Personality and physiological reactions to acute psychological stress

Evaluating the activity of salivary enzymes as stress biomarkers under psychological stress and their relationship with rumination and personality traits

BACKGROUND

Salivary enzymes are used as non-invasive biomarkers to assess the activity of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system. The aim of this study was to evaluated levels of acid phosphatase, beta-glucuronidase and cathepsin salivary enzymes under psychological tension and their connection with rumination and personality traits.

METHODS

A total of 60 medical students, who wanted to participate in the final exam, two months before the exam, the inventory emotional control questionnaire and the neo-short form were completed. Saliva samples were taken in both the basal conditions and under exam stress.

RESULTS

A significant difference was found between the mean of level salivary enzymes in rest and under exam stress. Also, we found a positive and significant correlation between the activity of salivary enzymes and personality traits such as neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness and rumination (p < .01, p < .05) level. Neuroticism, agreeableness and rumination predicted 45% of the variance of salivary acid phosphatase, neuroticism and rumination predicted 49% of the variance of salivary beta-glucuronidase and neuroticism, extraversion and rumination predicted 38% of the variance of salivary cathepsin under stress exam.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show, levels of salivary enzymes may increase in individuals with traits of neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness and rumination through response to psychological stressors.

Trait neuroticism does not relate to cardiovascular reactivity or habituation to repeated acute psychosocial stress

Neuroticism has been associated with adverse cardiovascular health. Adverse cardiovascular health outcomes have also been linked to cardiovascular reactivity and cardiovascular reactivity habituation to acute psychosocial stress. As such, cardiovascular stress reactivity and habituation may be a factor in the association between neuroticism and disease risk. However, studies of the relationship between neuroticism and cardiovascular reactivity have produced mixed results. Moreover, the relationships between neuroticism, cardiovascular reactivity habituation, and general affect across a repeated stress paradigm have not been examined. The present study aimed to assess the relationships between neuroticism, positive and negative affect, and cardiovascular reactivity and habituation to acute psychosocial stress in a large, demographically diverse sample. Participants (N = 426) completed two 4-min mental arithmetic stressors, each with a separate baseline, in a single laboratory session while having discrete blood pressure and heart rate measurements taken. State positive and negative affect were measured immediately following informed consent, after receiving task instructions, and after each stress task. Trait neuroticism was measured using the Big Five Inventory. Each stress task elicited significant cardiovascular changes. Trait neuroticism was not significantly associated with cardiovascular reactivity or cardiovascular reactivity habituation, within or across stress tasks (all p's > 0.12). Across the entire study protocol, neuroticism was significantly related to lower positive affect and higher negative affect (both p's < 0.001). Trait neuroticism did not relate to stress-related cardiovascular adjustments but might confer a predisposition toward high negative affect.

Predictors of emotional distress during the COVID-19 pandemic; a Croatian study

The study aimed to assess relations between coronavirus-related psychological distress and its potentially predictive factors. An online sample of 2860 Croatian adults filled in questionnaires on socio-demographic characteristics, distress (the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale 21), coping (the Brief COPE), personality (the International Personality Item Pool), and social support (the Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Questionnaire) during the COVID-19 lockdown and after the capital was hit by an earthquake. Results indicated that 15.9% of the respondents experienced severe to extreme depression, 10.7% severe to extreme anxiety, and 26.2% severe to extreme stress. The hierarchical regressions analysis indicated that the considered variables explained a substantial percentage of the variance in depression (51.4%), anxiety (35.2%), and stress (45.5%). Main predictors of emotional distress were lower scores of Emotional Stability, higher scores of Agreeableness, avoidant coping, lack of active coping and perceived social support. The negative effect of the earthquake was weak. Results provide information on a broad range of potentially protective or vulnerability factors that could help identify those at risk for developing coronavirus-related psychological distress. Findings suggest that promoting active coping styles and social interactions could be preventive and potentially therapeutic in general populations.

Age and extraversion differences in heart rate reactivity during working memory tasks

Research and theory have shown a link between heart rate reactivity during cognitive testing and extraversion in younger adults; however, similar work has not been conducted with older adults. This study was designed to explore age and extraversion-related differences in within-person heart rate (HR) reactivity during two working memory tasks of varying difficulty using a multi-level modeling approach. Across 570 total within-person assessments of continuous HR monitoring, 28 younger adults (M = 19.76, SD = 1.15) and 29 older adults (M = 71.19, SD = 6.63) were administered two working memory tasks (backward digit span and n-back). There were no age differences in reactivity during the backward digit span. However, similar to previous findings, on the more difficult n-back task, younger adults low in extraversion showed a trend toward higher HR reactivity than young adults high in extraversion. Interestingly, the older adults showed the opposite pattern in that lower extraversion older adults were less reactive than the higher extraversion older adults who showed the steepest increase in HR. The HR increase of the older adults high in extraversion may be an indication of higher engagement in this more difficult task. Individual differences in extraversion need to be taken into account when administering working memory tasks in older adults.

Risk for alcohol use/misuse among entering college students: The role of personality and stress

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We examined unique and joint effects of stress and personality on alcohol misuse.

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Factor-level Neuroticism is not uniquely associated with more alcohol misuse.

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Higher Neuroticism—Depression facet scores are associated with more alcohol misuse.

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Neuroticism—Depression moderates the association between stress and alcohol misuse.

Introduction

Excessive alcohol use amongst college students is associated with low grades, poor mental health, and risks to physical safety. Neuroticism, characterized by emotional instability and anxiety, and self-reported stress have both been shown to be strong predictors of alcohol use and misuse, however, previous studies have shown that measures of stress and Neuroticism are frequently confounded. This study tests the hypothesis that personality traits, and Neuroticism in particular, predict alcohol use/misuse in matriculating freshmen above and beyond reported levels of stress.

Methods

Data were collected as part of an IRB-approved longitudinal study, MAPme, examining behavioral health in college. Participants were 303 first-year college students (70% female) with an average age of 18.58 (SD = 0.39). Data were collected during the first eight weeks of the first semester at college.

Results

Overall, domain-level Neuroticism was not associated with alcohol use/misuse above and beyond perceived levels of stress and other Big Five domains (β = 0.14, p = 0.088). Notably, the depression facet of Neuroticism (Neuroticism—Depression), was positively associated with alcohol use/misuse when accounting for the shared effects of stress. Results demonstrated that the Neuroticism—Depression facet moderated the relationship between stress and alcohol use/misuse (β = 0.18, p = 0.020).

Conclusions

The Neuroticism—Depression facet is a better predictor of alcohol use/misuse than the Neuroticism domain, even when accounting for stress and other personality domains.

At low levels of the Depression facet, stress was negatively associated with alcohol use/misuse, but at high levels of the Depression facet, stress was positively associated with alcohol use/misuse. Taken together, our results shed new light into the combined and independent effects of Neuroticism and stress on alcohol use/misuse.

