans, GAS6 circulating levels and genetic variations in GAS6 are associated with hyperglycemia and increased risk of type 2 diabetes. However, the mechanisms by which GAS6 influences glucose metabolism are not understood. Here, we show that Gas6 deficiency in mice increases insulin sensitivity and protects from diet-induced insulin resistance. Conversely, increasing GAS6 circulating levels is sufficient to reduce insulin sensitivity in vivo. GAS6 inhibits the activation of the insulin receptor (IR) and reduces insulin response in muscle cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, AXL and IR form a complex, while GAS6 reprograms signaling pathways downstream of IR. This results in increased IR endocytosis following insulin treatment. This study contributes to a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which GAS6 and AXL influence insulin sensitivity.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

Lysosomal physiology and pancreatic lysosomal stress in diabetes mellitus

Endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas control nutritional absorption, utilisation and systemic metabolic homeostasis. Under basal conditions, the lysosome is pivotal in regulating intracellular organelles and metabolite turnover. In response to acute or chronic stress, the lysosome senses metabolic flux and inflammatory challenges, thereby initiating the adaptive programme to re-establish cellular homeostasis. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the pathophysiological relevance of the lysosomal stress response in metabolic diseases in diverse sets of tissues/organs, such as the liver and the heart. In this review, we discuss the pathological relevance of pancreatic lysosome stress in diabetes mellitus. We begin by summarising lysosomal biology, followed by exploring the immune and metabolic functions of lysosomes and finally discussing the interplay between lysosomal stress and the pathogenesis of pancreatic diseases. Ultimately, our review aims to enhance our understanding of lysosomal stress in disease pathogenesis, which could potentially lead to the discovery of innovative treatment methods for these conditions.

Galectin-1 Attenuates PDGF-Mediated AKT Signaling in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

Galectins have the potential to interact with transmembrane glycoproteins to modulate their functions. Since galectin-1 interacts with PDGF-Rβ, we analyzed the effect of galectin-1 on PDGF-BB-mediated AKT signaling in primary human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells and galectin-1-deficient immortalized human RPE cells (LGALS1-/-/ARPE-19) following incubation with PDGF-BB and galectin-1. Expression and localization of galectin-1, PDGF-Rβ and pAKT were investigated using western blot analysis and immunohistochemical staining. Cell proliferation of RPE cells was analyzed using BrdU ELISA. Following treatment of human RPE cells with human recombinant (hr)-galectin-1 and PDGF-BB, an intense clustering of PDGF-Rβ and colocalization with galectin-1 were detected. By Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry of human RPE cells, an enhanced PDGF-BB-mediated expression of pAKT was observed, which was substantially reduced by additional incubation with hr-galectin-1. Vice versa, in LGALS1-/-/ARPE-19 cells, the PDGF-BB-induced pAKT signal was enhanced compared to wild-type cells. Furthermore, a decreased expression of PDGF-Rβ in human RPE cells was observed after treatment with PDGF-BB and hr-galectin-1, while in untreated LGALS1-/-/ARPE-19 cells, its constitutive expression was increased. In addition, after treatment of RPE cells with hr-galectin-1, the PDGF-BB-induced proliferation was markedly reduced. In summary, galectin-1 has the distinct potential to reduce PDGF-mediated pAKT signaling and proliferation in human RPE cells-an effect that is most likely facilitated via a decreased expression of PDGF-Rβ.

IL-1β-activated PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways coordinately promote induction of partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular process in embryonic development, wound healing, organ fibrosis, and cancer metastasis. Previously, we and others have reported that proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) induces EMT. However, the exact mechanisms, especially the signal transduction pathways, underlying IL-1β-mediated EMT are not yet completely understood. Here, we found that IL-1β stimulation leads to the partial EMT-like phenotype in human lung epithelial A549 cells, including the gain of mesenchymal marker (vimentin) and high migratory potential, without the complete loss of epithelial marker (E-cadherin). IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction was repressed by PI3K inhibitor LY294002, indicating that the PI3K/AKT pathway plays a significant role in the induction. In addition, ERK1/2 inhibitor FR180204 markedly inhibited the IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction, demonstrating that the MEK/ERK pathway was also involved in the induction. Furthermore, we found that the activation of the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways occurred downstream of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway and the IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) pathway, respectively. Our findings suggest that the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways coordinately promote the IL-1β-mediated partial EMT induction. The inhibition of not one but both pathways is expected yield clinical benefits by preventing partial EMT-related disorders such as organ fibrosis and cancer metastasis.

Glycosylation of FGF/FGFR: An underrated sweet code regulating cellular signaling programs

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors (FGFRs) constitute plasma-membrane localized signaling hubs that transmit signals from the extracellular environment to the cell interior, governing pivotal cellular processes like motility, metabolism, differentiation, division and death. FGF/FGFR signaling is critical for human body development and homeostasis; dysregulation of FGF/FGFR units is observed in numerous developmental diseases and in about 10% of human cancers. Glycosylation is a highly abundant posttranslational modification that is critical for physiological and pathological functions of the cell. Glycosylation is also very common within FGF/FGFR signaling hubs. Vast majority of FGFs (15 out of 22 members) are N-glycosylated and few FGFs are O-glycosylated. Glycosylation is even more abundant within FGFRs; all FGFRs are heavily N-glycosylated in numerous positions within their extracellular domains. A growing number of studies points on the multiple roles of glycosylation in fine-tuning FGF/FGFR signaling. Glycosylation modifies secretion of FGFs, determines their stability and affects interaction with FGFRs and co-receptors. Glycosylation of FGFRs determines their intracellular sorting, constitutes autoinhibitory mechanism within FGFRs and adjusts FGF and co-receptor recognition. Sugar chains attached to FGFs and FGFRs constitute also a form of code that is differentially decrypted by extracellular lectins, galectins, which transform FGF/FGFR signaling at multiple levels. This review focuses on the identified functions of glycosylation within FGFs and FGFRs and discusses their relevance for the cell physiology in health and disease.

The diverse dependence of galectin-1 and -8 on multivalency for the modulation of FGFR1 endocytosis

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) is a N-glycosylated cell surface receptor tyrosine kinase, which upon recognition of specific extracellular ligands, fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), initiates an intracellular signaling. FGFR1 signaling ensures homeostasis of cells by fine-tuning essential cellular processes, like differentiation, division, motility and death. FGFR1 activity is coordinated at multiple steps and unbalanced FGFR1 signaling contributes to developmental diseases and cancers. One of the crucial control mechanisms over FGFR1 signaling is receptor endocytosis, which allows for rapid targeting of FGF-activated FGFR1 to lysosomes for degradation and the signal termination. We have recently demonstrated that N-glycans of FGFR1 are recognized by a precise set of extracellular galectins, secreted and intracellular multivalent lectins implicated in a plethora of cellular processes and altered in immune responses and cancers. Specific galectins trigger FGFR1 clustering, resulting in activation of the receptor and in initiation of intracellular signaling cascades that shape the cell physiology. Although some of galectin family members emerged recently as key players in the clathrin-independent endocytosis of specific cargoes, their impact on endocytosis of FGFR1 was largely unknown.Here we assessed the contribution of extracellular galectins to the cellular uptake of FGFR1. We demonstrate that only galectin-1 induces internalization of FGFR1, whereas the majority of galectins predominantly inhibit endocytosis of the receptor. We focused on three representative galectins: galectin-1, -7 and -8 and we demonstrate that although all these galectins directly activate FGFR1 by the receptor crosslinking mechanism, they exert different effects on FGFR1 endocytosis. Galectin-1-mediated internalization of FGFR1 doesn't require galectin-1 multivalency and occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, resembling in this way the uptake of FGF/FGFR1 complex. In contrast galectin-7 and -8 impede FGFR1 endocytosis, causing stabilization of the receptor on the cell surface and prolonged propagation of the signals. Furthermore, using protein engineering approaches we demonstrate that it is possible to modulate or even fully reverse the endocytic potential of galectins.

