Estimation of intake and uptake of bisphenols and triclosan from personal care products by dermal contact

Urinary triclosan in south China adults and implications for human exposure

Triclosan (TCS) is widely applied in personal care products (PCPs) as an antimicrobial preservative. Due to its toxicity and potential risk to human health, TCS has attracted mounting concerns in recent years. However, biomonitoring of TCS in large human populations remains limited in China. In this study, 1163 adults in South China were recruited and urinary TCS concentrations were determined. TCS was detected in 99.5% of urine samples, indicating broad exposure in the study population. Urinary concentrations of TCS ranged from below the limit of detection (LOD) to 270 μg/L, with a median value of 3.67 μg/L. Urinary TCS concentrations from individuals were all lower than the Biomonitoring Equivalents reference dose, suggesting relatively low health risk in the participants. TCS concentrations did not differ significantly between sexes or education levels (p > 0.05). Nevertheless, marital status and age were found to be positively influence TCS levels (p < 0.001). After adjustment for body mass index (BMI), age was determined to be positively associated with TCS concentrations (p < 0.05), particularly in the age group from 31 to 51 years old. This study provides a baseline of urinary TCS exposure in South China general adult populations.

Recent Advances in Sample Preparation for Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Analysis

The use of cosmetics and personal care products is increasing worldwide. Their high matrix complexity, together with the wide range of products currently marketed under different forms imply a challenge for their analysis, most of them requiring a sample pre-treatment step before analysis. Classical sample preparation methodologies involve large amounts of organic solvents as well as multiple steps resulting in large time consumption. Therefore, in recent years, the trends have been moved towards the development of simple, sustainable, and environmentally friendly methodologies in two ways: (i) the miniaturization of conventional procedures allowing a reduction in the consumption of solvents and reagents; and (ii) the development and application of sorbent- and liquid-based microextraction technologies to obtain a high analyte enrichment, avoiding or significantly reducing the use of organic solvents. This review provides an overview of analytical methodology during the last ten years, placing special emphasis on sample preparation to analyse cosmetics and personal care products. The use of liquid–liquid and solid–liquid extraction (LLE, SLE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), solid-phase extraction (SPE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), matrix solid-phase extraction (MSPD), and liquid- and sorbent-based microextraction techniques will be reviewed. The most recent advances and future trends including the development of new materials and green solvents will be also addressed.

Investigation of endocrine disruptor pollutants and their metabolites along the Romanian Black Sea Coast: Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment

In recent years, the occurrence of organic UV-filters (UVFs) and bisphenol derivatives (BPs) in the marine environment has raised high concerns all over the world, due to the potentially adverse impacts on marine organism and, indirectly on human health. This paper reports, for the first time in Romania, the occurrence, distribution pattern and environmental risk assessment of UVFs, BPs and their metabolites in seawater, sediment and algae collected from the Romania Black Sea coastal region. BP-3 (2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzophenone) was the most abundant contaminant in seawater samples, with detection frequency of 100 %. Sediment samples were dominated by ES (Ethylhexyl salicylate), with concentration values up to 5823 ng/g d.w., while for algae, concentrations of several hundreds of ng/g d.w. were determined for BP-3, BS (Benzyl salicylate) and BPE (Bisphenol E). Environmental risk assessment revealed that some UVFs and BPs detected in seawater samples were hazardous to the marine organism of the Black Sea.

Exposure to environmental phenols and parabens, and relation to body mass index, eczema and respiratory outcomes in the Norwegian RHINESSA study

BACKGROUND

Many phenols and parabens are applied in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food, to prevent growth of bacteria and fungi. Whether these chemicals affect inflammatory diseases like allergies and overweight is largely unexplored. We aimed to assess the associations of use of personal care products with urine biomarkers levels of phenols and paraben exposure, and whether urine levels (reflecting body burden of this chemical exposures) are associated with eczema, rhinitis, asthma, specific IgE and body mass index.