Is stressor-evoked cardiovascular reactivity a pathway linking positive and negative emotionality to preclinical cardiovascular disease risk?

Stressor-evoked cardiovascular reactivity, trait positive emotionality, and negative emotionality are all associated with cardiovascular disease. It is unknown, however, whether cardiovascular reactivity may constitute a pathway by which trait positive or negative emotionality relates to disease risk. Accordingly, this study modeled the cross-sectional relationships between trait positive and negative emotionality, stressor-evoked cardiovascular reactivity, and severity of a subclinical vascular marker of cardiovascular risk, carotid artery intima-media thickness (CA-IMT). The sample consisted of healthy, midlife adults free from clinical cardiovascular disease (N = 286; ages 30-54; 50% female). Trait positive and negative emotionality were measured by three questionnaires. Heart rate and blood pressure reactivity were assessed across three stressor tasks. CA-IMT was assessed by ultrasonography. Latent factors of positive and negative emotionality, blood pressure reactivity, heart rate reactivity, and CA-IMT were created using structural equation modeling. Greater negative emotionality was marginally associated with more CA-IMT (β = .21; p = .049), but lower blood pressure reactivity (β = -.19; p = .03). However, heightened blood pressure (β = .21; p = .03), but not heart rate reactivity (β = -.05; p = .75), associated with greater CA-IMT. Positive emotionality was uncorrelated with cardiovascular reactivity (blood pressure: β = -.04; p = .61; heart rate: β = .16; p = .11) and CA-IMT (β = .16; p = .07). Although trait negative emotionality associates with a known marker of cardiovascular disease risk, independent of positive emotionality, it is unlikely to occur via a stressor-evoked cardiovascular reactivity pathway.

Motivational orientation mediates the association between depression and cardiovascular reactivity to acute psychological stress

Recent theoretical developments in cardiovascular reactivity research suggest the association between depression and blunted reactions to stress is linked to motivational factors. Thus, the present study aimed to test whether the association between depressive symptoms and cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress was mediated by motivation; be it intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. One hundred and eighty-two healthy young adults completed measures of motivation (Global Motivation Scale; GMS), and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; HADS) and had their blood pressure and heart rate monitored throughout a standardised stress testing protocol. Results indicated that depression was negatively associated with both systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR) reactions to the stress task (all ps < .05), such that those who reported higher depressive symptomology displayed a blunted response. Furthermore this relationship was mediated by intrinsic, but not extrinsic motivation; the blunted responses were less pronounced through intrinsic motivation. The present findings add extensively to existing research and confirm that motivation is an underlying mechanism linking depression and cardiovascular reactivity.

The intraocular pressure responses to oral academic examination: The influence of perceived levels of public speaking anxiety

We examined the intraocular pressure responsiveness to oral examination stress, as well as the mediating role of the perceived levels of public speaking anxiety on intraocular pressure changes. Thirty-two university students (intervention group) publicly defended their degree final project, and intraocular pressure and perceived levels of stress were measured before and after the oral presentation, and after 10 min of recovery. The control group (n = 32) was not exposed to any stressful situation, and the dependent measures were taken at the same time points. All participants completed the public speaking anxiety scale. The intervention group exhibited higher intraocular pressure values before the oral presentation (corrected p-values<0.001), with these changes being positively associated with the perceived levels of public speaking anxiety (p < 0.001, r = 0.71). Our results reveal a mediating role of public speaking anxiety on the intraocular pressure responsiveness to oral examination stress, and highlight the utility of intraocular pressure as an indicator of stress in applied situations.

Parsing inter- and intra-individual variability in key nervous system mechanisms of stress responsivity and across functional domains

Exposure to stressful events is omnipresent in modern human life, yet people show considerable heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure(s) on their functionality and overall health. Encounter with stressor(s) is counteracted by an intricate repertoire of nervous-system responses. This narrative review starts with a brief summary of the vast evidence that supports heart rate variability, cortisol secretion, and large-scale cortical network interactions as kay physiological, endocrinological, and neural mechanisms of stress responsivity, respectively. The second section highlights potential sources for inter-individual variability in these mechanisms, by focusing on biological, environmental, social, habitual, and psychological factors that may influence stress responsivity patterns and thus contribute to heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure on functionality and health. The third section introduces intra-individually variability in stress responsivity across functional domains as a novel putative source for heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure. Challenges and future directions are further discussed. Parsing inter- and intra-individual variability in nervous-system mechanisms of stress responsivity and across functional domains is critical towards potential clinical translation.

The impacts of a COVID-19 epidemic focus and general belief in a just world on individual emotions

Whether the general belief in a just world (GBJW) can protect individual emotions during a major disaster is a matter of debate. This study conducted two experiments to explore this question during the COVID-19 epidemic. Experiment 1 (N = 92, M_age = 22.52, 48.91% was male) manipulated the focus regarding the COVID-19 epidemic to investigate the impact of this focus on participants' emotions. The results showed that compared with the nonepidemic focus group, the epidemic focus group had higher negative emotions and lower positive emotions. Experiment 2 (N = 200, M_age = 23.91, 49% was male) manipulated the epidemic focus and GBJW to investigate their effects on the participants' emotions. The results showed that high levels of GBJW reduced negative emotions and increased positive emotions regardless of whether the participants were focused on the epidemic. This study expands the influence of the GBJW on individual emotions and finds that the GBJW can protect individuals' emotions when they face a major social disaster. These findings imply that controlling people's intake of information on the epidemic can avoid their suffering from the vicarious traumatization caused by epidemic-related information overload and that improving the public's GBJW protects their mental health during an epidemic.

Sympathetic arousal during the processing of dysphoric affect by youths at high and low familial risk for depression

Youths at high risk for depression have been shown to have problems in repairing their own sad mood. Given that sympathetic arousal has been implicated both in the experience and regulation of affect, an atypical pattern of arousal may be one of the factors that contribute to mood repair problems. In the current study, we measured sympathetic arousal of never-depressed youths at high (n = 56) and low (n = 67) familial risk for depression during sad mood induction and instructed mood repair. Sympathetic arousal was indexed by skin conductance level (SCL) and cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP); mood repair outcome was indexed by self-rated affect. High-risk youths demonstrated increased SCL during sadness induction, which persisted during mood repair; low-risk youths evidenced increased SCL only during mood repair. Shortened PEP was evident only among high-risk youths and only during mood repair. Furthermore, shortened PEP during mood induction predicted less successful mood repair in the low-risk but not in the high-risk group. The findings suggest that: (a) depression-prone youths differ from control peers in patterns of sympathetic responses to emotional stimuli, which may impair their ability to relieve sadness, and (b) activation patterns differ across subsystems (SCL vs. PEP) of sympathetic activity, in conjunction with depression risk status.