Stochastic growth and selective stabilization generate stereotyped dendritic arbors

Stereotyped dendritic arbors are shaped by dynamic and stochastic growth during neuronal development. It remains unclear how guidance receptors and ligands coordinate branch dynamic growth, retraction, and stabilization to specify dendritic arbors. We previously showed that extracellular ligand SAX-7/LICAM dictates the shape of the PVD sensory neuron via binding to the dendritic guidance receptor DMA-1, a single transmembrane adhesion molecule. Here, we perform structure-function analyses of DMA-1 and unexpectedly find that robust, stochastic dendritic growth does not require ligand-binding. Instead, ligand-binding inhibits growth, prevents retraction, and specifies arbor shape. Furthermore, we demonstrate that dendritic growth requires a pool of ligand-free DMA-1, which is maintained by receptor endocytosis and reinsertion to the plasma membrane via recycling endosomes. Mutants defective of DMA-1 endocytosis show severely truncated dendritic arbors. We present a model in which ligand-free guidance receptor mediates intrinsic, stochastic dendritic growth, while extracellular ligands instruct dendrite shape by inhibiting growth.

Co-clustering of EphB6 and ephrinB1 in trans restrains cancer cell invasion

EphB6 is an understudied ephrin receptor tyrosine pseudokinase that is downregulated in multiple types of metastatic cancers. Unlike its kinase-active counterparts which autophosphorylate and transmit signals upon intercellular interaction, little is known about how EphB6 functions in the absence of intrinsic kinase activity. Here, we unveil a molecular mechanism of cell-cell interaction driven by EphB6. We identify ephrinB1 as a cognate ligand of EphB6 and show that in trans interaction of EphB6 with ephrinB1 on neighboring cells leads to the formation of large co-clusters at the plasma membrane. These co-clusters exhibit a decreased propensity towards endocytosis, suggesting a unique characteristic for this type of cell-cell interaction. Using lattice light-sheet microscopy, 3D structured illumination microscopy and cryo-electron tomography techniques, we show that co-clustering of EphB6 and ephrinB1 promotes the formation of double-membrane tubular structures between cells. Importantly, we also demonstrate that these intercellular structures stabilize cell-cell adhesion, leading to a reduction in the invasive behavior of cancer cells. Our findings rationalize a role for EphB6 pseudokinase as a tumor suppressor when interacting with its ligands in trans.

Proteomic Profiling of Endothelial Cells Exposed to Mitomycin C: Key Proteins and Pathways Underlying Genotoxic Stress-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction

Mitomycin C (MMC)-induced genotoxic stress can be considered to be a novel trigger of endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis-a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Given the increasing genotoxic load on the human organism, the decryption of the molecular pathways underlying genotoxic stress-induced endothelial dysfunction could improve our understanding of the role of genotoxic stress in atherogenesis. Here, we performed a proteomic profiling of human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs) and human internal thoracic endothelial cells (HITAECs) in vitro that were exposed to MMC to identify the biochemical pathways and proteins underlying genotoxic stress-induced endothelial dysfunction. We denoted 198 and 71 unique, differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in the MMC-treated HCAECs and HITAECs, respectively; only 4 DEPs were identified in both the HCAECs and HITAECs. In the MMC-treated HCAECs, 44.5% of the DEPs were upregulated and 55.5% of the DEPs were downregulated, while in HITAECs, these percentages were 72% and 28%, respectively. The denoted DEPs are involved in the processes of nucleotides and RNA metabolism, vesicle-mediated transport, post-translation protein modification, cell cycle control, the transport of small molecules, transcription and signal transduction. The obtained results could improve our understanding of the fundamental basis of atherogenesis and help in the justification of genotoxic stress as a risk factor for atherosclerosis.

Endocytic vesicles act as vehicles for glucose uptake in response to growth factor stimulation

Glycolysis is a fundamental cellular process, yet its regulatory mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here, we show that a subset of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1/SLC2A1) co-endocytoses with platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor (PDGFR) upon PDGF-stimulation. Furthermore, multiple glycolytic enzymes localize to these endocytosed PDGFR/GLUT1-containing vesicles adjacent to mitochondria. Contrary to current models, which emphasize the importance of glucose transporters on the cell surface, we find that PDGF-stimulated glucose uptake depends on receptor/transporter endocytosis. Our results suggest that growth factors generate glucose-loaded endocytic vesicles that deliver glucose to the glycolytic machinery in proximity to mitochondria, and argue for a new layer of regulation for glycolytic control governed by cellular membrane dynamics.

A live cell imaging-based assay for tracking particle uptake by clathrin-mediated endocytosis

A popular strategy for therapeutic delivery to cells and tissues is to encapsulate therapeutics inside particles that cells internalize via endocytosis. The efficacy of particle uptake by endocytosis is often studied in bulk using flow cytometry and Western blot analysis and confirmed using confocal microscopy. However, these techniques do not reveal the detailed dynamics of particle internalization and how the inherent heterogeneity of many types of particles may impact their endocytic uptake. Toward addressing these gaps, here we present a live-cell imaging-based method that utilizes total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to track the uptake of a large ensemble of individual particles in parallel, as they interact with the cellular endocytic machinery. To analyze the resulting data, we employ an open-source tracking algorithm in combination with custom data filters. This analysis reveals the dynamic interactions between particles and endocytic structures, which determine the probability of particle uptake. In particular, our approach can be used to examine how variations in the physical properties of particles (size, targeting, rigidity), as well as heterogeneity within the particle population, impact endocytic uptake. These data impact the design of particles toward more selective and efficient delivery of therapeutics to cells.

Intersectin - many facets of a scaffold protein

Intersectin (ITSN) is a multi-domain scaffold protein with a diverse array of functions including regulation of endocytosis, vesicle transport, and activation of various signal transduction pathways. There are two ITSN genes located on chromosomes 21 and 2 encoding for proteins ITSN1 and ITSN2, respectively. Each ITSN gene encodes two major isoforms, ITSN-Long (ITSN-L) and ITSN-Short (ITSN-S), due to alternative splicing. ITSN1 and 2, collectively referred to as ITSN, are implicated in many physiological and pathological processes, such as neuronal maintenance, actin cytoskeletal rearrangement, and tumor progression. ITSN is mis-regulated in many tumors, such as breast, lung, neuroblastomas, and gliomas. Altered expression of ITSN is also found in several neurodegenerative diseases, such as Down Syndrome and Alzheimer's disease. This review summarizes recent studies on ITSN and provides an overview of the function of this important family of scaffold proteins in various biological processes.

