Clinical and Echocardiographic Characteristics and Cardiovascular Outcomes According to Diabetes Status in Patients With Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction

Underpinnings of Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction in Women - From Prevention to Improving Function. A Co-publication With the American Journal of Preventive Cardiology and the Journal of Cardiac Failure

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) represents a major clinical challenge with rising global prevalence. Women have a nearly double lifetime risk of developing HFpEF compared to heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). In HFpEF, sex differences emerge both in how traditional cardiovascular risk factors (such as hypertension, obesity, and diabetes) affect cardiac function and through distinct pathophysiological mechanisms triggered by sex-specific events like menopause and adverse pregnancy outcomes. These patterns influence not only disease development, but also therapeutic responses, necessitating sex-specific approaches to treatment. This review aims to synthesize existing knowledge regarding HFpEF in women including traditional and sex-specific risk factors, pathophysiology, presentation, and therapies, while outlining important knowledge gaps that warrant further investigation. The impact of HFpEF spans a woman's entire lifespan, requiring prevention and management strategies tailored to different life stages. While understanding of sex-based differences in HFpEF has improved, significant knowledge gaps persist. Through examination of current evidence and challenges, this review highlights promising opportunities for innovative research, therapeutic development, and clinical care approaches that could transform the management of HFpEF in women.

Prognostic Value of LV Global Longitudinal Strain by 2D and 3D Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography in Patients With HFpEF

BACKGROUND

In patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), the impact of type 2 diabetes (T2D) on left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LV GLS) and its prognostic implications remains unclear. We aimed to evaluate LV function using two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) speckle-tracking echocardiography in patients with HFpEF with and without T2D, and to investigate its prognostic significance.

METHODS

A total of 335 patients with HFpEF were prospectively enrolled for echocardiographic evaluation. LV GLS was obtained using 2D- and 3D-speckle-tracking echocardiography. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to determine predictors of adverse outcomes. The C-index, Akaike information criterion, integrated discrimination improvement, and net reclassification improvement were used to assess model performance and discriminative ability.

RESULTS

LV 2D-GLS and 3D-GLS were impaired in patients with HFpEF and T2D compared with those without T2D. After a median follow-up of 17.6 months, 150 patients experienced adverse outcomes. Both 2D-GLS (hazard ratio, 1.323 [95% CI, 1.225-1.429]; P<0.001) and 3D-GLS (hazard ratio, 1.412 [95% CI, 1.316-1.515]; P<0.001) were independent predictors of adverse outcomes in patients with HFpEF after adjustment for confounders. The predictive accuracy of a model incorporating 3D-GLS (Akaike information criterion=-583.9, C-index=0.775 [95% CI, 0.742-0.808]) was superior to models using 2D-GLS (Akaike information criterion=-533.3, C-index=0.719 [95% CI, 0.678-0.760], ΔC-index=0.056; P=0.034) and LV ejection fraction (Akaike information criterion=-498.9, C-index=0.659 [95% CI, 0.610-0.708], ΔC-index=0.116; P<0.001). The addition of 2D-GLS and 3D-GLS to the base model significantly enhanced its discriminatory and predictive abilities (integrated discrimination improvement=0.225 and 0.280; net reclassification improvement=0.612 and 0.734, respectively, P<0.001 for all).

CONCLUSIONS

LV 2D-GLS and 3D-GLS are impaired in patients with HFpEF and T2D, and are independent predictors of adverse outcomes. Moreover, 3D-GLS provides incremental prognostic value over 2D-GLS.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.chictr.org.cn/; Unique identifier: ChiCTR2100047487.

Myocardial Abnormalities Across the AHA/ACC Stages of Heart Failure in Patients With Diabetes

Background

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) could serve as a robust tool for comprehensive evaluation of early changes across heart failure (HF) stages classified by the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology guideline in diabetes mellitus (DM).

Objectives

The authors aimed to explore phenotypic imaging features characterizing DM participants at different HF stages by CMR.

Methods

DM participants with preserved ejection fraction who underwent CMR examination between January 2020 and December 2021 were evaluated. Left ventricular strain analysis and myocardial fibrosis was evaluated by CMR.

Results

A total of four hundred seventy-five DM participants at different HF stages (mean age 56 ± 12 years; 326 men) and 78 healthy control subjects were evaluated. Significantly decreased absolute strain values with rising HF stage were identified in DM. In addition, early diastolic strain rates were significantly lower in stage B and C HF than in stage A HF and control subjects. Myocardial extracellular volume increased with advancing HF stage in DM (stage A, 27.0% ± 2.9%; stage B, 29.1% ± 3.5%; stage C, 30.5% ± 4.1%; P < 0.05). In multivariable logistic regression analysis, early diastolic longitudinal strain rate (OR: 2.184; 95% CI: 1.378-3.461; P < 0.001) was a significant contributor that independently distinguished DM participants at stage A from control subjects, with an area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve of 0.726. For global longitudinal strain and extracellular volume, each 1% increase was associated with 1.333 and 1.300 times adjusted odds of diagnosis of stage B HF (both P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Subclinical dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis derived from CMR were progressively remarkable with advancing HF stage in DM. Comprehensive CMR provided sensitive tools for better delineation of DM patients with pre-HF and at risk for HF.

Sacubitril/valsartan improves diastolic left ventricular stiffness with increased titin phosphorylation via cGMP-PKG activation in diabetic mice

Titin, a giant sarcomeric protein, regulates diastolic left ventricular (LV) passive stiffness as a molecular spring and could be a therapeutic target for diastolic dysfunction. Sacubitril/valsartan (Sac/Val), an angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor, has been shown to benefit patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. The effect of Sac/Val is thought to be due to the enhancement of the cGMP/PKG pathway via natriuretic peptide. In this study, the effects of Sac/Val on LV diastolic dysfunction are demonstrated in a mouse diabetic cardiomyopathy model focusing on titin phosphorylation. Sac/Val-treated diabetic mice showed a greater increase in myocardial levels of cGMP-PKG than Val-treated and control mice. Conductance catheter analysis showed a significant reduction in LV stiffness in diabetic mice, but not in non-diabetic mice. Notably, diastolic LV stiffness was significantly reduced in Sac/Val-treated diabetic hearts compared with Val-treated or vehicle-treated diabetic mice. The phosphorylation level of titin (N2B), which determines passive stiffness and modulates active contraction, was higher in Sac/Val-treated hearts compared with Val-treated hearts in diabetic mice. Given that alteration of titin phosphorylation through PKG contributes to myocardial stiffness, the beneficial effects of Sac/Val in heart failure might be partly attributed to the induction of titin phosphorylation.

Long-term outcomes prediction in diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction by cardiac MRI

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to explore imaging features including tissue characterization and myocardial deformation in diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) patients by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and investigate its prognostic value for adverse outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with HFpEF who underwent cardiac MRI between January 2010 and December 2016 were enrolled. Feature-tracking (FT) analysis and myocardial fibrosis were assessed by cardiac MRI. Cox proportional regression analysis was performed to determine the association between MRI variables and primary outcomes. Primary outcomes were all-cause death or heart failure hospitalization during the follow-up period.

RESULTS

Of the 335 enrolled patients with HFpEF, 191 had diabetes mellitus (DM) (mean age: 58.7 years ± 10.8; 137 men). During a median follow-up of 10.2 years, 91 diabetic HFpEF and 56 non-diabetic HFpEF patients experienced primary outcomes. DM was a significant predictor of worse prognosis in HFpEF. In diabetic HFpEF, the addition of conventional imaging variables (left ventricular ejection fraction, left atrial volume index, extent of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE)) and global longitudinal strain (GLS) resulted in a significant increase in the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (from 0.693 to 0.760, p < 0.05). After adjustment for multiple clinical and imaging variables, each 1% worsening in GLS was associated with a 9.8% increased risk of adverse events (p = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetic HFpEF is characterized by more severely impaired strains and myocardial fibrosis, which is identified as a high-risk HFpEF phenotype. In diabetic HFpEF, comprehensive cardiac MRI provides incremental value in predicting prognosis. Particularly, MRI-FT measurement of GLS is an independent predictor of adverse outcome in diabetic HFpEF.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

Our findings suggested that MRI-derived variables, especially global longitudinal strain, played a crucial role in risk stratification and predicting worse prognosis in diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, which could assist in identifying high-risk patients and guiding therapeutic decision-making.