Knowledge, Concerns, and Behaviors of Individuals During the First Week of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic in Italy

IMPORTANCE

At the beginning of a public health crisis, such as the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, it is important to collect information about people's knowledge, worries, and behaviors to examine their influence on quality of life and to understand individual characteristics associated with these reactions. Such information could help to guide health authorities in providing informed interventions and clear communications.

OBJECTIVES

To document the initial knowledge about COVID-19 and recommended health behaviors; to assess worries (ie, one's perception of the influence of the worries of others on oneself), social appraisal, and preventive behaviors, comparing respondents from areas under different movement restrictions during the first week after the outbreak; and to understand how worries, perceived risk, and preventive behaviors were associated with quality of life and individual characteristics among Italian adults.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This convenience sample, nonprobablistic survey study recruited adult participants with a snowballing sampling method in any Italian region during the first week of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy from February 26, 2020, to March 4, 2020. Data were analyzed from March 5 to 12, 2020.

EXPOSURES

Information was collected from citizens living in the quarantine zone (ie, red zone), area with restricted movements (ie, yellow zone), and COVID-19-free regions (ie, green zone).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Levels of knowledge on the virus, contagion-related worries, social appraisal, and preventive behaviors were assessed with ratings of quality of life (measured using the Short Form Health Survey). Additionally, some individual characteristics that may be associated with worries and behaviors were assessed, including demographic characteristics, personality traits (measured using Big Five Inventory-10), perceived health control (measured using the internal control measure in the Health Locus of Control scale), optimism (measured using the Revised Life Orientation Test), and the need for cognitive closure (measured using the Need for Closure Scale).

RESULTS

A total of 3109 individuals accessed the online questionnaire, and 2886 individuals responded to the questionnaire at least partially (mean [SD] age, 30.7 [13.2] years; 2203 [76.3%] women). Most participants were well informed about the virus characteristics and suggested behaviors, with a mean (SD) score of 77.4% (17.3%) correct answers. Quality of life was similar across the 3 zones (effect size = 0.02), but mental health was negatively associated with contagion-related worries (β = -0.066), social appraisal (β = -0.221), and preventive behaviors (β = -0.066) in the yellow zone (R2 = 0.108). Social appraisal was also associated with reduced psychological well-being in the green zone (β = -0.205; R2 = 0.121). In the yellow zone, higher worries were negatively correlated with emotional stability (β = -0.165; R2 = 0.047). Emotional stability was also negatively associated with perceived susceptibility in the yellow (β = -0.108; R2 = 0.040) and green (β = -0.170; R2 = 0.087) zones. Preventative behaviors and social appraisal were also associated with the need for cognitive closure in both yellow (preventive behavior: β = 0.110; R2 = 0.023; social appraisal β = 0.115; R2 = 0.104) and green (preventive behavior: β = 0.174; R2 = 0.022; social appraisal: 0.261; R2 = 0.137) zones.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

These findings suggest that during the first week of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, people were well informed and had a relatively stable level of worries. Quality of life did not vary across the areas, although mental well-being was challenged by the social appraisal and worries related to the contagion. Increased scores for worries and concerns were associated with more cognitive rigidity and emotional instability.

Childhood trauma and type D personality: The endocrine and cardiovascular effects on stress reactivity

Both exaggerated and blunted cardiovascular stress reactions are associated with health problems. Moreover, early life experiences and personality traits affect stress responses. Regarding the childhood traumas and type D personality, this study aimed to compare the endocrine and cardiovascular reactions against acute laboratory stress. Results showed that the simultaneous existence of childhood traumatic experiences and type D personality leads to exaggerated stress reactivity, while each factor results in a blunted cardiovascular response. Although the cardiovascular responses are dampened in type D personality people, their endocrine reactions are exaggerated. The underlying mechanisms of blunted cardiovascular reactivity differ between childhood trauma and type D personality groups.

Datasets for Cognitive Load Inference Using Wearable Sensors and Psychological Traits

This study introduces two datasets for multimodal research on cognitive load inference and personality traits. Different to other datasets in Affective Computing, which disregard participants’ personality traits or focus only on emotions, stress, or cognitive load from one specific task, the participants in our experiments performed seven different tasks in total. In the first dataset, 23 participants played a varying difficulty (easy, medium, and hard) game on a smartphone. In the second dataset, 23 participants performed six psychological tasks on a PC, again with varying difficulty. In both experiments, the participants filled personality trait questionnaires and marked their perceived cognitive load using NASA-TLX after each task. Additionally, the participants’ physiological response was recorded using a wrist device measuring heart rate, beat-to-beat intervals, galvanic skin response, skin temperature, and three-axis acceleration. The datasets allow multimodal study of physiological responses of individuals in relation to their personality and cognitive load. Various analyses of relationships between personality traits, subjective cognitive load (i.e., NASA-TLX), and objective cognitive load (i.e., task difficulty) are presented. Additionally, baseline machine learning models for recognizing task difficulty are presented, including a multitask learning (MTL) neural network that outperforms single-task neural network by simultaneously learning from the two datasets. The datasets are publicly available to advance the field of cognitive load inference using commercially available devices.

The developmental precursors of blunted cardiovascular responses to stress

Blunted cardiovascular responses to stress have been associated with both mental and physical health concerns. This multi-method, longitudinal study examined the role of chronic social-developmental stress from adolescence onward as a precursor to these blunted stress responses. Using a diverse community sample of 184 adolescents followed from age 13 to 29 along with friends and romantic partners, this study found that high levels of parental psychological control at age 13 directly predicted a blunted heart rate response and indirectly predicted blunted respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reactivity under stress. Heart rate effects were mediated via indicators of a developing passive response style, including observational measures of withdrawal during conflict with friends and romantic partners, social disengagement, and coping with stressors by using denial. RSA effects were mediated via withdrawal during conflict with romantic partners and coping by using denial. The current findings are interpreted as suggesting a mechanism by which a key social/developmental stressor in adolescence may alter relational and ultimately physiological patterns of stress responding into adulthood.

Association of self-esteem, personality, stress and gender with performance of a resuscitation team: A simulation-based study

Background

Gender composition, stress and leadership of a resuscitation team influence CPR performance. Whether psychological variables such as self-esteem, motivation and personality traits are associated with resuscitation performance, stress levels and gender of rescuers during a cardiac arrest scenario remains uncertain.

Methods

We included 108 medical students in this prospective, observational simulator study. We videotaped the resuscitation performance and assessed self-esteem, perceived stress-overload and personality traits using validated questionnaires. In addition, we analysed leadership utterances and ECG data of all participants during the simulation. The primary endpoint was cardiopulmonary resuscitation performance, defined as hands-on time within the first 180 sec. Secondary outcomes included first meaningful measure of resuscitation, leadership statements of group leaders and physiological stress parameters of rescuers.