Molecular docking as a tool for the discovery of novel insight about the role of acid sphingomyelinase inhibitors in SARS- CoV-2 infectivity

Recently, COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its variants, caused > 6 million deaths. Symptoms included respiratory strain and complications, leading to severe pneumonia. SARS-CoV-2 attaches to the ACE-2 receptor of the host cell membrane to enter. Targeting the SARS-CoV-2 entry may effectively inhibit infection. Acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) is a lysosomal protein that catalyzes the conversion of sphingolipid (sphingomyelin) to ceramide. Ceramide molecules aggregate/assemble on the plasma membrane to form "platforms" that facilitate the viral intake into the cell. Impairing the ASMase activity will eventually disrupt viral entry into the cell. In this review, we identified the metabolism of sphingolipids, sphingolipids' role in cell signal transduction cascades, and viral infection mechanisms. Also, we outlined ASMase structure and underlying mechanisms inhibiting viral entry 40 with the aid of inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase (FIASMAs). In silico molecular docking analyses of FIASMAs with inhibitors revealed that dilazep (S = - 12.58 kcal/mol), emetine (S = - 11.65 kcal/mol), pimozide (S = - 11.29 kcal/mol), carvedilol (S = - 11.28 kcal/mol), mebeverine (S = - 11.14 kcal/mol), cepharanthine (S = - 11.06 kcal/mol), hydroxyzin (S = - 10.96 kcal/mol), astemizole (S = - 10.81 kcal/mol), sertindole (S = - 10.55 kcal/mol), and bepridil (S = - 10.47 kcal/mol) have higher inhibition activity than the candidate drug amiodarone (S = - 10.43 kcal/mol), making them better options for inhibition.

The cholesterol biosynthesis enzyme FAXDC2 couples Wnt/β-catenin to RTK/MAPK signaling

Wnts, cholesterol, and MAPK signaling are essential for development and adult homeostasis. Here, we report that fatty acid hydroxylase domain containing 2 (FAXDC2), a previously uncharacterized enzyme, functions as a methyl sterol oxidase catalyzing C4 demethylation in the Kandutsch-Russell branch of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. FAXDC2, a paralog of MSMO1, regulated the abundance of the specific C4-methyl sterols lophenol and dihydro-T-MAS. Highlighting its clinical relevance, FAXDC2 was repressed in Wnt/β-catenin-high cancer xenografts, in a mouse genetic model of Wnt activation, and in human colorectal cancers. Moreover, in primary human colorectal cancers, the sterol lophenol, regulated by FAXDC2, accumulated in the cancerous tissues and not in adjacent normal tissues. FAXDC2 linked Wnts to RTK/MAPK signaling. Wnt inhibition drove increased recycling of RTKs and activation of the MAPK pathway, and this required FAXDC2. Blocking Wnt signaling in Wnt-high cancers caused both differentiation and senescence; and this was prevented by knockout of FAXDC2. Our data show the integration of 3 ancient pathways, Wnts, cholesterol synthesis, and RTK/MAPK signaling, in cellular proliferation and differentiation.

Design Principles for Biological Adaptation: A Systems and Control-Theoretic Treatment

Establishing a mapping between (from and to) the functionality of interest and the underlying network structure (design principles) remains a crucial step toward understanding and design of bio-systems. Perfect adaptation is one such crucial functionality that enables every living organism to regulate its essential activities in the presence of external disturbances. Previous approaches to deducing the design principles for adaptation have either relied on computationally burdensome brute-force methods or rule-based design strategies detecting only a subset of all possible adaptive network structures. This chapter outlines a scalable and generalizable method inspired by systems theory that unravels an exhaustive set of adaptation-capable structures. We first use the well-known performance parameters to characterize perfect adaptation. These performance parameters are then mapped back to a few parameters (poles, zeros, gain) characteristic of the underlying dynamical system constituted by the rate equations. Therefore, the performance parameters evaluated for the scenario of perfect adaptation can be expressed as a set of precise mathematical conditions involving the system parameters. Finally, we use algebraic graph theory to translate these abstract mathematical conditions to certain structural requirements for adaptation. The proposed algorithm does not assume any particular dynamics and is applicable to networks of any size. Moreover, the results offer a significant advancement in the realm of understanding and designing complex biochemical networks.

KLC1-ROS1 Fusion Exerts Oncogenic Properties of Glioma Cells via Specific Activation of JAK-STAT Pathway

Here, we investigated the detailed molecular oncogenic mechanisms of a novel receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) fusion, KLC1-ROS1, with an adapter molecule, KLC1, and an RTK, ROS1, discovered in pediatric glioma, and we explored a novel therapeutic target for glioma that possesses oncogenic RTK fusion. When wild-type ROS1 and KLC1-ROS1 fusions were stably expressed in the human glioma cell lines A172 and U343MG, immunoblotting revealed that KLC1-ROS1 fusion specifically activated the JAK2-STAT3 pathway, a major RTK downstream signaling pathway, when compared with wild-type ROS1. Immunoprecipitation of the fractionated cell lysates revealed a more abundant association of the KLC1-ROS1 fusion with JAK2 than that observed for wild-type ROS1 in the cytosolic fraction. A mutagenesis study of the KLC1-ROS1 fusion protein demonstrated the fundamental roles of both the KLC1 and ROS1 domains in the constitutive activation of KLC1-ROS1 fusion. Additionally, in vitro assays demonstrated that KLC1-ROS1 fusion upregulated cell proliferation, invasion, and chemoresistance when compared to wild-type ROS1. Combination treatment with the chemotherapeutic agent temozolomide and an inhibitor of ROS1, JAK2, or a downstream target of STAT3, demonstrated antitumor effects against KLC1-ROS1 fusion-expressing glioma cells. Our results demonstrate that KLC1-ROS1 fusion exerts oncogenic activity through serum-independent constitutive activation, resulting in specific activation of the JAK-STAT pathway. Our data suggested that molecules other than RTKs may serve as novel therapeutic targets for RTK fusion in gliomas.

MAD2-Dependent Insulin Receptor Endocytosis Regulates Metabolic Homeostasis

Insulin activates insulin receptor (IR) signaling and subsequently triggers IR endocytosis to attenuate signaling. Cell division regulators MAD2, BUBR1, and p31comet promote IR endocytosis on insulin stimulation. Here, we show that genetic ablation of the IR-MAD2 interaction in mice delays IR endocytosis, increases IR levels, and prolongs insulin action at the cell surface. This in turn causes a defect in insulin clearance and increases circulating insulin levels, unexpectedly increasing glucagon levels, which alters glucose metabolism modestly. Disruption of the IR-MAD2 interaction increases serum fatty acid concentrations and hepatic fat accumulation in fasted male mice. Furthermore, disruption of the IR-MAD2 interaction distinctly changes metabolic and transcriptomic profiles in the liver and adipose tissues. Our findings establish the function of cell division regulators in insulin signaling and provide insights into the metabolic functions of IR endocytosis.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

The physiological role of IR endocytosis in insulin sensitivity remains unclear. Disruption of the IR-MAD2 interaction delays IR endocytosis and prolongs insulin signaling. IR-MAD2 controls insulin clearance and glucose metabolism. IR-MAD2 maintains energy homeostasis.