METHODS

Demographics, clinical variables, and self-report of personal care products use along with urine samples were collected concurrently from 496 adults (48% females, median age: 28 years) and 90 adolescents (10-17 years of age) from the RHINESSA study in Bergen, Norway. Urine biomarkers of triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), parabens and benzophenone-3, bisphenols and dichlorophenols (DCP) were quantified by mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Detection of the urine biomarkers varied according to chemical type and demographics. TCC was detected in 5% of adults and in 45% of adolescents, while propyl (PPB) and methyl (MPB) parabens were detected in 95% of adults and in 94% (PPB) and 99% (MPB) of adolescents. Women had higher median urine concentrations of phenolic chemicals and reported a higher frequency of use of personal care products than men. Urine concentration of MPB increased in a dose-dependent manner with increased frequency of use of several cosmetic products. Overall, urinary biomarker levels of parabens were lower in those with current eczema. The biomarker concentrations of bisphenol S was higher in participants with positive specific IgE and females with current asthma, but did not differ by eczema or rhinitis status. MPB, ethylparaben (EPB), 2,4-DCP and TCS were inversely related to BMI in adults; interaction by gender were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Reported frequency of use of personal care products correlated very well with urine biomarker levels of paraben and phenols. Several chemicals were inversley related to BMI, and lower levels of parabens was observed for participants with current eczema. There is a need for further studies of health effects of chemicals from personal care products, in particular in longitudinally designed studies.

Controversy around parabens: Alternative strategies for preservative use in cosmetics and personal care products

Parabens usage as preservatives in cosmetics and personal care products have been debated among scientists and consumers. Parabens are easy to production, effective and cheap, but its safety status remains controversial. Other popular cosmetics preservatives are formaldehyde, triclosan, methylisothiazolinone, methylchloroisothiazolinone, phenoxyethanol, benzyl alcohol and sodium benzoate. Although their high antimicrobial effectiveness, they also exhibit some adverse health effects. Lately, scientists have shown that natural substances such as essential oils and plant extracts present antimicrobial potential. However, their use in cosmetic is a challenge. The present review article is a comprehensive summary of the available methods to prevent microbial contamination of cosmetics and personal care products, which can allow reducing the use of parabens in these products.

Analytical methods for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and personal care products: A review

Personal care products (PCPs) and cosmetics are indispensable product in our daily routine. Their widespread use makes them a potential route of exposure for certain contaminants to which human would not be normally exposed. One of these contaminants includes endocrine disrupting chemicals, molecules capable of mimicking the body's natural hormones and interfering with the endocrine system. Some of them are ingredients included in the product's formulation, such as UV-filters (sunscreens), phthalates (plasticizers and preservatives), synthetic musks (fragrances), parabens and other antimicrobial agents (antimicrobial preservatives). Others are non-intended added substances that may result from the manufacturing process or migration from the plastic packaging, as with bisphenols and perfluorinated compounds. Some of these endocrine disruptors have been restricted or even banned in cosmetics and PCPs given the high risk they pose to health. Thus, the development of fast, sensitive and precise methods for the identification and quantification of these compounds in cosmetics is a substantial need in order to ensure consumer safety and provide insight into the real risk of human exposure. The present work aims at reviewing the more recently developed analytical methods published in the literature for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and PCPs using chromatographic techniques, with a focus on sample treatment and the quality of analytical parameters.

Maternal bisphenol urine concentrations, fetal growth and adverse birth outcomes: A population-based prospective cohort

BACKGROUND

Exposure to bisphenols may affect fetal growth and development. The trimester-specific effects of bisphenols on repeated measures of fetal growth remain unknown. Our objective was to assess the associations of maternal bisphenol urine concentrations with fetal growth measures and birth outcomes and identify potential critical exposure periods.

METHODS

In a population-based prospective cohort study among 1379 pregnant women, we measured maternal bisphenol A, S and F urine concentrations in the first, second and third trimester. Fetal head circumference, length and weight were measured in the second and third trimester by ultrasound and at birth.