KEY POINTS

• Limited data are available on the cardiac MRI features of diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, including myocardial deformation and tissue characterization, as well as their incremental prognostic value. • Diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction patients was characterized by more impaired strains and myocardial fibrosis. Comprehensive MRI, including tissue characterization and global longitudinal strain, provided incremental value for risk prediction. • MRI served as a valuable tool for identifying high-risk patients and guiding clinical management in diabetic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.

Diabetic myocardial disorder. A clinical consensus statement of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC and the ESC Working Group on Myocardial & Pericardial Diseases

The association between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and heart failure (HF) has been firmly established; however, the entity of diabetic myocardial disorder (previously called diabetic cardiomyopathy) remains a matter of debate. Diabetic myocardial disorder was originally described as the occurrence of myocardial structural/functional abnormalities associated with T2DM in the absence of coronary heart disease, hypertension and/or obesity. However, supporting evidence has been derived from experimental and small clinical studies. Only a minority of T2DM patients are recognized as having this condition in the absence of contributing factors, thereby limiting its clinical utility. Therefore, this concept is increasingly being viewed along the evolving HF trajectory, where patients with T2DM and asymptomatic structural/functional cardiac abnormalities could be considered as having pre-HF. The importance of recognizing this stage has gained interest due to the potential for current treatments to halt or delay the progression to overt HF in some patients. This document is an expert consensus statement of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC and the ESC Working Group on Myocardial & Pericardial Diseases. It summarizes contemporary understanding of the association between T2DM and HF and discuses current knowledge and uncertainties about diabetic myocardial disorder that deserve future research. It also proposes a new definition, whereby diabetic myocardial disorder is defined as systolic and/or diastolic myocardial dysfunction in the presence of diabetes. Diabetes is rarely exclusively responsible for myocardial dysfunction, but usually acts in association with obesity, arterial hypertension, chronic kidney disease and/or coronary artery disease, causing additive myocardial impairment.

Roles of non-coding RNA in diabetic cardiomyopathy

In recent years, the incidence of diabetes has been increasing rapidly, posing a serious threat to human health. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is characterized by cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, myocardial fibrosis, apoptosis, ventricular remodeling, and cardiac dysfunction in individuals with diabetes, ultimately leading to heart failure and mortality. However, the underlying mechanisms contributing to DCM remain incompletely understood. With advancements in molecular biology technology, accumulating evidence has shown that numerous non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) crucial roles in the development and progression of DCM. This review aims to summarize recent studies on the involvement of three types of ncRNAs (micro RNA, long ncRNA and circular RNA) in the pathophysiology of DCM, with the goal of providing innovative strategies for the prevention and treatment of DCM.

Roles of cMyBP-C phosphorylation on cardiac contractile dysfunction in db/db mice

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic disease and comorbidity associated with several conditions, including cardiac dysfunction leading to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), in turn resulting in T2DM-induced cardiomyopathy (T2DM-CM). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of T2DM-CM are poorly understood. It is hypothesized that molecular alterations in myopathic genes induced by diabetes promote the development of HFpEF, whereas cardiac myosin inhibitors can rescue the resultant T2DM-mediated cardiomyopathy. To test this hypothesis, a Leptin receptor-deficient db/db homozygous (Lepr db/db) mouse model was used to define the pathogenesis of T2DM-CM. Echocardiographic studies at 4 and 6 months revealed that Lepr db/db hearts started developing cardiac dysfunction by four months, and left ventricular hypertrophy with diastolic dysfunction was evident at 6 months. RNA-seq data analysis, followed by functional enrichment, revealed the differential regulation of genes related to cardiac dysfunction in Lepr db/db heart tissues. Strikingly, the level of cardiac myosin binding protein-C phosphorylation was significantly increased in Lepr db/db mouse hearts. Finally, using isolated skinned papillary muscles and freshly isolated cardiomyocytes, CAMZYOS ® (mavacamten, MYK-461), a prescription heart medicine used for symptomatic obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy treatment, was tested for its ability to rescue T2DM-CM. Compared with controls, MYK-461 significantly reduced force generation in papillary muscle fibers and cardiomyocyte contractility in the db/db group. This line of evidence shows that 1) T2DM-CM is associated with hyperphosphorylation of cardiac myosin binding protein-C and 2) MYK-461 significantly lessened disease progression in vitro, suggesting its promise as a treatment for HFpEF.

Redefining Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: Perturbations in Substrate Metabolism at the Heart of Its Pathology

Cardiovascular disease represents the leading cause of death in people with diabetes, most notably from macrovascular diseases such as myocardial infarction or heart failure. Diabetes also increases the risk of a specific form of cardiomyopathy, referred to as diabetic cardiomyopathy (DbCM), originally defined as ventricular dysfunction in the absence of underlying coronary artery disease and/or hypertension. Herein, we provide an overview on the key mediators of DbCM, with an emphasis on the role for perturbations in cardiac substrate metabolism. We discuss key mechanisms regulating metabolic dysfunction in DbCM, with additional focus on the role of metabolites as signaling molecules within the diabetic heart. Furthermore, we discuss the preclinical approaches to target these perturbations to alleviate DbCM. With several advancements in our understanding, we propose the following as a new definition for, or approach to classify, DbCM: "diastolic dysfunction in the presence of altered myocardial metabolism in a person with diabetes but absence of other known causes of cardiomyopathy and/or hypertension." However, we recognize that no definition can fully explain the complexity of why some individuals with DbCM exhibit diastolic dysfunction, whereas others develop systolic dysfunction. Due to DbCM sharing pathological features with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), the latter of which is more prevalent in the population with diabetes, it is imperative to determine whether effective management of DbCM decreases HFpEF prevalence.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

Semaglutide in Patients with Obesity-Related Heart Failure and Type 2 Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are prevalent in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and are characterized by a high symptom burden. No approved therapies specifically target obesity-related heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in persons with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

We randomly assigned patients who had heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, a body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) of 30 or more, and type 2 diabetes to receive once-weekly semaglutide (2.4 mg) or placebo for 52 weeks. The primary end points were the change from baseline in the Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire clinical summary score (KCCQ-CSS; scores range from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating fewer symptoms and physical limitations) and the change in body weight. Confirmatory secondary end points included the change in 6-minute walk distance; a hierarchical composite end point that included death, heart failure events, and differences in the change in the KCCQ-CSS and 6-minute walk distance; and the change in the C-reactive protein (CRP) level.

RESULTS

A total of 616 participants underwent randomization. The mean change in the KCCQ-CSS was 13.7 points with semaglutide and 6.4 points with placebo (estimated difference, 7.3 points; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.1 to 10.4; P<0.001), and the mean percentage change in body weight was -9.8% with semaglutide and -3.4% with placebo (estimated difference, -6.4 percentage points; 95% CI, -7.6 to -5.2; P<0.001). The results for the confirmatory secondary end points favored semaglutide over placebo (estimated between-group difference in change in 6-minute walk distance, 14.3 m [95% CI, 3.7 to 24.9; P = 0.008]; win ratio for hierarchical composite end point, 1.58 [95% CI, 1.29 to 1.94; P<0.001]; and estimated treatment ratio for change in CRP level, 0.67 [95% CI, 0.55 to 0.80; P<0.001]). Serious adverse events were reported in 55 participants (17.7%) in the semaglutide group and 88 (28.8%) in the placebo group.

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with obesity-related heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and type 2 diabetes, semaglutide led to larger reductions in heart failure-related symptoms and physical limitations and greater weight loss than placebo at 1 year. (Funded by Novo Nordisk; STEP-HFpEF DM ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04916470.).

The Impact of Diabetes on Haemodynamic and Cardiometabolic Responses in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction

AIMS

Heart failure with preserved ejection (HFpEF) and diabetes mellitus (DM) commonly co-exist. However, it is unclear if DM modifies the haemodynamic and cardiometabolic phenotype in patients with HFpEF. We aimed to interrogate the haemodynamic and cardiometabolic effects of DM in HFpEF.

METHODS

We compared the haemodynamic and metabolic profiles of non-DM patients and patients with DM-HFpEF at rest and during exercise using right heart catheterisation and mixed venous blood gas analysis.