Cbl and Cbl-b independently regulate EGFR through distinct receptor interaction modes

Highly homologous E3 ubiquitin ligases, Cbl and Cbl-b, mediate ubiquitination of EGF receptor (EGFR), leading to its endocytosis and lysosomal degradation. Cbl and Cbl-b, are thought to function in a redundant manner by binding directly to phosphorylated Y1045 (pY1045) of EGFR and indirectly via the Grb2 adaptor. Unexpectedly, we found that inducible expression of Cbl or Cbl-b mutants lacking the E3 ligase activity but fully capable of EGFR binding does not significantly affect EGFR ubiquitination and endocytosis in human oral squamous cell carcinoma (HSC3) cells which endogenously express Cbl-b at a relatively high level. Each endogenous Cbl species remained associated with ligand-activated EGFR in the presence of an overexpressed counterpart species or its mutant, although Cbl-b overexpression partially decreased Cbl association with EGFR. Binding to pY1045 was the preferential mode for Cbl-b:EGFR interaction, whereas Cbl relied mainly on the Grb2-dependent mechanism. Overexpression of the E3-dead mutant of Cbl-b slowed down EGF-induced degradation of active EGFR, while this mutant and a similar mutant of Cbl did not significantly affect MAPK/ERK1/2 activity. EGF-guided chemotaxis migration of HSC3 cells was diminished by overexpression of the E3-dead Cbl-b mutant but was not significantly affected by the E3-dead Cbl mutant. By contrast, the inhibitory effect of the same Cbl mutant on the migration of OSC-19 cells expressing low Cbl-b levels was substantially stronger than that of the Cbl-b mutant. Altogether, our data demonstrate that Cbl and Cbl-b may operate independently through different modes of EGFR binding to jointly control receptor ubiquitination, endocytic trafficking, and signaling.

Modulating Growth Factor Receptor Signaling to Promote Corneal Epithelial Homeostasis

The corneal epithelium is the first anatomical barrier between the environment and the cornea; it is critical for proper light refraction onto the retina and prevents pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses) from entering the immune-privileged eye. Trauma to the highly innervated corneal epithelium is extremely painful and if not resolved quickly or properly, can lead to infection and ultimately blindness. The healthy eye produces its own growth factors and is continuously bathed in tear fluid that contains these proteins and other nutrients to maintain the rapid turnover and homeostasis of the ocular surface. In this article, we review the roles of growth factors in corneal epithelial homeostasis and regeneration and some of the limitations to their use therapeutically.

Tephrosin Suppresses the Chemoresistance of Paclitaxel-Resistant Ovarian Cancer via Inhibition of FGFR1 Signaling Pathway

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death among gynecologic cancers. Paclitaxel is used as a standard first-line therapeutic agent for ovarian cancer. However, chemotherapeutic resistance and high recurrence rates are major obstacles to treating ovarian cancer. We have found that tephrosin, a natural rotenoid isoflavonoid, can resensitize paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer cells to paclitaxel. Cell viability, immunoblotting, and a flow cytometric analysis showed that a combination treatment made up of paclitaxel and tephrosin induced apoptotic death. Tephrosin inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT, STAT3, ERK, and p38 MAPK, all of which simultaneously play important roles in survival signaling pathways. Notably, tephrosin downregulated the phosphorylation of FGFR1 and its specific adapter protein FRS2, but it had no effect on the phosphorylation of the EGFR. Immunoblotting and a fluo-3 acetoxymethyl assay showed that tephrosin did not affect the expression or function of P-glycoprotein. Additionally, treatment with N-acetylcysteine did not restore cell cytotoxicity caused by a treatment combination made up of paclitaxel and tephrosin, showing that tephrosin did not affect the reactive oxygen species scavenging pathway. Interestingly, tephrosin reduced the expression of the anti-apoptotic factor XIAP. This study demonstrates that tephrosin is a potent antitumor agent that can be used in the treatment of paclitaxel-resistant ovarian cancer via the inhibition of the FGFR1 signaling pathway.

Selective Endocytic Uptake of Targeted Liposomes Occurs within a Narrow Range of Liposome Diameters

Cell surface receptors facilitate signaling and nutrient uptake. These processes are dynamic, requiring receptors to be actively recycled by endocytosis. Due to their differential expression in disease states, receptors are often the target of drug-carrier particles, which are adorned with ligands that bind specifically to receptors. These targeted particles are taken into the cell by multiple routes of internalization, where the best-characterized pathway is clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Most studies of particle uptake have utilized bulk assays rather than observing individual endocytic events. As a result, the detailed mechanisms of particle uptake remain obscure. To address this gap, we employed a live-cell imaging approach to study the uptake of individual liposomes as they interact with clathrin-coated structures. By tracking individual internalization events, we find that the size of liposomes rather than the density of the ligands on their surfaces primarily determines their probability of uptake. Interestingly, targeting has the greatest impact on endocytosis of liposomes of intermediate diameters, with the smallest and largest liposomes being internalized or excluded, respectively, regardless of whether they are targeted. These findings, which highlight a previously unexplored limitation of targeted delivery, can be used to design more effective drug carriers.

HCMV UL8 interaction with β-catenin and DVL2 regulates viral reactivation in CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells

IMPORTANCE

CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) are an important cellular reservoir for latent human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Several HCMV genes are expressed during latency that are involved with the maintenance of the viral genome in CD34+ HPC. However, little is known about the process of viral reactivation in these cells. Here, we describe a viral protein, pUL8, and its interaction and stabilization with members of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway as an important component of viral reactivation. We further define that pUL8 and β-catenin interact with DVL2 via a PDZ-binding domain, and loss of UL8 interaction with β-catenin-DVL2 restricts viral reactivation. Our findings will be instrumental in understanding the molecular processes involved in HCMV reactivation in order to design new antiviral therapeutics.

Role of lysosomes in insulin signaling and glucose uptake in cultured rat podocytes

Podocytes are sensitive to insulin, which governs the functional and structural integrity of podocytes that are essential for proper function of the glomerular filtration barrier. Lysosomes are acidic organelles that are implicated in regulation of the insulin signaling pathway. Cathepsin D (CTPD) and lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1) are major lysosomal proteins that reflect the functional state of lysosomes. However, the effect of insulin on lysosome activity and role of lysosomes in the regulation of insulin-dependent glucose uptake in podocytes are unknown. Our studies showed that the short-term incubation of podocytes with insulin decreased LAMP1 and CTPD mRNA levels. Insulin and bafilomycin A1 reduced both the amounts of LAMP1 and CTPD proteins and activity of CTPD, which were associated with a decrease in the fluorescence intensity of lysosomes that were labeled with LysoTracker. Bafilomycin A1 inhibited insulin-dependent endocytosis of the insulin receptor and increased the amounts of the insulin receptor and glucose transporter 4 on the cell surface of podocytes. Bafilomycin A1 also inhibited insulin-dependent glucose uptake despite an increase in the amount of glucose transporter 4 in the plasma membrane of podocytes. These results suggest that lysosomes are signaling hubs that may be involved in the coupling of insulin signaling with the regulation of glucose uptake in podocytes. The dysregulation of this mechanism can lead to the dysfunction of podocytes and development of insulin resistance.