Results

Adjusted for group size and leadership designation, mean self-esteem of students was significantly associated with hands-on time (adjusted regression coefficient 7.94 (95%CI 2.61 to 13.27), p<0.01). The personality trait conscientiousness was positively associated with hands-on time (adjusted regression coefficient 38.4, [95%CI 7.41 to 69.38, p = 0.02]). However, after additional adjustment for self-esteem, this association was no longer significant. Further, agreeableness of team leaders was significantly associated with longer hands-on time (adjusted regression coefficient 20.87 [95%CI 3.81 to 37.94], p = 0.02). Openness to experience was negatively associated with heart rate reactivity (-5.92 (95%CI -10 to -1.85), p<0.01). Male students showed significantly higher (mean, [±SD]) self-esteem levels (24.6 [±3.8] vs. 22.0 [±4.4], p<0.01), expressed significantly more leadership statements (7.9 [±7.8] vs. 4.6 [±3.8], p<0.01) and initiated first resuscitation measures more often (n, [%]) compared to female students (16, [23] vs. 7, [12], p = 0.01).

Conclusion

This simulator study found that self-esteem of resuscitation teams and agreeableness of team leaders of inexperienced students was associated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation performance. Whether enhancing these factors during resuscitation trainings serve for better performance remains to be studied.

Mindfulness-based resilience training for aggression, stress and health in law enforcement officers: study protocol for a multisite, randomized, single-blind clinical feasibility trial

BACKGROUND

Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to significant stressors, elevating their risk for aggression and excessive use of force, as well as mental health consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorder, burnout, alcohol misuse, depression, and suicide. Mindfulness training is a promising approach with high-stress populations that has been shown effective for increasing resilience and improving negative mental health outcomes common among LEOs.

METHOD

Implemented at two sites, the proposed study is designed to establish optimal protocols and procedures for a future full-scale, multisite trial assessing effects of mindfulness-based resilience training versus an attention control (stress management education) and a no-intervention control on physiological, behavioral, and psychological outcomes. To prepare for this future clinical trial, the current study is designed to: enhance efficiency of recruitment, engagement, and retention; optimize laboratory, assessment, and data management procedures; optimize intervention training and ensure fidelity to intervention protocols; and assess participant experience and optimize outcome measures across two sites. Herein, we describe the protocol and methodology of this multisite, randomized, single-blind clinical feasibility trial.

DISCUSSION

The long-term objective of this line of research is to develop an intervention that will reduce violence and increase resilience and mental health among LEOs, as well as yield significant benefits for the communities and residents they serve.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03784846. Registered on 24 December 2018.

Personality, cardiovascular, and cortisol reactions to acute psychological stress in the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study

Recent research has suggested that diminished, as well as elevated reactivity to acute psychological stress is maladaptive. These differences in stress reactions have been hypothesized to relate to the Big Five personality traits, which are said to be biologically-based and stable across adulthood; however, findings have been inconclusive. This study sought to replicate the findings of the largest study conducted to date (Bibbey et al., 2013), with a sample of participants from the Midlife in the United States Study (MIDUS), aged between 35 and 84 years (M = 56.33, SD = 10.87). Participants (N = 817) undertook a standardized, laboratory-based procedure during which their cardiovascular and neuroendocrine reactivity to acute stress was measured. In contrast to Bibbey et al. (2013), associations between neuroticism and blunted reactivity did not withstand adjustment for confounding variables. Further, following adjustment for multiple tests, no significant positive association between agreeableness and HR reactivity was observed. Methodological differences between the studies, which may account in part for the contrasting findings, are discussed. Further conceptual replication research is needed to clarify associations between the Big Five personality traits and stress reactivity, across the lifespan.

Alterations in heart-brain interactions under mild stress during a cognitive task are reflected in entropy of heart rate dynamics

Many people experience mild stress in modern society which raises the need for an improved understanding of psychophysiological responses to stressors. Heart rate variability (HRV) may be associated with a flexible network of intricate neural structures which are dynamically organized to cope with diverse challenges. HRV was obtained in thirty-three healthy participants performing a cognitive task both with and without added stressors. Markers of neural autonomic control and neurovisceral complexity (entropy) were computed from HRV time series. Based on individual anxiety responses to the experimental stressors, two subgroups were identified: anxiety responders and non-responders. While both vagal and entropy markers rose during the cognitive task alone in both subgroups, only entropy decreased when stressors were added and exclusively in anxiety responders. We conclude that entropy may be a promising marker of cognitive tasks and acute mild stress. It brings out a new central question: why is entropy the only marker affected by mild stress? Based on the neurovisceral integration model, we hypothesized that neurophysiological complexity may be altered by mild stress, which is reflected in entropy of the cardiac output signal. The putative role of the amygdala during mild stress, in modulating the complexity of a coordinated neural network linking brain to heart, is discussed.

Social-evaluative threat: Stress response stages and influences of biological sex and neuroticism

Social-evaluative threat (SET) - when the self could be negatively judged by others - can cause pronounced responses in the different stress systems: threat/challenge appraisal, the sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) nervous systems, experienced motivation and affect, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Here, we utilize a four-stage stress response model to shed light on the complex associations between different stress responses, where earlier stages are hypothesized to predict later stages. Additionally, we take into account important moderators, such as biological sex (controlling for menstrual cycle phase), personality traits (neuroticism and extraversion), and baseline stress levels. Thirty-seven men and 30 women in their luteal phase participated in an impromptu public speaking task to induce SET. Stress responses in four different stages were measured using: self-reported appraisal (threat or challenge, stage 1: S1), cardiovascular measures (pre-ejection period as SNS index, respiratory sinus arrhythmia as PNS index, S2), self-reported motivation and affect (state approach motivation, state anxiety, S3) and endocrine measures (cortisol as HPA index, S4). Stress reactivity was calculated by subtracting individual peaks from baseline. Results showed that SET induced pronounced stress reactivity in stages two to four. Against expectations, self-reported appraisal (S1) or motivation and affect (S3) did not predict later stress reactivity. As hypothesized, increased SNS (but not PNS) reactivity (S2) predicted increased HPA reactivity (S4). Bayesian model comparison confirmed the absence of sex differences in stress reactivity, likely due to controlling for menstrual cycle phase and sex differences in neuroticism levels. Higher trait neuroticism predicted blunted SNS (S2) and HPA (S4) reactivity, while higher baseline stress levels predicted blunted stages two and three reactivity overall. In conclusion, this rigorously controlled experiment partly supports and partly contradicts previous findings regarding associations between stress response stages, and offers new insight into the causes of blunted HPA responses in women.