RESULTS

Of 181 patients with HFpEF, 37 (20%) had DM. Patients with DM displayed a more adverse exercise haemodynamic response vs HFpEF alone (mean pulmonary arterial pressure: 47 mmHg [interquartile range {IQR} 42-55] vs 42 [38-47], p<0.001; workload indexed pulmonary capillary wedge pressure indexed: 0.80 mmHg/W [0.44-1.23] vs 0.57 [0.43-1.01], p=0.047). HFpEF-DM patients had a lower mixed venous oxygen saturation at rest (70% [IQR 66-73] vs 72 [69-75], p=0.003) and were unable to enhance O2 extraction to the same extent (Δ-28% [-33 to -15] vs -29 [-36 to -21], p=0.029), this occurred at a 22% lower median workload. Resting mixed venous lactate levels were higher in those with DM (1.5 mmol/L [IQR 1.1-1.9] vs 1 [0.9-1.3], p<0.001), and during exercise indexed to workload (0.09 mmol/L/W [0.06-0.13] vs 0.08 [0.05-0.11], p=0.018).

CONCLUSION

Concurrent diabetes and HFpEF was associated with greater metabolic responses at rest, with enhanced wedge driven pulmonary hypertension and relative lactataemia during exercise without appropriate augmentation of oxygen consumption.

The two different profiles in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and type 2 diabetes mellitus: ischemic and diabetic

OBJECTIVE

Two profiles of patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) can be discerned: those with ischemic and those with diabetic cardiomyopathy (DMC). We aim to analyze clinical differences and prognosis between patients of these two profiles.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This cohort study analyzes data from the Spanish Heart Failure Registry, a multicenter, prospective registry that enrolled patients admitted for decompensated heart failure and followed them for one year. Three groups were created according to the presence of T2DM and heart disease depending on the etiology (ischemic when coronary artery disease was present, or DMC when no coronary, valvular, or congenital heart disease; no hypertension; nor infiltrative cardiovascular disease observed on an endomyocardial biopsy). The groups and outcomes were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 466 patients were analyzed. Group 1 (n = 210) included patients with ischemic etiology and T2DM. Group 2 (n = 112) included patients with DMC etiology and T2DM. Group 3 (n = 144), a control group, included patients with ischemic etiology and without T2DM. Group 1 had more hypertension and dyslipidemia; group 2 had more atrial fibrillation (AF) and higher body mass index; group 3 had more chronic kidney disease and were older. In the regression analysis, group 3 had a better prognosis than group 1 (reference group) for cardiovascular mortality and HF readmissions (HR 0.44;95%CI 0.2-1; p = .049).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with T2DM and HFpEF, who had the poorest prognosis, were of two different profiles: either ischemic or DMC etiology. The first had a higher burden of cardiovascular disease and inflammation whereas the second had a higher prevalence of obesity and AF. The first had a slightly poorer prognosis than the second, though this finding was not significant.

Diabetes mellitus does not alter mortality or hospitalisation risk in patients with newly diagnosed heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: Time to rethink pathophysiological models of disease progression

INTRODUCTION

Type 2 diabetes is a common and adverse prognostic co-morbidity for patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). The effect of diabetes on long-term outcomes for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is less established.

METHODS

Prospective cohort study of patients referred to a regional HF clinic with newly diagnosed with HFrEF and HFpEF according to the 2016 European Society of Cardiology guidelines. The association between diabetes, all-cause mortality and hospitalisation was quantified using Kaplan-Meier or Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

Between 1st May 2012 and 1st May 2013, of 960 unselected consecutive patients referred with suspected HF, 464 and 314 patients met the criteria for HFpEF and HFrEF respectively. Within HFpEF and HFrEF groups, patients with diabetes were more frequently male and in both groups patients with diabetes were more likely to be treated with β-adrenoceptor antagonists and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. After adjustment for age, sex, medical therapy and co-morbidities, diabetes was associated with increased mortality in individuals with HFrEF (HR 1.46 95% CI: 1.05-2.02; p = .023), but not in those with HFpEF (HR 1.26 95% CI 0.92-1.72; p = .146).

CONCLUSION

In unselected patients with newly diagnosed HF, diabetes is not an adverse prognostic marker in patients with HFpEF, but is in HFrEF.

Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: How to Deal with This Chameleon

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is characterized by a notable heterogeneity in both phenotypic and pathophysiological features, with a growing incidence due to the increase in median age and comorbidities such as obesity, arterial hypertension, and cardiometabolic disease. In recent decades, the development of new pharmacological and non-pharmacological options has significantly impacted outcomes, improving clinical status and reducing mortality. Moreover, a more personalized and accurate therapeutic management has been demonstrated to enhance the quality of life, diminish hospitalizations, and improve overall survival. Therefore, assessing the peculiarities of patients with HFpEF is crucial in order to obtain a better understanding of this disorder. Importantly, comorbidities have been shown to influence symptoms and prognosis, and, consequently, they should be carefully addressed. In this sense, it is mandatory to join forces with a multidisciplinary team in order to achieve high-quality care. However, HFpEF remains largely under-recognized and under-treated in clinical practice, and the diagnostic and therapeutic management of these patients remains challenging. The aim of this paper is to articulate a pragmatic approach for patients with HFpEF focusing on the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of HFpEF.

Beyond the beat: A pioneering investigation into exercise modalities for alleviating diabetic cardiomyopathy and enhancing cardiac health

Patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease or those at high risk for developing the condition are often offered exercise as a form of therapy. Patients with cancer who are at an increased risk for cardiovascular issues are increasingly encouraged to participate in exercise-based, interdisciplinary programs due to the positive correlation between these interventions and clinical outcomes following myocardial infarction. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DC) is a cardiac disorder that arises due to disruptions in the homeostasis of individuals with diabetes. One of the primary reasons for mortality in individuals with diabetes is the presence of cardiac structural damage and functional abnormalities, which are the primary pathological features of DC. The aetiology of dilated cardiomyopathy is multifaceted and encompasses a range of processes, including metabolic abnormalities, impaired mitochondrial function, dysregulation of calcium ion homeostasis, excessive cardiomyocyte death, and fibrosis. In recent years, many empirical investigations have demonstrated that exercise training substantially impacts the prevention and management of diabetes. Exercise has been found to positively impact the recovery of diabetes and improve several metabolic problem characteristics associated with DC. One potential benefit of exercise is its ability to increase systolic activity, which can enhance cardiometabolic and facilitate the repair of structural damage to the heart caused by DC, leading to a direct improvement in cardiac health. In contrast, exercise has the potential to indirectly mitigate the pathological progression of DC through its ability to decrease circulating levels of sugar and fat while concurrently enhancing insulin sensitivity. A more comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanism via exercise facilitates the restoration of DC disease must be understood. Our goal in this review was to provide helpful information and clues for developing new therapeutic techniques for motion alleviation DC by examining the molecular mechanisms involved.

Secreted frizzled-related protein 2 ameliorates diabetic cardiomyopathy by activating mitophagy

OBJECTIVES

Secreted frizzled-related protein 2 (SFRP2), a novel adipokine that used to be considered an inhibitor of the canonical Wnt pathway, may play a protective role in metabolic disorders. However, its effect on diabetic cardiomyopathy was still unclear. Accumulating evidence indicates that mitophagy can protect cardiac function in the diabetic heart. The present study aimed to explore the roles of SFRP2 on diabetic cardiomyopathy, focusing on the effects and mechanisms for regulating mitophagy.

METHODS

Wild-type H9c2 cells, Sfrp2 overexpression and knockdown H9c2 cells were exposed to a glucolipotoxic milieu. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cell viability, apoptosis, mitophagy and lysosomal activity were detected. The interaction of SFRP2 with frizzled 5 (FZD5), and its effect on expression and intracellular localization of transcription factor EB (TFEB) and β-catenin were also explored. Diabetic rats and Sfrp2 overexpression diabetic rats were constructed to further document the findings from the in vitro study.

RESULTS

The expression of SFRP2 was low and mitophagy was inhibited in H9c2 cells in a glucolipotoxic milieu. Sfrp2 overexpression activated mitophagy and reduced H9c2 cells injury, whereas Sfrp2 deficiency inhibited mitophagy and worsened this injury. Consistent with the in vitro findings, Sfrp2 overexpression ameliorated the impairment in cardiac function of diabetic rats by activating mitophagy. Sfrp2 overexpression upregulated the expression of calcineurin and TFEB, but did not affect β-catenin in vitro and in vivo. The calcineurin inhibitor tacrolimus can inhibit mitophagy and worsen cell injury in Sfrp2 overexpression H9c2 cells. Furthermore, we found that FZD5 is required for the SFRP2-induced activation of the calcineurin/TFEB pathway and interacts with SFRP2 in H9c2 cells. Transfection with small interfering RNA targeting FZD5 opposed the effects of Sfrp2 overexpression on mitophagy and cell survival in a glucolipotoxic environment.