Genetic assessment of pathogenic germline alterations in lysosomal genes among Asian patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Lysosomes are closely linked to autophagic activity, which plays a vital role in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) biology. The survival of PDAC patients is still poor, and the identification of novel genetic factors for prognosis and treatment is highly required to prevent PDAC-related deaths. This study investigated the germline variants related to lysosomal dysfunction in patients with PDAC and to analyze whether they contribute to the development of PDAC.

METHODS

The germline putative pathogenic variants (PPV) in genes involved in lysosomal storage disease (LSD) was compared between patients with PDAC (n = 418) and healthy controls (n = 845) using targeted panel and whole-exome sequencing. Furthermore, pancreatic organoids from wild-type and KrasG12D mice were used to evaluate the effect of lysosomal dysfunction on PDAC development. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis was performed with established PDAC patient-derived organoids (PDOs) according to the PPV status.

RESULTS

The PPV in LSD-related genes was higher in patients with PDAC than in healthy controls (8.13 vs. 4.26%, Log2 OR = 1.65, P = 3.08 × 10-3). The PPV carriers of LSD-related genes with PDAC were significantly younger than the non-carriers (mean age 61.5 vs. 65.3 years, P = 0.031). We further studied a variant of the lysosomal enzyme, galactosylceramidase (GALC), which was the most frequently detected LSD variant in our cohort. Autophagolysosomal activity was hampered when GALC was downregulated, which was accompanied by paradoxically elevated autophagic flux. Furthermore, the number of proliferating Ki-67+ cells increased significantly in pancreatic organoids derived from Galc knockout KrasG12D mice. Moreover, GALC PPV carriers tended to show drug resistance in both PDAC cell line and PDAC PDO, and RNA-seq analysis revealed that various metabolism and gene repair pathways were upregulated in PDAC PDOs harboring a GALC variant.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetically defined lysosomal dysfunction is frequently observed in patients with young-onset PDAC. This might contribute to PDAC development by altering metabolism and impairing autophagolysosomal activity, which could be potentially implicated in therapeutic applications for PDAC.

Dose-Dependent Effect of Phenothiazines as Dynamin II Inhibitors on the Uptake of PEGylated Liposomes by Endocytic Cells and In Vivo Pharmacokinetics of PEGylated Liposomal Doxorubicin in Rats

Dynamin II (dynII) plays a significant role in the internalization pathways of endocytic cells, by allowing membrane invaginations to "bud off". An important class of dynII inhibitors that are used clinically are phenothiazines, such as prochlorperazine (PCZ). PCZ is an antipsychotic drug but is also currently in clinical trials at higher concentrations as an adjuvant in cancer patients that increases the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies at high intravenous doses. It is unknown, however, whether high-dose dynII inhibitors have the potential to alter the pharmacokinetics of co-administered chemotherapeutic nanomedicines that are largely cleared via the mononuclear phagocyte system. This work therefore sought to investigate the impact of clinically relevant concentrations of phenothiazines, PCZ and thioridazine, on in vitro liposome endocytosis and in vivo liposome pharmacokinetics after PCZ infusion in rats. The uptake of fluorescently labeled PEGylated liposomes into differentiated and undifferentiated THP-1 and RAW246.7 cells, and primary human peripheral white blood cells, was investigated via flow cytometry after co-incubation with dynII inhibitors. The IV pharmacokinetics of PEGylated liposomes were also investigated in rats after a 20 min infusion with PCZ. Phenothiazines and dyngo4a reduced the uptake of PEGylated liposomes by THP-1 and RAW264.7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro. However, dynII inhibitors did not alter the mean uptake of liposomes by human peripheral white blood cells, but endocytic white cells from some donors exhibited sensitivity to phenothiazine exposure. When a clinically relevant dose of PCZ was co-administered with PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (Caelyx/Doxil) in rats, the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of liposomes were unaltered. These data suggest that while clinically relevant doses of dynII inhibitors can inhibit the uptake of liposomes by endocytic cells in vitro, they are unlikely to significantly affect the pharmacokinetics of long-circulating, co-administered liposomes.

Regulation of Phosphoinositide Signaling by Scaffolds at Cytoplasmic Membranes

Cytoplasmic phosphoinositides (PI) are critical regulators of the membrane-cytosol interface that control a myriad of cellular functions despite their low abundance among phospholipids. The metabolic cycle that generates different PI species is crucial to their regulatory role, controlling membrane dynamics, vesicular trafficking, signal transduction, and other key cellular events. The synthesis of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate (PI3,4,5P3) in the cytoplamic PI3K/Akt pathway is central to the life and death of a cell. This review will focus on the emerging evidence that scaffold proteins regulate the PI3K/Akt pathway in distinct membrane structures in response to diverse stimuli, challenging the belief that the plasma membrane is the predominant site for PI3k/Akt signaling. In addition, we will discuss how PIs regulate the recruitment of specific scaffolding complexes to membrane structures to coordinate vesicle formation, fusion, and reformation during autophagy as well as a novel lysosome repair pathway.

Endocytic vesicles act as vehicles for glucose uptake in response to growth factor stimulation

Glycolysis is a fundamental cellular process, yet its regulatory mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here, we show that a subset of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1/SLC2A1) co-endocytoses with platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor (PDGFR) upon PDGF-stimulation. Furthermore, multiple glycolytic enzymes localize to these endocytosed PDGFR/GLUT1-containing vesicles adjacent to mitochondria. Contrary to current models, which emphasize the importance of glucose transporters on the cell surface, we find that PDGF-stimulated glucose uptake depends on receptor/transporter endocytosis. Our results suggest that growth factors generate glucose-loaded endocytic vesicles that deliver glucose to the glycolytic machinery in proximity to mitochondria, and argue for a new layer of regulation for glycolytic control governed by cellular membrane dynamics.

Sorcin promotes migration in cancer and regulates the EGF-dependent EGFR signaling pathways

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is one of the main tumor drivers and is an important therapeutic target for many cancers. Calcium is important in EGFR signaling pathways. Sorcin is one of the most important calcium sensor proteins, overexpressed in many tumors, that promotes cell proliferation, migration, invasion, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, malignant progression and resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs. The present work elucidates a functional mechanism that links calcium homeostasis to EGFR signaling in cancer. Sorcin and EGFR expression are significantly correlated and associated with reduced overall survival in cancer patients. Mechanistically, Sorcin directly binds EGFR protein in a calcium-dependent fashion and regulates calcium (dys)homeostasis linked to EGF-dependent EGFR signaling. Moreover, Sorcin controls EGFR proteostasis and signaling and increases its phosphorylation, leading to increased EGF-dependent migration and invasion. Of note, silencing of Sorcin cooperates with EGFR inhibitors in the regulation of migration, highlighting calcium signaling pathway as an exploitable target to enhance the effectiveness of EGFR-targeting therapies.