Associations between heart rate, perceived heart rate, and anxiety during acute psychological stress

Background: Acute psychological stress elicits increases in heart rate (HR) and anxiety. Theories propose associations between HR, perceived HR, and anxiety during stress. However, anxiety is often measured as a unidimensional construct which limits a comprehensive understanding of these relationships. Objectives: This research explored whether HR reactivity or perceived HR change was more closely associated with cognitive and somatic anxiety during acute psychological stress. Design: Two laboratory-based studies were conducted. Methods: In a single laboratory session, healthy male (N = 71; study 1) and female (N = 70; study 2) university students completed three laboratory psychological stress tasks (counterbalanced), each with a preceding baseline. Heart rate, perceived HR change, and cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity and interpretation of anxiety symptoms were assessed immediately following each task. Data were aggregated across tasks. Results: Actual HR change was unrelated to anxiety intensity, but was associated with more debilitative interpretations of anxiety (study 2). Perceptions of HR change were consistently associated with greater intensity of cognitive (study 1) and somatic (study 1 and 2) anxiety. Conclusions: Perceived HR rather than actual HR is more closely associated with anxiety intensity during psychological stress. The findings have implications for stress management and the clinical treatment of anxiety symptoms.

The creative thinking cognitive process influenced by acute stress in humans: an electroencephalography study

This study examined the underlying neural mechanism of acute stress affecting creative thinking. Twenty-six male participants underwent the Alternative Uses Test before and after acute stress test (Montreal Imaging Stress Task). Compared to before stress, stressed participants responded with higher salivary cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase. The electroencephalogram results indicated a general decrease in upper-frequency alpha power after stress, compared with that of before stress. The decrease in upper-frequency alpha power observed in the first stage after exposure to stress was related to memory and attention. Additionally, stress also reduced the differences between individuals with different creative abilities. In summary, these findings indicated that acute stress impaired creative thinking and primarily affected the earlier phase of the process of creative cognition. This study provides some practical implications for educational practice and corporate innovation in that a more relaxed environment promotes creative output. Lay Summary Acute stress impaired creative thinking performance and mainly affects the earlier phase of the process of creative cognition. Additionally, stress seems to reduce the differences between individuals with different creative abilities.

Extraversion modulates cortisol responses to acute social stress in chronic major depression

BACKGROUND

Chronic Major Depressive Disorder (CMDD) is a common, disabling illness that is often complicated by high reactivity to social stress. To further elucidate the nature of this reactivity, the current study evaluated whether the personality dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion influenced cortisol responses to a social challenge in CMDD patients vs. controls.

METHODS

Fifty participants with CMDD and 58 healthy controls completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) using a standard protocol. Neuroticism and extraversion were measured using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Hierarchical linear regressions assessed associations between independent variables neuroticism and extraversion and dependent variable cortisol area-under-the-curve increase (AUCi) in response to the TSST in the two study groups.

RESULTS

The extraversion-by-group interaction was a significant predictor of cortisol AUCi, while no significant findings related to neuroticism were found. Simple slopes analysis revealed a significant negative association between extraversion and AUCi in the CMDD group, but not in healthy controls. Post-hoc analysis of the raw cortisol data over time found that CMDD participants with higher extraversion scores had significantly higher pre-challenge cortisol levels than did other study participants, however this did not explain or confound the AUCi results.

CONCLUSIONS

In participants with CMDD but not in controls, higher levels of extraversion were associated with higher pre-challenge cortisol levels and decreased cortisol reactivity during the TSST, however these two findings were statistically independent. These findings underline the importance of considering personality factors when studying stress biology in CMDD patients. Extraversion may prove to be an important intermediate target for both research and clinical work in this complex, heterogenous and often treatment-resistant population.

Facets of openness to experience are associated with cardiovascular reactivity and adaptation across both active and passive stress exposures

Research suggests the personality trait of Openness to Experience is associated with cardiovascular stress processes. It is unknown if the underlying facets of Openness are associated with cardiovascular responsivity, and whether adaptation is evident across active and passive stress. The objective of this study was to determine if the facets of Openness are related to cardiovascular reactivity and adaptation across active and passive stress exposures. Personality measures and continuous cardiovascular data from sixty-six female adults across a protocol of active and passive stress tasks were collated. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the facet of Feelings was associated with systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity to active stress. Examination of cardiovascular adaption revealed that the facet of Feelings was positively associated with SBP and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) adaptation, whereas the facet of Actions demonstrated a negative association. Supplementary analyses revealed the significant effects for Feelings were not reliant on the remaining Openness facets, whereas the significant effects for Actions were. No significant effects emerged for the higher-order trait of Openness. These findings suggest that the underlying facet of Feelings is associated with active stress reactivity, with the facets of Feelings and Actions appearing to be of importance to cardiovascular adaptation. This study is the first to demonstrate personality effects on cardiovascular adaptation across active and passive stress. Attending to the facets of personality traits may provide a more precise understanding of the personality effects on cardiovascular stress psychophysiology.

Personality, depression and anxiety in primary Sjogren's syndrome - Association with sociodemographic factors and comorbidity

Objective

Patients with primary Sjögren’s Syndrome (pSS) have diminished health quality and fatigue, arthralgia along with dryness of the mouth and eyes have major impact on their psychological and social aspects of life. The purpose of this study was to determine psychological features of patients with pSS. We analyzed personality, depression and anxiety of patients with primary Sjögren’s Syndrome (pSS) in comparison with patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and healthy controls (HC) and assessed their association with sociodemographic factors and comorbidity.

Methods

In 105 pSS patients (mean age 51.34 years, mean disease duration 5.98 years), 52 RA patients (mean age 51.37 years, mean disease duration 8.10 years) and 54 HC (mean age 51.35 years) clinical and sociodemographic characteristics were determined and results analyzed. At enrollment patients and controls completed the Revisited NEO Personality Inventory Five-Factor model (NEO-PI-R), the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale and the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS [Version 16.0]. The relative size of the effect was assessed based on standardized estimates of effect size (d).

Results

Patients with pSS, similarly to RA patients had higher scores of Neuroticism (d = 0.46, p = 0.007) and lower scores of Extraversion (d = 0.51, p = 0.001) and Openness for experience (d = 0.65, p = 0.013) compared to HC. There was no significant differences between pSS group and HC in the depression (d = 0.171, p>0.05). However, patients with pSS had higher anxiety in comparison to HC (p<0.0001). In multivariate models, education and satisfaction with family relationships were significant predictors for psychological characteristics of patients, independently of clinical diagnosis.

Conclusions

Our study is the first to show that patients with pSS scored high on neuroticism and anxiety and low on sociability. Education and satisfaction with family relationships predisposed to their psychological profile. Psychological assessment of patients with pSS may improve understanding and treatment of this clinical condition.

Relationship between Personality and Biological Reactivity to Stress: A Review

Objective Personality traits can be the basis for individual differences in the biological response of stress. To date, many psychobiological studies have been conducted to clarify the relationship between personality and biological reactivity to stress. This review summarizes the most important findings in this area of research. Results Key findings related to the relationship between personality factors and stress-sensitive biological systems in four research models have been summarized; model of psychosocial characteristics, model based on Rumination and Emotional Inhibition, Eysenck's biopsychological model, and Five-Factor Approach of Personality. Conclusion According to the results of this review, it can be concluded that personality typology of individuals influenced their biological reactivity to stressful events. Understanding the biological basis of personality can help to better understand vulnerability to stress. Future research can be continuing based on framework of the four models.