CONCLUSIONS

SFRP2 can protect the diabetic heart by interacting with FZD5 and activating the calcineurin/TFEB pathway to upregulate mitophagy in H9c2 cells.

Rethinking the Impact and Management of Diabetes in Heart Failure Patients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The following overview article summarizes the most important aspects of diagnosis and screening and provides an overview on the current evidence of glucose-lowering and heart failure treatment in patients with diabetes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Patients with diabetes exhibit an increased risk to develop heart failure and the presence of both comorbidities has a major impact on the prognosis of these patients. Thus, it is of utmost importance to detect heart failure in patients with diabetes and to screen all patients with heart failure for the presence of diabetes. Moreover, the diagnosis of heart failure in diabetes often requires an adjustment of medical therapy. The presence of the 2 comorbidities, heart failure and diabetes, in a given patient which has a major impact on the prognosis and implementation of guideline-directed therapies to reduce cardiovascular risk in this high-risk population is of critical importance.

Diabetes mellitus is associated to high-risk late gadolinium enhancement and worse outcomes in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with a worse prognosis in patients with heart failure. Our aim was to analyze the clinical and imaging features of patients with DM and their association with outcomes in comparison to nondiabetic patients in a cohort of patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).

METHODS

This is a prospective cohort study of patients with DCM evaluated in a tertiary care center from 2018 to 2021. Transthoracic echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance findings were assessed. A high-risk late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) pattern was defined as epicardial, transmural, or septal plus free-wall. The primary outcome was a composite of heart failure hospitalizations and all-cause mortality. Multivariable analyses were performed to evaluate the impact of DM on outcomes.

RESULTS

We studied 192 patients, of which 51 (26.6%) had DM. The median left ventricular ejection fraction was 30%, and 106 (55.2%) had LGE. No significant differences were found in systolic function parameters between patients with and without DM. E/e values were higher (15 vs. 11.9, p = 0.025), and both LGE (68.6% vs. 50.4%; p = 0.025) and a high-risk LGE pattern (31.4% vs. 18.5%; p = 0.047) were more frequently found in patients with DM. The primary outcome occurred more frequently in diabetic patients (41.2% vs. 23.6%, p = 0.017). DM was an independent predictor of outcomes (OR 2.01; p = 0.049) and of LGE presence (OR 2.15; p = 0.048) in the multivariable analysis. Patients with both DM and LGE had the highest risk of events (HR 3.1; p = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

DM is related to a higher presence of LGE in DCM patients and is an independent predictor of outcomes. Patients with DM and LGE had a threefold risk of events. A multimodality imaging approach allows better risk stratification of these patients and may influence therapeutic options.

Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: The Pathophysiological Mechanisms behind the Clinical Phenotypes and the Therapeutic Approach

Heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is an increasingly frequent form and is estimated to be the dominant form of HF. On the other hand, HFpEF is a syndrome with systemic involvement, and it is characterized by multiple cardiac and extracardiac pathophysiological alterations. The increasing prevalence is currently reaching epidemic levels, thereby making HFpEF one of the greatest challenges facing cardiovascular medicine today. Compared to HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), the medical attitude in the case of HFpEF was a relaxed one towards the disease, despite the fact that it is much more complex, with many problems related to the identification of physiopathogenetic mechanisms and optimal methods of treatment. The current medical challenge is to develop effective therapeutic strategies, because patients suffering from HFpEF have symptoms and quality of life comparable to those with reduced ejection fraction, but the specific medication for HFrEF is ineffective in this situation; for this, we must first understand the pathological mechanisms in detail and correlate them with the clinical presentation. Another important aspect of HFpEF is the diversity of patients that can be identified under the umbrella of this syndrome. Thus, before being able to test and develop effective therapies, we must succeed in grouping patients into several categories, called phenotypes, depending on the pathological pathways and clinical features. This narrative review critiques issues related to the definition, etiology, clinical features, and pathophysiology of HFpEF. We tried to describe in as much detail as possible the clinical and biological phenotypes recognized in the literature in order to better understand the current therapeutic approach and the reason for the limited effectiveness. We have also highlighted possible pathological pathways that can be targeted by the latest research in this field.

Angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor in chronic heart failure and comorbidity management: Indian consensus statement

Heart failure (HF) is a significant public health concern characterized by notable rates of morbidity and mortality. Multimorbidity, ranging from 43% to 98% among HF patients, significantly impacts prognosis and treatment response. HF management requires a holistic approach, including guideline-directed medical therapy. Sacubitril/valsartan (angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor [ARNI]) is a cornerstone of HF treatment, supported by robust evidence from large-scale clinical trials across different levels of left ventricular ejection fraction. The recommendations presented in this paper have been developed by a group of cardiologists in India who convened in expert opinion meetings to discuss the utilization of ARNI in chronic HF patients with five different comorbid conditions like type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), chronic kidney disease, myocardial infarction (MI), obesity, and hypertension. Key focus areas include initiation, dose titration, and management across different HF phenotypes and comorbidities. Emphasis is placed on the efficacy of ARNI irrespective of glycemic status in the T2DM population, its role in HF patients with obesity, and addressing challenges related to renal function decline and hyperkalemia. Additionally, the document highlights ARNI's potential benefits in hypertensive and post-MI HF patients, alongside observations on the obesity paradox in HF prognosis. Overall, these recommendations aim to optimize ARNI therapy in HF patient populations with different comorbidities, addressing specific challenges and considerations to improve outcomes and quality of life.

[The Effects of Therapy for Iron Deficiency in Patients With Different Etiologies of Heart Failure and Concomitant Diseases]

Iron deficiency (ID) in patients with heart failure (HF) is a factor for unfavorable course and prognosis of the disease. The significance of ID in the diagnosis and treatment of HF has previously been demonstrated by multiple studies and meta-analyses. Therapy for ID in patients with HF is one of the most relevant and discussed issues. The use of intravenous iron medicinal products for the treatment of ID is currently being actively studied in patients of various categories; attempts are being made to specify the indications for use to produce the greatest effect on the prognosis and quality of life of HF patients.

Chinese expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of coronary microvascular diseases (2023 Edition)

Since the four working groups of the Chinese Society of Cardiology issued first expert consensus on coronary microvascular diseases (CMVD) in 2017, international consensus documents on CMVD have increased rapidly. Although some of these documents made preliminary recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of CMVD, they did not provide classification of recommendations and levels of evidence. In order to summarize recent progress in the field of CMVD, standardize the methods and procedures of diagnosis and treatment, and identify the scientific questions for future research, the four working groups of the Chinese Society of Cardiology updated the 2017 version of the Chinese expert consensus on CMVD and adopted a series of measures to ensure the quality of this document. The current consensus has raised a new classification of CMVD, summarized new epidemiological findings for different types of CMVD, analyzed key pathological and molecular mechanisms, evaluated classical and novel diagnostic technologies, recommended diagnostic pathways and criteria, and therapeutic strategies and medications, for patients with CMVD. In view of the current progress and knowledge gaps of CMVD, future directions were proposed. It is hoped that this expert consensus will further expedite the research progress of CMVD in both basic and clinical scenarios.

Glycemic variability is associated with diastolic dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes

AIM

To investigate the relationship between glycemic variability (GV) and diastolic dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) without coronary artery disease.

METHODS

Seventy-eight patients with type 2 DM without coronary artery disease were enrolled into the study. Diastolic function was assessed by echocardiography (Philips IE33); GV was evaluated by continuous monitoring of glucose (CGM, Guardian™ Connect System, Medtronic). According to the GV all studied patients were divided into two groups: group I - standard deviation (SD) > 2 (high GV), n = 40; group II - SD ≤ 1.9 (normal GV), n = 38.

RESULTS

Group I were older (49±9 vs 46±5; p<0.05), with a longer duration of DM (10±9.5 vs 6±5.5; p<0.01). Patients in group I had more severe diastolic dysfunction which was characterized by an increased values of myocardial stiffness index (E/e' ratio), speed of early transmitral flow (E, sm/sec) and peak rate of tricuspid regurgitation (V max TR, m/sec). Multivariate regression analysis revealed that high GV and older age of patients were the only significant independent predictors for diastolic dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased GV is associated with diastolic dysfunction and could predispose to development and progression of heart failure in patients with type 2 DM without coronary arteries disease.