Lysosomes, curcumin, and anti-tumor effects: how are they linked?

Curcumin is a natural active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that has multi-target characteristics to exert extensive pharmacological activities and thus has been applied in the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, nervous system, and autoimmune disorders. As an important class of membranous organelles in the intracellular membrane system, lysosomes are involved in biological processes such as programmed cell death, cell metabolism, and immune regulation, thus affecting tumor initiation and progression. It has been shown that curcumin can modulate lysosomal function through the aforementioned pathways, thereby affecting tumor proliferation, invasion, metastasis, drug resistance, and immune function. This review briefly elaborated the regulatory mechanisms of lysosome biogenesis and summarized curcumin-related studies with its anti-tumor effect, providing a reference for the clinical application of curcumin and anti-tumor research targeting lysosomes.

Selective endocytic uptake of targeted liposomes occurs within a narrow range of liposome diameter

Cell surface receptors facilitate signaling and nutrient uptake. These processes are dynamic, requiring receptors to be actively recycled by endocytosis. Due to their differential expression in disease states, receptors are often the target of drug-carrier particles, which are adorned with ligands that bind specifically to receptors. These targeted particles are taken into the cell by multiple routes of internalization, where the best-characterized pathway is clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Most studies of particle uptake have utilized bulk assays, rather than observing individual endocytic events. As a result, the detailed mechanisms of particle uptake remain obscure. To address this gap, we have employed a live-cell imaging approach to study the uptake of individual liposomes as they interact with clathrin-coated structures. By tracking individual internalization events, we find that the size of liposomes, rather than the density of the ligands on their surfaces, primarily determines their probability of uptake. Interestingly, targeting has the greatest impact on endocytosis of liposomes of intermediate diameters, with the smallest and largest liposomes being internalized or excluded, respectively, regardless of whether they are targeted. These findings, which highlight a previously unexplored limitation of targeted delivery, can be used to design more effective drug carriers.

Budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles-1 (BUB1) regulates EGFR signaling by reducing EGFR internalization

EGFR signaling initiates upon ligand binding which leads to activation and internalization of the receptor-ligand complex. Here, we evaluated if BUB1 impacted EGFR signaling by regulating EGFR receptor internalization and activation. BUB1 was ablated genomically (siRNA) or biochemically (2OH-BNPP1) in cells. EGF ligand was used to initiate EGFR signaling while disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) was used for cross linking cellular proteins. EGFR signaling was measured by western immunoblotting and receptor internalization was evaluated by fluorescent microscopy (pEGFR (pY1068) colocalization with early endosome marker EEA1). siRNA mediated BUB1 depletion led to an overall increase in total EGFR levels and more phospho-EGFR (Y845, Y1092, and Y1173) dimers while the amount of total EGFR (non-phospho) dimers remained unchanged. BUB1 inhibitor (BUB1i) decreased EGF mediated EGFR signaling including pEGFR Y845, pAKT S473 and pERK1/2 in a time dependent manner. Additionally, BUB1i also reduced EGF mediated pEGFR (Y845) dimers (asymmetric dimers) without affecting total EGFR dimers (symmetric dimers) indicating that dimerization of inactive EGFR is not affected by BUB1. Furthermore, BUB1i blocked EGF mediated EGFR degradation (increase in EGFR half-life) without impacting half-lives of HER2 or c-MET. BUB1i also reduced co-localization of pEGFR with EEA1 positive endosomes suggesting that BUB1 might modulate EGFR endocytosis. Our data provide evidence that BUB1 protein and its kinase activity may regulate EGFR activation, endocytosis, degradation, and downstream signaling without affecting other members of the receptor tyrosine kinase family.

A perspective of fluorescence microscopy for cellular structural biology with EGFR as witness

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a poster child for the understanding of receptor behaviour, and of paramount importance to cell function and human health. Cloned almost forty years ago, the interest in EGFR's structure/function relationships remains unabated, not least because changes in oncogenic EGFR mutants are key drivers of the formation of lung and brain tumours. The structure of the assemblies formed by EGFR have been comprehensibly investigated by techniques such as high-resolution X-ray crystallography, NMR and all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. However, the complexity embedded in the portfolio of EGFR states that are only possible in the physiological environment of cells has often proved refractory to cell-free structural methods. Conversely, some key inroads made by quantitative fluorescence microscopy and super-resolution have depended on exploiting the wealth of structures available. Here, a brief personal perspective is provided on how quantitative fluorescence microscopy and super-resolution methods have cross-fertilised with cell-free-derived EGFR structural information. I primarily discuss areas in which my research group has made a contribution to fill gaps in EGFR's cellular structural biology and towards developing new tools to investigate macromolecular assemblies in cells.

The Activation Mechanism of the Insulin Receptor: A Structural Perspective

The insulin receptor (IR) is a type II receptor tyrosine kinase that plays essential roles in metabolism, growth, and proliferation. Dysregulation of IR signaling is linked to many human diseases, such as diabetes and cancers. The resolution revolution in cryo-electron microscopy has led to the determination of several structures of IR with different numbers of bound insulin molecules in recent years, which have tremendously improved our understanding of how IR is activated by insulin. Here, we review the insulin-induced activation mechanism of IR, including (a) the detailed binding modes and functions of insulin at site 1 and site 2 and (b) the insulin-induced structural transitions that are required for IR activation. We highlight several other key aspects of the activation and regulation of IR signaling and discuss the remaining gaps in our understanding of the IR activation mechanism and potential avenues of future research.

FAM3D: A gut secreted protein and its potential in the regulation of glucose metabolism

The number of diabetic patients is rising globally and concomitantly so do the diabetes associated complications. The gut secretes a variety of proteins to control blood glucose levels and/or food intake. As the drug class of GLP-1 agonists is based on a gut secreted peptide and the positive metabolic effects of bariatric surgery are at least partially mediated by gut peptides, we were interested in other gut secreted proteins which have yet to be explored. In this respect we identified the gut secreted protein FAM3D by analyzing sequencing data from L- and epithelial cells of VSG and sham operated as well as chow and HFD fed mice. FAM3D was overexpressed in diet induced obese mice via an adeno-associated virus (AAV), which resulted in a significant improvement of fasting blood glucose levels, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. The liver lipid deposition was reduced, and the steatosis morphology was improved. Hyperinsulinemic clamps indicated that FAM3D is a global insulin sensitizer and increases glucose uptake into various tissues. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that FAM3D controls blood glucose levels by acting as an insulin sensitizing protein and improves hepatic lipid deposition.