Influence of Regular Physical Activity and Fitness on Stress Reactivity as Measured with the Trier Social Stress Test Protocol: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Psychosocial stress is associated with multiple health complaints. Research to date suggests that regular physical activity (PA) and higher cardiorespiratory fitness may reduce stress reactivity and therefore contribute to a reduction of stress-related risk factors. While previous reviews have not differentiated between stressors, we focus on psychosocial stress elicited with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST).

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to examine the effect of regular PA and cardiorespiratory fitness on stress reactivity, with a particular focus on the TSST. The TSST is the laboratory task most widely used to induce socio-evaluative stress and elicits stronger stress reactions than most other cognitive stressor tasks.

METHODS

A systematic search within various databases was performed in January 2018. The following outcomes were considered: cortisol, heart rate, psychological stress reactivity, and potential moderators (age, sex, exercise intensity, assessment mode, and psychological constructs).

RESULTS

In total, 14 eligible studies were identified. Cortisol and heart rate reactivity were attenuated by higher PA or better fitness in seven of twelve studies and four of nine studies, respectively. Two of four studies reported smaller increases in anxiety and smaller decreases in calmness in physically active/fitter participants. Three of four studies found that higher PA/fitness was associated with more favorable mood in response to the TSST.

CONCLUSION

About half of the studies suggested that higher PA/fitness levels were associated with an attenuated response to psychosocial stress. Currently, most evidence is based on cross-sectional analyses. Therefore, a great need for further studies with longitudinal or experimental designs exists.

History of Preeclampsia Adds to the Deleterious Effect of Chronic Stress on the Cardiac Ability to Flexibly Adapt to Challenge

Preeclampsia, a pregnancy-specific disorder, presents a major health problem during gestation, but is also associated with increased risk for cardiovascular complications in later life. We aimed to investigate whether chronic stress experience and preeclampsia may have additive adverse effects on the cardiac ability to flexibly adapt to challenge, that is, to mount an appropriately vigorous heart rate response to an acute psychological challenge, or whether they may perhaps have synergistic effects (e.g., mutual augmentation of effects). Blunted cardiac responding to challenge has been linked to poor health outcomes in the longer term. Women previously affected by preeclampsia and women after uncomplicated pregnancies were tested 15-17 weeks post-partum in a standardized stress-reactivity protocol, while cardiovascular variables were simultaneously recorded. Changes in heart rate and blood pressure in response to the stressor were analyzed with regard to the effects of history of preeclampsia and chronic stress experience. Findings indicated blunted cardiac responses in women with higher chronic stress experience (p = 0.020) and, independently from that, in women with a history of preeclampsia (p = 0.018), pointing to an additive nature of the effects of preeclampsia and chronic stress on impaired cardiovascular functioning. Consequently, if both are present, a history of preeclampsia may add to the already deleterious effects of the experience of chronic stress. The additive nature of the effects suggests that stress-reducing interventions, albeit they will not eliminate the heightened cardiovascular risk in patients with a history of preeclampsia, may improve their overall prognosis by avoiding further accumulation of risk.

Openness to experience and stress responsivity: An examination of cardiovascular and underlying hemodynamic trajectories within an acute stress exposure

The personality trait openness to experience has been implicated in health, and in particular cardiovascular wellbeing. In a sample of 62 healthy young female adults, the role of openness in cardiovascular responsivity during a stress exposure was examined. Traditionally, methodologies have averaged a stress exposure into a single reading. This may be limited in that it does not consider patterns of cardiovascular adaptation within a stress exposure. Continuous cardiovascular data were reduced to mean 10 second readings, with phases determined through examinations of shifts in responsivity between each 10 second pairing. Analyses revealed a significant linear interaction for openness across the entire exposure for systolic blood pressure, and cardiac output. A significant between-subjects effect for heart rate also emerged. Contrary to their lower counterparts, those highest in openness exhibited an increasingly myocardial hemodynamic response profile throughout the exposure. Comparisons of responsivity suggests adaptive stress response trajectories for those highest in openness. This study also provides evidence that an attenuation of myocardial responsivity may underpin blunted responsivity. This study provides a potential mechanism in reported openness-health associations.

The cortisol reactivity threshold model: Direction of trait rumination and cortisol reactivity association varies with stressor severity

Various internalizing risk factors predict, in separate studies, both augmented and reduced cortisol responding to lab-induced stress. Stressor severity appears key: We tested whether heightened trait-like internalizing risk (here, trait rumination) predicts heightened cortisol reactivity under modest objective stress, but conversely predicts reduced reactivity under more robust objective stress. Thus, we hypothesized that trait rumination would interact with a curvilinear (quadratic) function of stress severity to predict cortisol reactivity. Evidence comes from 85 currently non-depressed emerging adults who completed either a non-stressful control protocol (n = 29), an intermediate difficulty Trier Social Stress Test (TSST; n = 26), or a robustly stressful negative evaluative TSST (n = 30). Latent growth curve models evaluated relationships between trait rumination and linear and quadratic effects of stressor severity on the change in cortisol and negative affect over time. Among other findings, a significant Trait Rumination x Quadratic Stress Severity interaction effect for cortisol's Quadratic Trend of Time (i.e., reactivity, B = .125, p = .017) supported the hypothesis. Rumination predicted greater cortisol reactivity to intermediate stress (r_p = .400, p = .043), but blunted reactivity to more robust negative evaluative stress (r_p = -0.379, p = 0.039). Contrasting hypotheses, negative affective reactivity increased independently of rumination as stressor severity increased (B = .453, p = 0.044). The direction of the relationship between an internalizing risk factor (trait rumination) and cortisol reactivity varies as a function of stressor severity. We propose the Cortisol Reactivity Threshold Model, which may help reconcile several divergent reactivity literatures and has implications for internalizing psychopathology, particularly depression.

Mindfulness-based resilience training to reduce health risk, stress reactivity, and aggression among law enforcement officers: A feasibility and preliminary efficacy trial

The primary objective of this study was to assess feasibility and gather preliminary outcome data on Mindfulness-Based Resilience Training (MBRT) for law enforcement officers. Participants (n = 61) were randomized to either an 8-week MBRT course or a no intervention control group. Self-report and physiological data were collected at baseline, post-training, and three months following intervention completion. Attendance, adherence, post-training participant feedback, and interventionist fidelity to protocol all demonstrated feasibility of MBRT for law enforcement officers. Compared to no intervention controls, MBRT participants experienced greater reductions in salivary cortisol, self-reported aggression, organizational stress, burnout, sleep disturbance, and reported increases in psychological flexibility and non-reactivity at post-training; however, group differences were not maintained at three-month follow-up. This initial randomized trial suggests MBRT is a feasible intervention. Outcome data suggest MBRT targets key physiological, psychological, and health risk factors in law enforcement officers, consistent with the potential to improve officer health and public safety. However, follow-up training or "booster" sessions may be needed to maintain training gains. A fully powered longitudinal randomized trial is warranted.

Salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol responsiveness to stress in first episode, drug-naïve patients with panic disorder

Reported findings on reactivity to stress of the sympathetic-adreno-medullar (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) systems in panic disorder (PD) are very variable. This inconsistency may be explained by differences in treatment exposure, illness duration and emotion regulation strategies. The present study examined the reactivity to mental stress of the SAM and HPA axes in a sample of first episode, drug naïve patients with PD which avoids confounds of medications exposure and illness chronicity. Activation of the SAM axis was evaluated by dosage of salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) and heart rate. Activation of the HPA axis was tested by dosage of salivary cortisol. Psychological assessments were done by the Self-Rating Depression Scale, the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Cope Orientation to Problems Experienced (COPE) Inventory and the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). Patients showed reduced sAA stress reactivity, higher baseline cortisol levels and a more rapid decrease in stress cortisol levels as compared with controls. A significant correlation was found between active coping strategies and cortisol levels (response to stress). The findings suggest that blunted SAM stress reactivity and a rapid decrease in stress cortisol levels reflect traits that may enhance vulnerability to psychopathology in patients with PD.

Effect of examination stress on intraocular pressure in university students

Intraocular pressure (IOP) has been investigated as a possible objective index of mental stressors. Here, we assessed the effect of examination stress on IOP in 33 university students. A repeated-measures design was used with two experimental conditions (examination and control) and two points of measurements (pre- and post-sessions). Also, the cardiovascular response, subjective perceived stress, as well as calculated ocular perfusion pressure and blood-pulse pressure were determined. A Bayesian statistical analysis showed higher IOP values in the examination in comparison to the control condition (BF₀₁ < 0.001). A similar pattern was found for the cardiovascular indices (diastolic and systolic blood pressure, and heart rate), and these findings were corroborated by subjective reports (BF₀₁ < 0.001 in all cases). Our data incorporates evidence in relation to the utility of IOP as an objective marker of examination stress, and it may help in the assessment and management of stress in applied scenarios.

The relationship between personality and the response to acute psychological stress

The present study examined the relationship between personality traits and the response to acute psychological stress induced by a standardized laboratory stress induction procedure (the Trier Social Stress Test, TSST). The stress response was measured with a combination of cardiovascular reactivity, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity, and subjective affect (including positive affect, negative affect and subjective controllability) in healthy individuals. The Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) approach was applied to account for the relationship between personality traits and stress responses. Results suggested that higher neuroticism predicted lower heart rate stress reactivity, lower cortisol stress response, more decline of positive affect and lower subjective controllability. Individuals higher in extraversion showed smaller cortisol activation to stress and less increase of negative affect. In addition, higher openness score was associated with lower cortisol stress response. These findings elucidate that neuroticism, extraversion and openness are important variables associated with the stress response and different dimensions of personality trait are associated with different aspects of the stress response.

Conscientiousness, hair cortisol concentration, and health behaviour in older men and women

Conscientious is associated with greater longevity and other favourable health outcomes, but the processes underlying these links are poorly understood. Health behaviours such as physical activity and avoidance of smoking and excessive alcohol consumption may contribute, but direct associations with neuroendocrine and inflammatory processes may also be relevant. We tested the associations between conscientiousness and hair cortisol concentration in 2318 older men and women (mean age 66.2 years) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Conscientiousness was positively associated with physical activity and fruit and vegetable consumption, and negatively related to alcohol intake, sedentary behaviour, body mass index and depressive symptoms (all p<0.001). We found an inverse association between conscientiousness and hair cortisol concentration that was independent of age, sex, education and wealth (β=-0.053, p=0.012), and the relationship remained significant with additional adjustment for health behaviour and depressive symptoms (β=-0.048, p=0.025). The observation that greater conscientiousness was correlated with lower hair cortisol indicates that this trait might impact central nervous regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical function, with effects that are possibly advantageous for health.

An introduction to the 'Psycho-Physiological-Stress-Test' (PPST)-A standardized instrument for evaluating stress reactions

Using a standardized instrument to evaluate patients' stress reactions has become more important in daily clinical routines. Different signs or symptoms of stress are often unilaterally explored: the physiological, psychological or social aspects of stress disorders are each viewed on a single dimension. However, all dimensions afflict patients who have persistent health problems due to chronic stress. Therefore, it is important to use a multidimensional approach to acquire data. The 'Psycho-Physiological-Stress-Test' (PPST) was established to achieve a comprehensive understanding of stress and was further developed at the Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin in collaboration with the Psychological Department of Freie Universität Berlin. The PPST includes a series of varying stress phases, embedded in two periods of rest. Physiological and psychological parameters are simultaneously measured throughout the test session. Specifically, the PPST activates the sympathetic stress axis, which is measured by heart rate, blood pressure, respiration depth and rate, electro dermal activation and muscle tension (frontalis, masseter, trapezius). Psychological data are simultaneously collected, and include performance, motivation, emotion and behavior. After conducting this diagnostic test, it is possible to identify individual stress patterns that can be discussed with the individual patient to develop and recommend (outpatient) treatment strategies. This paper introduces the PPST as a standardized way to evaluate stress reactions by presenting the results from a sample of psychosomatic inpatients (n = 139) who were treated in Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany. We observed that the varying testing conditions provoked adjusted changes in the different physiological parameters and psychological levels.

Openness to experience and adapting to change: Cardiovascular stress habituation to change in acute stress exposure

Underlying psychophysiological mechanisms of effect linking openness to experience to health outcomes, and particularly cardiovascular well-being, are unknown. This study examined the role of openness in the context of cardiovascular responsivity to acute psychological stress. Continuous cardiovascular response data were collected for 74 healthy young female adults across an experimental protocol, including differing counterbalanced acute stressors. Openness was measured via self-report questionnaire. Analysis of covariance revealed openness was associated with systolic blood pressure (SBP; p = .016), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP; p = .036) responsivity across the protocol. Openness was also associated with heart rate (HR) responding to the initial stress exposure (p = .044). Examination of cardiovascular adaptation revealed that higher openness was associated with significant SBP (p = .001), DBP (p = .009), and HR (p = .002) habituation in response to the second differing acute stress exposure. Taken together, the findings suggest persons higher in openness are characterized by an adaptive cardiovascular stress response profile within the context of changing acute stress exposures. This study is also the first to demonstrate individual differences in cardiovascular adaptation across a protocol consisting of differing stress exposures. More broadly, this research also suggests that future research may benefit from conceptualizing an adaptive fitness of openness within the context of change. In summary, the present study provides evidence that higher openness stimulates short-term stress responsivity, while ensuring cardiovascular habituation to change in stress across time.