Intravenous ferric carboxymaltose for iron repletion following acute heart failure in patients with and without diabetes: a subgroup analysis of the randomized AFFIRM-AHF trial

BACKGROUND

In AFFIRM-AHF, treatment of iron deficiency with intravenous ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) reduced the risk of heart failure (HF) hospitalization and improved quality of life (QoL) vs placebo in patients stabilized following an acute HF (AHF) episode, with no effect on cardiovascular (CV) death. Diabetes and iron deficiency frequently accompany AHF. This post hoc analysis explored the effects of diabetes on outcomes in AFFIRM-AHF patients.

METHODS

Patients were stratified by diabetes yes/no at baseline. The effects of FCM vs placebo on primary (total HF hospitalizations and CV death) and secondary (total CV hospitalizations and CV death; CV death; total HF hospitalizations; time to first HF hospitalization or CV death; and days lost due to HF hospitalizations or CV death) endpoints at Week 52 and change vs baseline in disease-specific QoL (12-item Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire [KCCQ-12]) at Week 24 were assessed by subgroup. For each endpoint, the interaction between diabetes status and treatment outcome was explored.

RESULTS

Of 1108 AFFIRM-AHF patients, 475 (FCM: 231; placebo: 244) had diabetes and 633 (FCM: 327; placebo: 306) did not have diabetes. Patients with diabetes were more commonly male (61.5% vs 50.9%), with a higher frequency of ischemic HF etiology (57.9% vs 39.0%), prior HF history (77.7% vs 66.5%), and comorbidities (including previous myocardial infarction [49.3% vs 32.9%] and chronic kidney disease [51.4% vs 32.4%]) than those without diabetes. The annualized event rate/100 patient-years with FCM vs placebo for the primary endpoint was 66.9 vs 80.9 in patients with diabetes (rate ratio [RR]: 0.83, 95% CI 0.58-1.81) and 51.3 vs 66.9 in patients without diabetes (RR: 0.77, 95% CI 0.55-1.07), with no significant interaction between diabetes status and treatment effect (pinteraction = 0.76). Similar findings were observed for secondary outcomes. Change from baseline in KCCQ-12 overall summary score was numerically greater with FCM vs placebo at almost all time points in both subgroups, with no interaction between diabetes and treatment effect at Week 24.

CONCLUSIONS

The clinical and QoL benefits observed with intravenous FCM in patients with iron deficiency following stabilization from an AHF episode are independent of diabetes status. Trial registration Clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02937454 (registered 10.18.2016).

Association of insulin use with LV remodeling and clinical outcomes in diabetic patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: assessed by cardiac MRI

BACKGROUND

Insulin is commonly used in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) to achieve glycemic control. However, recent evidence showed that insulin use is associated with poor outcomes in the context of heart failure (HF). Since heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) accounts for approximately 50% of cases in the general HF population, we aimed to evaluate the effect of insulin treatment on left ventricular (LV) remodeling and contractility abnormalities in a HFrEF cohort and assess whether insulin was a predictor of adverse outcomes in this entity.

METHODS

A total of 377 HFrEF patients who underwent cardiac MRI were included and divided according to diabetes status and the need for insulin treatment. LV structural and functional indices, as well as systolic strains, were measured. The determinants of impaired myocardial strains were assessed using linear regression analysis. The associated endpoints were determined using a multivariable Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

T2DM patients on insulin displayed a higher indexed LV end-diastolic volume and LV mass than those with T2DM not on insulin or those without T2DM, despite similar LV ejection fractions, accompanied by a higher three-dimensional spherical index (P < 0.01). Worse longitudinal and circumferential peak systolic strain was shown to occur in T2DM patients on insulin (P < 0.01). Insulin treatment was independently associated with impaired magnitudes of systolic strain. The median follow-up duration was 32.4 months (IQR, 15.6-43.2 months). Insulin treatment remained consistently associated with poor outcomes after adjustment for established confounders, with an adjusted hazard ratio of 3.11; (95% CI, 1.45-6.87; P = 0.009) in the overall cohort and 2.16 (95% CI, 1.08-4.59; P = 0.030) in the diabetes cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Insulin may further lead to adverse LV remodeling and contractile dysfunction in the context of HFrEF with T2DM. Considerable care should be taken when treating HFrEF patients with insulin.

Association Between Diabetes, Chronic Kidney Disease, and Outcomes in People With Heart Failure From Asia

Background

Diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and heart failure (HF) are pathophysiologically linked and increasing in prevalence in Asian populations, but little is known about the interplay of DM and CKD on outcomes in HF.

Objectives

This study sought to investigate outcomes in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) vs heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) in relation to the presence of DM and CKD.

Methods

Using the multinational ASIAN-HF registry, we investigated associations between DM only, CKD only, and DM+CKD with: 1) composite of 1-year mortality or HF hospitalization; and 2) Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire scores, according to HF subtype.

Results

In 5,239 patients with HF (74.6% HFrEF, 25.4% HFpEF; mean age 63 years; 29.1% female), 1,107 (21.1%) had DM only, 1,087 (20.7%) had CKD only, and 1,400 (26.7%) had DM+CKD. Compared with patients without DM nor CKD, DM+CKD was associated with 1-year all-cause mortality or HF hospitalization in HFrEF (adjusted HR: 2.07; 95% CI: 1.68-2.55) and HFpEF (HR: 2.37; 95% CI: 1.40-4.02). In HFrEF, DM only and CKD only were associated with 1-year all-cause mortality or HF hospitalization (both HRs: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.14-1.80), while in HFpEF, CKD only (HR: 2.54; 95% CI: 1.46-4.41) but not DM only (HR: 1.01; 95% CI: 0.52-1.95) was associated with increased risk (interaction P < 0.01). Adjusted Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire scores were lower in patients with DM+CKD (HFrEF: mean 60.50, SEM 0.77, HFpEF: mean 70.10, SEM 1.06; P < 0.001) than with no DM or CKD (HFrEF: mean 66.00, SEM 0.65; and HFpEF: mean 75.80, SEM 0.99).

Conclusions

Combined DM and CKD adversely effected outcomes independently of HF subtype, with CKD a consistent predictor of worse outcomes. Strategies to prevent and treat DM and CKD in HF are urgently required.

Patient phenotype profiling in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction to guide therapeutic decision making. A scientific statement of the Heart Failure Association, the European Heart Rhythm Association of the European Society of Cardiology, and the European Society of Hypertension

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) represents a highly heterogeneous clinical syndrome affected in its development and progression by many comorbidities. The left ventricular diastolic dysfunction may be a manifestation of various combinations of cardiovascular, metabolic, pulmonary, renal, and geriatric conditions. Thus, in addition to treatment with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in all patients, the most effective method of improving clinical outcomes may be therapy tailored to each patient's clinical profile. To better outline a phenotype-based approach for the treatment of HFpEF, in this joint position paper, the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology, the European Heart Rhythm Association and the European Hypertension Society, have developed an algorithm to identify the most common HFpEF phenotypes and identify the evidence-based treatment strategy for each, while taking into account the complexities of multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy.

WATCH-DM risk score predicts the prognosis of diabetic phenotype patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction

BACKGROUND

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a heterogeneous syndrome. Diabetes may identify an essential phenotype that significantly affects the prognosis of these patients. The WATCH-DM risk score has been validated for predicting the risk of heart failure in outpatients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but its ability to predict clinical outcomes in HFpEF patients with T2DM is unknown. We aimed to assess whether this risk score could predict the prognosis of diabetic phenotype patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction.

METHODS

We enrolled retrospectively 414 patients with HFpEF (70.03 ± 8.654 years, 58.70% female), including 203 (49.03%) type 2 diabetics. Diabetic HFpEF patients were stratified by baseline WATCH-DM risk score.

RESULTS

Diabetic HFpEF patients exhibited a trend toward more concentric remodeling/hypertrophy than nondiabetic HFpEF patients. When analyzed as a continuous variable, per 1-point increase in the WATCH-DM risk score was associated with increased risks of all-cause death (HR 1.181), cardiovascular death (HR 1.239), any hospitalization (HR 1.082), and HF hospitalization (HR 1.097). The AUC for the WATCH-DM risk score in predicting incident cardiovascular death (0.7061, 95% CI 0.6329-0.7792) was higher than that of all-cause death, any hospitalization, or HF hospitalization.