The three-dimensional structure of insulin and its receptor

Insulin is a peptide hormone essential for maintaining normal blood glucose levels. Individuals unable to secrete sufficient insulin or not able to respond properly to insulin develop diabetes. Since the discovery of insulin its structure and function has been intensively studied with the aim to develop effective diabetes treatments. The three-dimensional crystal structure of this 51 amino acid peptide paved the way for discoveries, outlined in this review, of determinants important for receptor binding and hormone stability that have been instrumental in development of insulin analogs used in the clinic today. Important for the future development of effective diabetes treatments will be a detailed understanding of the insulin receptor structure and function. Determination of the three-dimensional structure of the insulin receptor, a receptor tyrosine kinase, proved challenging but with the recent advent of high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy significant progress has been made. There are now >40 structures of the insulin:insulin receptor complex deposited in the Protein Data Bank. From these structures we have a detailed picture of how insulin binds and activates the receptor. Still lacking are details of the initial binding events and the exact sequence of structural changes within the receptor and insulin. In this review, the focus will be on the most recent structural studies of insulin:insulin receptor complexes and how they have contributed to the current understanding of insulin receptor activation and signaling outcome. Molecular mechanisms underlying insulin receptor signaling bias emerging from the latest structures are described.

Endocytosis in cancer and cancer therapy

Endocytosis is a complex process whereby cell surface proteins, lipids and fluid from the extracellular environment are packaged, sorted and internalized into cells. Endocytosis is also a mechanism of drug internalization into cells. There are multiple routes of endocytosis that determine the fate of molecules, from degradation in the lysosomes to recycling back to the plasma membrane. The overall rates of endocytosis and temporal regulation of molecules transiting through endocytic pathways are also intricately linked with signalling outcomes. This process relies on an array of factors, such as intrinsic amino acid motifs and post-translational modifications. Endocytosis is frequently disrupted in cancer. These disruptions lead to inappropriate retention of receptor tyrosine kinases on the tumour cell membrane, changes in the recycling of oncogenic molecules, defective signalling feedback loops and loss of cell polarity. In the past decade, endocytosis has emerged as a pivotal regulator of nutrient scavenging, response to and regulation of immune surveillance and tumour immune evasion, tumour metastasis and therapeutic drug delivery. This Review summarizes and integrates these advances into the understanding of endocytosis in cancer. The potential to regulate these pathways in the clinic to improve cancer therapy is also discussed.

Large-scale phage-based screening reveals extensive pan-viral mimicry of host short linear motifs

Viruses mimic host short linear motifs (SLiMs) to hijack and deregulate cellular functions. Studies of motif-mediated interactions therefore provide insight into virus-host dependencies, and reveal targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we describe the pan-viral discovery of 1712 SLiM-based virus-host interactions using a phage peptidome tiling the intrinsically disordered protein regions of 229 RNA viruses. We find mimicry of host SLiMs to be a ubiquitous viral strategy, reveal novel host proteins hijacked by viruses, and identify cellular pathways frequently deregulated by viral motif mimicry. Using structural and biophysical analyses, we show that viral mimicry-based interactions have similar binding strength and bound conformations as endogenous interactions. Finally, we establish polyadenylate-binding protein 1 as a potential target for broad-spectrum antiviral agent development. Our platform enables rapid discovery of mechanisms of viral interference and the identification of potential therapeutic targets which can aid in combating future epidemics and pandemics.

The E3 Ubiquitin Ligase TRIM21 Regulates Basal Levels of PDGFRβ

Activation of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors α and β (PDGFRα and PDGFRβ) at the cell surface by binding of PDGF isoforms leads to internalization of receptors, which affects the amplitude and kinetics of signaling. Ubiquitination of PDGF receptors in response to ligand stimulation is mediated by the Casitas b-lineage lymphoma (Cbl) family of ubiquitin ligases, promoting internalization and serving as a sorting signal for vesicular trafficking of receptors. We report here that another E3 ligase, i.e., tripartite motif-containing protein 21 (TRIM21), contributes to the ubiquitination of PDGFRβ in human primary fibroblasts AG1523 and the osteosarcoma cell line U2OS and regulates basal levels of PDGFRβ. We found that siRNA-mediated depletion of TRIM21 led to decreased ubiquitination of PDGFRβ in response to PDGF-BB stimulation, while internalization from the cell surface and the rate of ligand-induced degradation of the receptor were not affected. Moreover, induction of TRIM21 decreased the levels of PDGFRβ in serum-starved cells, and even more in growing cells, in the absence of PDGF stimulation. Consistently, siRNA knockdown of TRIM21 caused accumulation of the total amount of PDGFRβ, both in the cytoplasm and on the cell surface, without affecting mRNA levels of the receptor. We conclude that TRIM21 acts post-translationally and maintains basal levels of PDGFRβ, thus suggesting that ubiquitination of PDGFRβ by TRIM21 may direct a portion of receptor for degradation in growing cells in a ligand-independent manner.

Steric pressure between glycosylated transmembrane proteins inhibits internalization by endocytosis

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is essential for the removal of transmembrane proteins from the plasma membrane in all eukaryotic cells. Many transmembrane proteins are glycosylated. These proteins collectively comprise the glycocalyx, a sugar-rich layer at the cell surface, which is responsible for intercellular adhesion and recognition. Previous work has suggested that glycosylation of transmembrane proteins reduces their removal from the plasma membrane by endocytosis. However, the mechanism responsible for this effect remains unknown. To study the impact of glycosylation on endocytosis, we replaced the ectodomain of the transferrin receptor, a well-studied transmembrane protein that undergoes clathrin-mediated endocytosis, with the ectodomain of MUC1, which is highly glycosylated. When we expressed this transmembrane fusion protein in mammalian epithelial cells, we found that its recruitment to endocytic structures was substantially reduced in comparison to a version of the protein that lacked the MUC1 ectodomain. This reduction could not be explained by a loss of mobility on the cell surface or changes in endocytic dynamics. Instead, we found that the bulky MUC1 ectodomain presented a steric barrier to endocytosis. Specifically, the peptide backbone of the ectodomain and its glycosylation each made steric contributions, which drove comparable reductions in endocytosis. These results suggest that glycosylation constitutes a biophysical signal for retention of transmembrane proteins at the plasma membrane. This mechanism could be modulated in multiple disease states that exploit the glycocalyx, from cancer to atherosclerosis.

From phosphorylation to phenotype - Recent key findings on kinase regulation, downstream signaling and disease surrounding the receptor tyrosine kinase MuSK

Muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) is the key regulator of neuromuscular junction development. MuSK acts via several distinct pathways and is responsible for pre- and postsynaptic differentiation. MuSK is unique among receptor tyrosine kinases as activation and signaling are particularly tightly regulated. Initiation of kinase activity requires Agrin, a heparan sulphate proteoglycan derived from motor neurons, the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-4 (Lrp4) and the intracellular adaptor protein Dok-7. There is a great knowledge gap between MuSK activation and downstream signaling. Recent studies using omics techniques have addressed this knowledge gap, thereby greatly contributing to a better understanding of MuSK signaling. Impaired MuSK signaling causes severe muscle weakness as described in congenital myasthenic syndromes or myasthenia gravis but the underlying pathophysiology is often unclear. This review focuses on recent advances in deciphering MuSK activation and downstream signaling. We further highlight latest break-throughs in understanding and treatment of MuSK-related disorders and discuss the role of MuSK in non-muscle tissue.