MicroRNAs in Psychological Stress Reactions and Their Use as Stress-Associated Biomarkers, Especially in Human Saliva

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a central role in the regulation of many cellular processes including physiological and psychological stress reaction pathways. Psychological stress is an important factor for the genesis and maintenance of many diseases. Several miRNAs have already been described to be involved in its regulation. The presence of miRNAs in all body fluids implies a widespread role in communication throughout the whole organism and together with their stability makes them formidable candidates as biomarkers. Alterations of stress-associated miRNA expression levels have been found in the brain and whole blood of humans and animals. In this paper, we review the participation of miRNAs in stress-reactive processes as well as their usability as salivary biomarkers of such processes. In conclusion, we suggest that salivary miRNAs may be useful as noninvasive biomarkers to assess epigenetic regulation processes of chronic or acute psychological stress reactions.

Thumbs up or thumbs down? Effects of neuroticism and depressive symptoms on psychophysiological responses to social evaluation in healthy students

The effects of neuroticism and depressive symptoms on psychophysiological responses in a social judgment task were examined in a sample of 101 healthy young adults. Participants performed a social judgment task in which they had to predict whether or not a virtual peer presented on a computer screen liked them. After the prediction, the actual judgment was shown, and behavioral, electrocortical, and cardiac responses to this judgment were measured. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) was largest after unexpected feedback. The largest P3 was found after the expected “like” judgments, and cardiac deceleration was largest following unexpected “do not like” judgments. Both the P3 and cardiac deceleration were affected by gender—that is, only males showed differential P3 responses to social judgments, and males showed stronger cardiac decelerations. Time–frequency analyses were performed to explore theta and delta oscillations. Theta oscillations were largest following unexpected outcomes and correlated with FRN amplitudes. Delta oscillations were largest following expected “like” judgments and correlated with P3 amplitudes. Self-reported trait neuroticism was significantly related to social evaluative predictions and cardiac reactivity to social feedback, but not to the electrocortical responses. That is, higher neuroticism scores were associated with a more negative prediction bias and with smaller cardiac responses to judgments for which a positive outcome was predicted. Depressive symptoms did not affect the behavioral and psychophysiological responses in this study. The results confirmed the differential sensitivities of various outcome measures to different psychological processes, but the found individual differences could only partly be ascribed to the collected subjective measures.

Psychophysiological and self-reported reactivity associated with social anxiety and public speaking fear symptoms: Effects of fear versus distress

This study examines psychophysiological and subjective reactivity to anxiety-provoking situations in relation to social anxiety and public speaking fear. We hypothesized that social anxiety symptoms would be associated with similar reactivity across types of imaginary anxiety scenes and not specifically to social anxiety-related scenes. This would be attributed to co-existing depression symptoms. Public speaking fear was expected to be associated with more circumscribed reactivity to survival-threat scenes, due to its association with fearfulness. Community participants imagined standardized anxiety situations, including social anxiety and animal fear scenes, while their physiological reactivity and self-reported emotions were assessed. Findings supported that social anxiety was associated with undifferentiated physiological reactivity across anxiety-provoking situations, except with regards to skin conductance level, which was higher during social anxiety imagery. Public speaking fear was associated with increased reactivity to animal phobia and panic scenes. Covariance analyses indicated that the lack of response specificity associated with social anxiety could be attributed to depression levels, while the specificity associated with public speaking fear could be explained by fearfulness. Findings highlight the need to assess not only primary anxiety symptoms but also depression and fearfulness, which likely predict discrepant reactions of individuals to anxiogenic situations.

The behavioural, cognitive, and neural corollaries of blunted cardiovascular and cortisol reactions to acute psychological stress

Recent research shows that blunted cardiovascular and cortisol reactions to acute psychological stress are associated with adverse behavioural and health outcomes: depression, obesity, bulimia, and addictions. These outcomes may reflect suboptimal functioning of the brain's fronto-limbic systems that are needed to regulate motivated behaviour in the face of challenge. In support of this, brain imaging data demonstrate fronto-limbic hypoactivation during acute stress exposure. Those demonstrating blunted reactions also show impairments of motivation, including lower cognitive ability, more rapid cognitive decline, and poorer performance on motivation-dependent tests of lung function. Persons exhibiting blunted stress reactivity display well established temperament characteristics, including neuroticism and impulsivity, characteristic of various behavioural disorders. Notably, the outcomes related to blunted stress reactivity are similar to those that define Reward Deficiency Syndrome. Accordingly, some individuals may be characterised by a broad failure in cardiovascular and cortisol responding to both stress and reward, reflecting fronto-limbic dysregulation. Finally, we proffer a model of blunted stress reactivity, its antecedents and sequelae, and identify future research priorities.

The burden of conscientiousness? Examining brain activation and cortisol response during social evaluative stress

Although conscientiousness has for a long time been considered generally adaptive, there are findings challenging this view, suggesting that conscientiousness might be less advantageous during uncontrollable stress. We here examined the impact of conscientiousness on brain activation during and the cortisol response following an uncontrollable social evaluative stress task in order to test this hypothesis. Brain activation and cortisol levels were measured during an fMRI stress task, where subjects (n=86) performed cognitive tasks containing preprogrammed failure under time pressure, while being monitored by a panel of experts inducing social-evaluative threat. The degree of conscientiousness was measured using the NEO-FFI. We observed a positive correlation between conscientiousness and salivary cortisol levels in response to the stressful task in male subjects only. In male subjects conscientiousness correlated positively with activation in right amygdala and left insula, and, moreover, mediated the influence of amygdala and insula activation on cortisol output. This pattern of brain activation can be interpreted as a disadvantageous response to uncontrollable stress to which highly conscientious individuals might be predisposed. This is the first study showing the effect of conscientiousness on physiology and brain activation to an uncontrollable psychosocial stressor. Our results provide neurobiological evidence for the hypothesis that conscientiousness should not just be seen as beneficial, but rather as a trait associated with either costs or benefits depending on the extent to which one is in control of the situation.

Effects of coping flexibility on cardiovascular reactivity to task difficulty

OBJECTIVE

Coping flexibility refers to an individual's ability to effectively modify his or her coping behavior to better fit the nature of each stressful situation they encounter. More flexible coping is believed to produce more adaptive psychological functioning and physical health.

METHODS

We examined the relationship between coping flexibility and cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to psychological stress. Challenging tasks of two difficulty levels were presented to 24 men and 24 women aged 18 to 24years. Heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure were measured.

RESULTS

Change scores (from baseline to reactivity) for SBP and HR responses in the difficult task were higher than those in the easy task and were negatively correlated with coping flexibility during the difficult task but not the easy one.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that more flexible coping is associated with reduced CVR to a difficult task.