CONCLUSIONS

As a high-risk phenotype for heart failure, diabetic HFpEF necessitates early risk stratification and specific treatment. To the best of our knowledge, the current study is the first to demonstrate that the WATCH-DM score predicts poor outcomes in diabetic HFpEF patients. Its convenience may allow for quick risk assessments in busy clinical settings.

Glucose-Lowering Effects of Imeglimin and Its Possible Beneficial Effects on Diabetic Complications

Mitochondrial dysfunction is a prominent pathological feature of type 2 diabetes, which contributes to β-cell mass reduction and insulin resistance. Imeglimin is a novel oral hypoglycemic agent with a unique mechanism of action targeting mitochondrial bioenergetics. Imeglimin reduces reactive oxygen species production, improves mitochondrial function and integrity, and also improves the structure and function of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), changes which enhance glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and inhibit the apoptosis of β-cells, leading to β-cell mass preservation. Further, imeglimin inhibits hepatic glucose production and ameliorates insulin sensitivity. Clinical trials into the effects of imeglimin monotherapy and combination therapy exhibited an excellent hypoglycemic efficacy and safety profile in type 2 diabetic patients. Mitochondrial impairment is closely associated with endothelial dysfunction, which is a very early event in atherosclerosis. Imeglimin improved endothelial dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes via both glycemic control-dependent and -independent mechanisms. In experimental animals, imeglimin improved cardiac and kidney function via an improvement in mitochondrial and ER function or/and an improvement in endothelial function. Furthermore, imeglimin reduced ischemia-induced brain damage. In addition to glucose-lowering effects, imeglimin can be a useful therapeutic option for diabetic complications in type 2 diabetic patients.

Old and Novel Predictors for Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetic Foot Syndrome—A Narrative Review

Diabetic foot syndrome (DFS) is a complication associated with diabetes that has a strong negative impact, both medically and socio-economically. Recent epidemiological data show that one in six patients with diabetes will develop an ulcer in their lifetime. Vascular complications associated with diabetic foot have multiple prognostic implications in addition to limiting functional status and leading to decreased quality of life for these patients. We searched the electronic databases of PubMed, MEDLINE and EMBASE for studies that evaluated the role of DFS as a cardiovascular risk factor through the pathophysiological mechanisms involved, in particular the inflammatory ones and the associated metabolic changes. In the era of evidence-based medicine, the management of these cases in multidisciplinary teams of “cardio-diabetologists” prevents the occurrence of long-term disabling complications and has prognostic value for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality among diabetic patients. Identifying artificial-intelligence-based cardiovascular risk prediction models or conducting extensive clinical trials on gene therapy or potential therapeutic targets promoted by in vitro studies represent future research directions with a modulating role on the risk of morbidity and mortality in patients with DFS.

Diabetes leading to heart failure and heart failure leading to diabetes: epidemiological and clinical evidence

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a risk factor that plays a major role in the onset of heart failure (HF) both directly, by impairing cardiac function, and indirectly, through associated diseases such as hypertension, coronary disease, renal dysfunction, obesity, and other metabolic disorders. In a population of HF patients, the presence of T2DM ranged from 20 to 40%, according to the population studied, risk factor characteristics, geographic area, and age, and it is associated with a worse prognosis. Finally, patients with HF, when compared with those without HF, show an increased risk for the onset of T2DM due to several mechanisms that predispose the HF patient to insulin resistance. Despite the epidemiological data confirmed the relationship between T2DM and HF, the exact prevalence of HF in T2DM comes from interventional trials rather than from observational registries aimed to prospectively evaluate the risk of HF occurrence in T2DM population. This review is focused on the vicious cycle linking HF and T2DM, from epidemiological data to prognostic implications.

Never in mitosis gene A-related kinase-6 deficiency deteriorates diabetic cardiomyopathy via regulating heat shock protein 72

NIMA (never in mitosis, gene A)-related kinase-6 (NEK6), a cell cycle regulatory gene, was found to regulate cardiac hypertrophy. However, its role in diabetes-induced cardiomyopathy has not been fully elucidated. This research was designed to illustrate the effect of NEK6 involved in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Here we used a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced mice diabetic cardiomyopathy model and NEK6 knockout mice to explore the role and mechanism of NEK6 in diabetic-induced cardiomyopathy. NEK6 knockout mice and wild-type littermates were subjected to STZ injection (50 mg/kg/day for 5 days) to induce a diabetic cardiomyopathy model. As a result, 4 months after final STZ injection, DCM mice revealed cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and systolic and diastolic dysfunction. NEK6 deficiency causes deteriorated cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and cardiac dysfunction. Furthermore, we observed inflammation and oxidative stress in the hearts of NEK6 deficiency mice under diabetic cardiomyopathy pathology. Adenovirus was used to upregulate NEK6 in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, and it was found that NEK6 ameliorated high glucose-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. Our findings revealed that NEK6 increased the phosphorylation of heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) and increased the protein level of PGC-1α and NRF2. Co-IP assay experiment confirmed that NEK6 interacted with HSP72. When HSP72 was silenced, the anti-inflammation and anti-oxidative stress effects of NEK6 were blurred. In summary, NEK6 may protect diabetic-induced cardiomyopathy by interacting with HSP72 and promoting the HSP72/PGC-1α/NRF2 signaling. KEY MESSAGES: NEK6 knockout deteriorated cardiac dysfunction, cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis as well as inflammation response, and oxidative stress. NEK6 overexpression attenuated high glucose induced inflammation and oxidative stress. The underlying mechanisms of the protective role of NEK6 in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy seem to involve the regulation of HSP72-NRF2- PGC-1α pathway. NEK6 may become a new therapeutic target for diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Global burden of heart failure: a comprehensive and updated review of epidemiology

Heart Failure (HF) is a multi-faceted and life-threatening syndrome characterized by significant morbidity and mortality, poor functional capacity and quality of life, and high costs. HF affects more than 64 million people worldwide. Therefore, attempts to decrease its social and economic burden have become a major global public health priority. While the incidence of HF has stabilized and seems to be declining in industrialized countries, the prevalence is increasing due to the ageing of the population, improved treatment of and survival with ischaemic heart disease, and the availability of effective evidence-based therapies prolonging life in patients with HF. There are geographical variations in HF epidemiology. There is substantial lack of data from developing countries, where HF exhibits different features compared with that observed in the Western world. In this review, we provide a contemporary overview on the global burden of HF, providing updated estimates on prevalence, incidence, outcomes, and costs worldwide.

Evaluation and Management of Patients With Diabetes and Heart Failure: A Korean Diabetes Association and Korean Society of Heart Failure Consensus Statement

Diabetes mellitus is a major risk factor for the development of heart failure. Furthermore, the prognosis of heart failure is worse in patients with diabetes mellitus than in those without it. Therefore, early diagnosis and proper management of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus are important. This review discusses the current criteria for diagnosis and screening tools for heart failure and the currently recommended pharmacological therapies for heart failure. We also highlight the effects of anti-diabetic medications on heart failure.

Evaluation and Management of Patients with Diabetes and Heart Failure: A Korean Diabetes Association and Korean Society of Heart Failure Consensus Statement

Diabetes mellitus is a major risk factor for the development of heart failure. Furthermore, the prognosis of heart failure is worse in patients with diabetes mellitus than in those without it. Therefore, early diagnosis and proper management of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus are important. This review discusses the current criteria for diagnosis and screening tools for heart failure and the currently recommended pharmacological therapies for heart failure. We also highlight the effects of anti-diabetic medications on heart failure.

Cost-effectiveness of Empagliflozin in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction

Importance

In the Empagliflozin Outcome Trial in Patients With Chronic Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction (EMPEROR-Preserved), empagliflozin significantly reduced hospitalizations for heart failure while improving patient-reported health status compared with placebo. The long-term cost-effectiveness of empagliflozin among patients who have heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) remains unclear.

Objective

To estimate the cost-effectiveness of empagliflozin in patients with HFpEF.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cost-effectiveness analysis performed from October 2021 to April 2022 included a Markov model using estimates of treatment efficacy, event probabilities, and utilities from EMPEROR-Preserved and published literature. Costs were derived from national surveys and pricing data sets. Quality of life was imputed from a heart failure-specific quality-of-life measure. Two analyses were performed, with and without a treatment effect on cardiovascular mortality. Subgroup analyses were based on diabetes status, ejection fraction, and health status impairment due to heart failure. The model reproduced the event rates and risk reduction with empagliflozin observed in EMPEROR-Preserved over 26 months of follow-up; future projections extended across the lifetime of patients.