Reciprocal discoidin domain receptor signaling strengthens integrin adhesion to connect adjacent tissues

Separate tissues connect through adjoining basement membranes to carry out molecular barrier, exchange, and organ support functions. Cell adhesion at these connections must be robust and balanced to withstand independent tissue movement. Yet, how cells achieve synchronized adhesion to connect tissues is unknown. Here, we have investigated this question using the C. elegans utse-seam tissue connection that supports the uterus during egg-laying. Through genetics, quantitative fluorescence, and cell specific molecular disruption, we show that type IV collagen, which fastens the linkage, also activates the collagen receptor discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR-2) in both the utse and seam. RNAi depletion, genome editing, and photobleaching experiments revealed that DDR-2 signals through LET-60/Ras to coordinately strengthen an integrin adhesion in the utse and seam that stabilizes their connection. These results uncover a synchronizing mechanism for robust adhesion during tissue connection, where collagen both affixes the linkage and signals to both tissues to bolster their adhesion.

The role of the NDRG1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of cancer death in women. This disease is heterogeneous, with clinical subtypes being estrogen receptor-α (ER-α) positive, having human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) overexpression, or being triple-negative for ER-α, progesterone receptor, and HER2 (TNBC). The ER-α positive and HER2 overexpressing tumors can be treated with agents targeting these proteins, including tamoxifen and pertuzumab, respectively. Despite these treatments, resistance and metastasis are problematic, while TNBC is challenging to treat due to the lack of suitable targets. Many studies examining BC and other tumors indicate a role for N-myc downstream-regulated gene-1 (NDRG1) as a metastasis suppressor. The ability of NDRG1 to inhibit metastasis is due, in part, to the inhibition of the initial step in metastasis, namely the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Paradoxically, there are also reports of NDRG1 playing a pro-oncogenic role in BC pathogenesis. The oncogenic effects of NDRG1 in BC have been reported to relate to lipid metabolism or the mTOR signaling pathway. The molecular mechanism(s) of how NDRG1 regulates the activity of multiple signaling pathways remains unclear. Therapeutic strategies that up-regulate NDRG1 have been developed and include agents of the di-2-pyridylketone thiosemicarbazone class. These compounds target oncogenic drivers in BC cells, suppressing the expression of multiple key hormone receptors including ER-α, progesterone receptor, androgen receptor, and prolactin receptor, and can also overcome tamoxifen resistance. Considering the varying role of NDRG1 in BC pathogenesis, further studies are required to examine what subset of BC patients would benefit from pharmacopeia that up-regulate NDRG1.

Emerging Role of IGF-1 in Prostate Cancer: A Promising Biomarker and Therapeutic Target

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a highly heterogeneous disease driven by gene alterations and microenvironmental influences. Not only enhanced serum IGF-1 but also the activation of IGF-1R and its downstream signaling components has been increasingly recognized to have a vital driving role in the development of PCa. A better understanding of IGF-1/IGF-1R activity and regulation has therefore emerged as an important subject of PCa research. IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling affects diverse biological processes in cancer cells, including promoting survival and renewal, inducing migration and spread, and promoting resistance to radiation and castration. Consequently, inhibitory reagents targeting IGF-1/IGF-1R have been developed to limit cancer development. Multiple agents targeting IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling have shown effects against tumor growth in tumor xenograft models, but further verification of their effectiveness in PCa patients in clinical trials is still needed. Combining androgen deprivation therapy or cytotoxic chemotherapeutics with IGF-1R antagonists based on reliable predictive biomarkers and developing and applying novel agents may provide more desirable outcomes. This review will summarize the contribution of IGF-1 signaling to the development of PCa and highlight the relevance of this signaling axis in potential strategies for cancer therapy.

Structure and dynamics of the EGFR/HER2 heterodimer

HER2 belongs to the human epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase family. Its overexpression or hyperactivation is a leading cause for multiple types of cancers. HER2 functions mainly through dimerization with other family members, such as EGFR. However, the molecular details for heterodimer assembly have not been completely understood. Here, we report cryo-EM structures of the EGF- and epiregulin-bound EGFR/HER2 ectodomain complexes at resolutions of 3.3 Å and 4.5 Å, respectively. Together with the functional analyses, we demonstrate that only the dimerization arm of HER2, but not that of EGFR, is essential for their heterodimer formation and signal transduction. Moreover, we analyze the differential membrane dynamics and transient interactions of endogenous EGFR and HER2 molecules in genome-edited cells using single-molecule live-cell imaging. Furthermore, we show that the interaction with HER2 could allow EGFR to resist endocytosis. Together, this work deepens our understanding of the unique structural properties and dynamics of the EGFR/HER2 complex.

A strategy can be used to analyze intracellular interaction proteomics of cell-surface receptors

Comprehensive knowledge of the intracellular protein interactions of cell-surface receptors will greatly advance our comprehension of the underlying trafficking mechanisms. Hence, development of effective and high-throughput approaches is highly desired. In this work, we presented a strategy aiming to tailor toward the analysis of intracellular protein interactome of cell-surface receptors. We used α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors subunit GluA1 as an example to illustrate the methodological application. To capture intracellular proteins that interact with GluA1, after surface biotinylation of the prepared hippocampal neurons and slices, the non-biotinylated protein components as intracellular protein-enriched fraction were unconventionally applied for the following co-immunoprecipitation. The co-immuno-precipitated proteins were then analyzed through mass spectrometry-based proteomics and bioinformatics platforms. The detailed localizations indicated that intracellular proteins accounted for up to 93.7 and 90.3% of the analyzed proteins in the neurons and slices, respectively, suggesting that our protein preparation was highly effective to characterize intracellular interactome of GluA1. Further, we systematically revealed the protein functional profile of GluA1 intracellular interactome, thereby providing complete overview and better comprehension of diverse intracellular biological processes correlated with the complex GluA1 trafficking. All experimental results demonstrated that our methodology would be applicable and useful for intracellular interaction proteomics of general cell-surface receptors.

Dephosphorylation of the EGFR protein by calcineurin at serine 1046/1047 enhances its stability

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is highly expressed or abnormally activated in several types of cancers, such as lung and colorectal cancers. Inhibitors that suppress the tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR have been used in the treatment of lung cancer. However, resistance to these inhibitors has become an issue in cancer treatment, and the development of new therapies that inhibit EGFR is desired. We found that calcineurin, a Ca²⁺/calmodulin-activated serine/threonine phosphatase, is a novel regulator of EGFR. Inhibition of calcineurin by FK506 treatment or calcineurin depletion promoted EGFR degradation in cancer cells. In addition, we found that calcineurin dephosphorylates EGFR at serine (S)1046/1047, which in turn stabilizes EGFR. Furthermore, in human colon cancer cells transplanted into mice, the inhibition of calcineurin by FK506 decreased EGFR expression. These results indicate that calcineurin stabilizes EGFR by dephosphorylating S1046/1047 and promotes tumor growth. These findings suggest that calcineurin may be a new therapeutic target for cancers with high EGFR expression or activation.