Exposures

Empagliflozin or standard of care.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Hospitalizations for heart failure, life-years, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), lifetime costs, and lifetime incremental cost-effectiveness ratio.

Results

A total of 5988 patients were included in the analysis, with a mean age of 72 years, New York Heart Association class II to IV heart failure, and left ventricular ejection fraction greater than 40%. At the Federal Supply Schedule price of $327 per month, empagliflozin yielded 0.06 additional QALYs and $26 257 incremental costs compared with standard of care, producing a cost per QALY gained of $437 442. Incremental costs consisted of total drug costs of $29 586 and savings of $3329 from reduced hospitalizations for heart failure. Cost-effectiveness was similar across subgroups. The results were most sensitive to the monthly cost, quality-of-life benefit, and mortality effect of empagliflozin. A price reduction to $153 per month, incremental utility of 0.02, or 8% reduction in cardiovascular mortality would bring empagliflozin to $180 000 per QALY gained, the threshold for intermediate value. Using Medicare Part D monthly pricing of $375 after rebates and $511 before rebates, empagliflozin would remain low value at $509 636 and $710 825 per QALY gained, respectively. Cost-effectiveness estimates were robust to variation in the frequency and disutility of heart failure hospitalizations.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this economic evaluation, based on current cost-effectiveness benchmarks, empagliflozin provides low economic value compared with standard of care for HFpEF, largely due to its lack of efficacy on mortality and small benefit on quality of life.

Unveiling Human Proteome Signatures of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a highly prevalent but still poorly understood clinical entity. Its current pathophysiological understanding supports a critical role of comorbidities and their chronic effect on cardiac function and structure. Importantly, despite the replication of some HFpEF phenotypic features, to this day, experimental models have failed to bring new effective therapies to the clinical setting. Thus, the direct investigation of HFpEF human myocardial samples may unveil key, and possibly human-specific, pathophysiological mechanisms. This study employed quantitative proteomic analysis by advanced mass spectrometry (SWATH-MS) to investigate signaling pathways and pathophysiological mechanisms in HFpEF. Protein-expression profiles were analyzed in human left ventricular myocardial samples of HFpEF patients and compared with a mixed control group. Functional analysis revealed several proteins that correlate with HFpEF, including those associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Despite the known disease heterogeneity, proteomic profiles could indicate a reduced mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and fatty-acid oxidation capacity in HFpEF patients with diabetes. The proteomic characterization described in this work provides new insights. Furthermore, it fosters further questions related to HFpEF cellular pathophysiology, paving the way for additional studies focused on developing novel therapies and diagnosis strategies for HFpEF patients.

Multi-modality cardiac imaging in the management of diabetic heart disease

Diabetic heart disease is a major healthcare problem. Patients with diabetes show an excess of death from cardiovascular causes, twice as high as the general population and those with diabetes type 1 and longer duration of the disease present with more severe cardiovascular complications. Premature coronary artery disease and heart failure are leading causes of morbidity and reduced life expectancy. Multimodality cardiac imaging, including echocardiography, cardiac computed tomography, nuclear medicine, and cardiac magnetic resonance play crucial role in the diagnosis and management of different pathologies included in the definition of diabetic heart disease. In this review we summarise the utility of multi-modality cardiac imaging in characterising ischaemic and non-ischaemic causes of diabetic heart disease and give an overview of the current clinical practice. We also describe emerging imaging techniques enabling early detection of coronary artery inflammation and the non-invasive characterisation of the atherosclerotic plaque disease. Furthermore, we discuss the role of MRI-derived techniques in studying altered myocardial metabolism linking diabetes with the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy. Finally, we discuss recent data regarding the use of artificial intelligence applied to large imaging databases and how those efforts can be utilised in the future in screening of patients with diabetes for early signs of disease.

Research status and trends of the diabetic cardiomyopathy in the past 10 years (2012–2021): A bibliometric analysis

Background

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is one of the most life-threatening diabetic complications. However, the previous studies only discuss a particular aspect or characteristic of DCM, the current state and trends were explored by limited research. We aimed to perform a systemically bibliometric study of DCM research progress status in the past decade, visualize the internal conceptual structure and potential associations, and further explore the prospective study trends.

Methods

Articles related to DCM published from January 2012 to December 2021 were collected in the Web of Science core collection (WoSCC) database on June 24, 2022. We exported all bibliographic records, including titles, abstracts, keywords, authorship, institutions, addresses, publishing sources, references, citation times, and year of publication. In addition, the journal Impact Factor and Hirsch index were obtained from the Journal Citation Report. We conducted the data screening, statistical analysis, and visualization via the Bibliometrix R package. VOS viewer software was employed to generate the collaboration network map among countries and institutions for better performance in visualization.

Results

In total, 1,887 original research articles from 2012 to 2021 were identified. The number of annual publications rapidly increased from 107 to 278, and a drastic increase in citation times was observed in 2017–2019. As for global contributions, the United States was the most influential country with the highest international collaboration, while China was the most productive country. Professor Cai Lu was the most prolific author. Shandong University published the most articles. Cardiovascular Diabetology journal released the most DCM-related articles. “Metabolic Stress-induced Activation of FoxO1 Triggers Diabetic Cardiomyopathy in Mice” Battiprolu PK et al., J Clin Invest, 2012. was the most top-cited article regarding local citations. The top three keywords in terms of frequency were apoptosis, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. The analysis of future topic trends indicated that “Forkhead box protein O1,” “Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction,” “Dapagliflozin,” “Thioredoxin,” “Mitochondria dysfunction,” “Glucose,” “Pyroptosis,” “Cardiac fibroblast” and “Long non-coding RNA” could be promising hotspots.

Conclusion

This study provides meaningful insights into DCM, which is expected to assist cardiologists and endocrinologists in exploring frontiers and future research directions in the domain through a refined and concise summary.

Diabetes Mellitus and Heart Failure

The coexistence of diabetes mellitus (DM) and heart failure (HF) is frequent and is associated with a higher risk of hospitalization for HF and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. It has been estimated that millions of people are affected by HF and DM, and the prevalence of both conditions has increased over time. Concomitant HF and diabetes confer a worse prognosis than each alone; therefore, managing DM care is critical for preventing HF. This article reviews the prevalence of HF and diabetes and the correlated prognosis as well as provides a basic understanding of diabetic cardiomyopathy, including its pathophysiology, focusing on the relationship between DM and HF with a preserved ejection fraction and summarizes the potential aldosterone and the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists approaches for managing heart failure and DM. Sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is) are an emerging class of glucose-lowering drugs, and the role of SGLT2Is in DM patients with HF was reviewed to establish updated and comprehensive concepts for improving optimal medical care in clinical practice.

Therapeutic overexpression of miR-92a-2-5p ameliorated cardiomyocyte oxidative stress injury in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy

Background

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) results from pathological changes in cardiac structure and function caused by diabetes. Excessive oxidative stress is an important feature of DCM pathogenesis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of oxidative stress in the cardiovascular system. In the present study, we screened for the expression of oxidative stress-responsive miRNAs in the development of DCM. Furthermore, we aimed to explore the mechanism and therapeutic potential of miR-92a-2-5p in preventing diabetes-induced myocardial damage.

Methods

An experimental type 2 diabetic (T2DM) rat model was induced using a high-fat diet and low-dose streptozotocin (30 mg/kg). Oxidative stress injury in cardiomyocytes was induced by high glucose (33 mmol/L). Oxidative stress-responsive miRNAs were screened by quantitative real-time PCR. Intervention with miR-92a-2-5p was accomplished by tail vein injection of agomiR in vivo or adenovirus transfection in vitro.

Results

The expression of miR-92a-2-5p in the heart tissues was significantly decreased in the T2DM group. Decreased miR-92a-2-5p expression was also detected in high glucose-stimulated cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of miR-92a-2-5p attenuated cardiomyocyte oxidative stress injury, as demonstrated by increased glutathione level, and reduced reactive oxygen species accumulation, malondialdehyde and apoptosis levels. MAPK interacting serine/threonine kinase 2 (MKNK2) was verified as a novel target of miR-92a-2-5p. Overexpression of miR-92a-2-5p in cardiomyocytes significantly inhibited MKNK2 expression, leading to decreased phosphorylation of p38-MAPK signaling, which, in turn, ameliorated cardiomyocyte oxidative stress injury. Additionally, diabetes-induced myocardial damage was significantly alleviated by the injection of miR-92a-2-5p agomiR, which manifested as a significant improvement in myocardial remodeling and function.

Conclusions

miR-92a-2-5p plays an important role in cardiac oxidative stress, and may serve as a therapeutic target in DCM.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11658-022-00379-9.

Prognostic relevance of left atrial function and stiffness in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction patients with and without diabetes mellitus

Background

Although the left atrium (LA) plays a key role in the pathophysiology and disease progression of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), the impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) on LA function and stiffness in HFpEF patients remains unclear. Furthermore, the prognostic value of different phases of LA function and stiffness is less well-established in HFpEF patients.

Methods

This study prospectively enrolled 164 HFpEF patients who were in sinus rhythm at the time of echocardiography, including 61 (37%) HFpEF patients with T2DM. LA reservoir, conduit, and pump function were assessed using two-dimensional volume indices and speckle tracking echocardiography. The LA stiffness was calculated as the ratio of early mitral inflow velocity-to-early annular tissue velocity (E/e’) and LA reservoir function. The primary end point was a combined outcome of heart failure hospitalization or death.

Results

Left atrium reservoir function [measured by peak LA strain (LAS-peak)] and LA pump function (measured by LAS-active) remained significantly lower in the HFpEF patients with T2DM compared with those without T2DM, even after adjustment for potential confounders. In addition, the LA stiffness of HFpEF patients with T2DM was higher than those without T2DM. After a median follow-up of 13.7 months, 46 patients (28.1%) reached the composite end point. LAS-peak (hazard ratios: 0.88; 95% confidence interval: 0.81–0.95; P = 0.001) was significantly associated with the risk of heart failure hospitalization or death after adjusting for demographic and clinical characteristics, LV global longitudinal strain, E/e’, and LA volume index. In contrast, other LA function and stiffness parameters did not independently predict the risk of adverse events. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that HFpEF patients with T2DM and low LAS-peak (<27.2%) had a significantly increased risk of heart failure-related hospitalization or death (log-rank P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Left atrium reservoir and pump function are impaired, whereas LA stiffness is increased in HFpEF patients with T2DM compared with those without T2DM. LAS-peak is a powerful predictor of adverse clinical outcomes and may be crucial for risk stratification in HFpEF patients with and without T2DM.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) in type 2 diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to therapeutics

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM or T2D) is a devastating metabolic abnormality featured by insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia. T2D provokes unique metabolic changes and compromises cardiovascular geometry and function. Meanwhile, T2D increases the overall risk for heart failure (HF) and acts independent of classical risk factors including coronary artery disease, hypertension, and valvular heart diseases. The incidence of HF is extremely high in patients with T2D and is manifested as HF with preserved, reduced, and midrange ejection fraction (HFpEF, HFrEF, and HFmrEF, respectively), all of which significantly worsen the prognosis for T2D. HFpEF is seen in approximately half of the HF cases and is defined as a heterogenous syndrome with discrete phenotypes, particularly in close association with metabolic syndrome. Nonetheless, management of HFpEF in T2D remains unclear, largely due to the poorly defined pathophysiology behind HFpEF. Here, in this review, we will summarize findings from multiple preclinical and clinical studies as well as recent clinical trials, mainly focusing on the pathophysiology, potential mechanisms, and therapies of HFpEF in T2D.

Positionspapier Herzinsuffizienz und Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus (DM) stellt eine wichtige Komorbidität bei Patienten mit Herzinsuffizienz dar, die maßgeblich die Prognose der Patienten determiniert. Von entscheidender Bedeutung zur Verbesserung der Prognose dieser Hochrisiko-Patienten ist daher eine frühzeitige Diagnostik und differenzierte medikamentöse Therapie mit Ausschöpfung aller möglichen Therapieoptionen und Absetzen potenziell schädlicher Substanzen. Das gemeinsame Positionspapier der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Kardiologie (DGK) und der Deutschen Diabetes Gesellschaft (DDG) fasst die vorhandene wissenschaftliche Evidenz zusammen und gibt Empfehlungen, was bei der Diagnose und Therapie der Herzinsuffizienz und des DM zu beachten ist, um die Prognose zu verbessern.

Impact of diabetes and on-arrival hyperglycemia on short-term outcomes in acute heart failure patients

The impact of diabetes mellitus (DM) and hyperglycemia on short-term prognosis in patients with acute heart failure (AHF) remains controversial as most data comes from series of hospitalized patients. Our purpose was to analyze outcomes in a nation-wide registry of AHF patients attended in emergency department (ED). ED AHF patients were prospectively enrolled, with the index event and the vulnerable post-discharge phase outcomes recorded. The influence of presenting hyperglycemia (> 180 mg/dL) and DM treatment on prognosis were also investigated. All results were adjusted (a) for baseline characteristics. Of 9192 enrolled AHF patients, 4544 (49,4%) were diabetic, with 24% of diabetics and 25.1% of non-diabetic (p = 0.247) directly discharged from the ED also included. Diabetics had higher rates of comorbidities, but were slightly younger and had lower in-hospital and 30 day all-cause mortality than non-diabetics (a-OR = 0.827, 95% CI = 0.690-0980; and a-HR = 0.850, 95% CI = 0.814-1.071, respectively). Conversely, hyperglycemia on-arrival was associated with increased in-hospital, and 30 day all-cause mortality, in both DM (a-OR = 1.933, 95% CI = 1.378-2.712, and a-HR = 1.590, 95% CI = 1.304-1.938, respectively) and non-DM patients (a-OR = 1.498, 95% CI = 1.175-1.909, and a-HR = 1.719, 95% CI = 1.306-2.264, respectively). However, during the vulnerable phase, diabetics had worse short-term outcomes, with higher rates of ED-revisit and rehospitalization. These worse outcomes seemed to be unrelated to the severity of DM. In patients with AHF attended in ED, diabetes was associated with lower index event case fatality, but higher rates of rehospitalization and re-consultation in the vulnerable post-discharge period. Conversely, hyperglycemia at hospital arrival was strongly associated with early mortality, regardless of diabetes status.

Direct and indirect costs of heart failure in relation to diabetes status - A nationwide study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Heart failure (HF) and diabetes mellitus (DM) are burdensome chronic diseases with high lifetime risks and numerous studies indicate associations between HF and DM. The objective of this study was to investigate the direct and indirect costs of HF patients with and without DM.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Patients with a first-time diagnosis of HF from 1998 to 2016 were identified through nationwide Danish registries and stratified according to DM status into HF with or without DM. The economic healthcare cost analysis was based on both direct costs, including hospitalization, procedures, medication and indirect costs including social welfare and lost productivity. The economic burden was investigated prior to, at, and following diagnosis of HF. Patients with concomitant HF and DM were younger (median age 74 vs. 77), had more comorbidities and fewer were female as compared to patients with HF but without DM. The socioeconomic burden of concomitant HF and DM compared to HF alone was substantially higher; 45% in direct costs (€16,237 vs. €11,184), 35% in home care costs (€3123 vs. €2320), 8% in social transfer income (€17,257 vs. €15,994) and they had 27% lower income (€10,136 vs. €13,845). The economic burden peaked at year of diagnosis, but the difference became increasingly pronounced in the years following the HF diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Patients with concomitant HF and DM had a significantly higher economic burden compared to patients with HF but without DM.

The Diabetic Cardiorenal Nexus

The end-stage of the clinical combination of heart failure and kidney disease has become known as cardiorenal syndrome. Adverse consequences related to diabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, hypertension and renal impairment on cardiovascular function, morbidity and mortality are well known. Guidelines for the treatment of these risk factors have led to the improved prognosis of patients with coronary artery disease and reduced ejection fraction. Heart failure hospital admissions and readmission often occur, however, in the presence of metabolic, renal dysfunction and relatively preserved systolic function. In this domain, few advances have been described. Diabetes, kidney and cardiac dysfunction act synergistically to magnify healthcare costs. Current therapy relies on improving hemodynamic factors destructive to both the heart and kidney. We consider that additional hemodynamic solutions may be limited without the use of animal models focusing on the cardiomyocyte, nephron and extracellular matrices. We review herein potential common pathophysiologic targets for treatment to prevent and ameliorate this syndrome.