RESULTS

An interquartile range increase in maternal pregnancy-averaged bisphenol S concentrations was associated with larger fetal head circumference (difference 0.18 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.01 to 0.34) standard deviation scores (SDS), p-value< 0.05) across pregnancy. When focusing on specific critical exposure periods, any detection of first trimester bisphenol S was associated with larger second and third trimester fetal head circumference (difference 0.15 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.26) and 0.12 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.23) SDS, respectively) and fetal weight (difference 0.12 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.22) and 0.16 (95% CI 0.06 to 0.26) SDS, respectively). The other bisphenols were not consistently associated with fetal growth outcomes. Any detection of bisphenol S and bisphenol F in first trimester was also associated with a lower risk of being born small size for gestational age (Odds Ratio 0.56 (95% CI 0.38 to 0.74) and 0.55 (95% CI 0.36 to 0.85), respectively). Bisphenols were not associated with risk of preterm birth.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher maternal bisphenol S urine concentrations, especially in the first trimester, seem to be related with larger fetal head circumference, higher weight and a lower risk of being small size for gestational age at birth.

Dietary Exposures and Intake Doses to Bisphenol A and Triclosan in 188 Duplicate-Single Solid Food Items Consumed by US Adults

Few data exist on bisphenol A (BPA) or triclosan (TCS) residue levels in foods consumed by adults in everyday settings. In a further analysis of study data, the objectives were to determine BPA and TCS residue concentrations in duplicate-single solid food items consumed by adults and to estimate dietary exposure and intake doses per food item. A convenience sample of 50 adults was recruited in North Carolina (2009-2011). Participants completed 24 h food diaries and collected 24 h duplicate-diet solid food samples consumed on days 1 and 2 during sampling weeks 1, 2, and 6. A total of 188 of the collected 776 duplicate-diet solid food samples contained a single, solid food item. BPA and TCS residue levels were quantified in the 188 food items using GC-MS. BPA and TCS were detected in 37% and 58% of these food items, respectively. BPA concentrations were highest in a cheese and tomato sandwich (104 ng/g), whereas the highest TCS concentrations were in a burrito (22.1 ng/g). These chemicals co-occurred in 20% of the samples (maximum = 54.7 ng/g). Maximum dietary intake doses were 429 ng/kg/day for BPA in a vegetable soup with tortilla sample and 72.0 ng/kg/day for TCS in a burrito sample.

Co-exposure and health risks of parabens, bisphenols, triclosan, phthalate metabolites and hydroxyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons based on simultaneous detection in urine samples from guangzhou, south China

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and certain ingredients in personal care products, such as parabens, bisphenols, triclosan and phthalate metabolites, have become ubiquitous in the world. Concerns of human exposure to these pollutants have increased during recent years because of various adverse health effects of these chemicals. Multiple compounds including parabens, bisphenols, triclosan, phthalate metabolites (mPAEs) and hydroxyl PAHs (OH-PAHs) in urine samples from Guangzhou were determined simultaneously to identify the human exposure pathways without external exposure data combined with data analysis, and the toxicants posed the highest risk to human health were screened in the present study. The detection frequencies for the chemicals exceeded 90%. Among the contaminants, mPAEs showed the highest concentrations, followed by OH-PAHs, with triclosan present at the lowest concentrations. Mono-n-butyl phthalate, methylparaben, bisphenol A, and hydroxynaphthalene represented the most abundant mPAE, parabens, bisphenol, and OH-PAH compounds, respectively. The present PAHs are mainly exposed to human through inhalation, while the chemicals added to personal care products are mainly exposed to human through oral intake and dermal contact. The urine samples from suburban subjects showed significantly higher OH-PAH levels than the urine samples from urban subjects, and females had lower OH-PAH levels than males. Urinary concentrations of the analyzed contaminants were significantly correlated with age, body mass index, residence time, as well as the frequencies of alcohol consumption and swimming. Risk assessments based on Monte Carlo simulation indicated that approximately 30% of the subjects suffered non-carcinogenic risks from mPAEs and OH-PAHs, with mPAEs accounting for 89% of the total risk.

Exposure to phthalates and bisphenol analogues among childbearing-aged women in Korea: Influencing factors and potential health risks

Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), widely applied in industrial and consumer products, can affect hormones associated with the human reproductive system. Because the incidence of reproductive diseases is increasing, a comprehensive exposure assessment of phthalates and bisphenol analogues (BPs) is required for childbearing-aged women. Phthalate metabolites and BPs were measured in urine samples collected from 509 childbearing-aged women (20-48 years) in Korea to investigate their current exposure status, profiles, influencing factors, and potential health risks. DEHP metabolites and BPA were the dominant compounds found, indicating that they are highly consumed in daily life. Bisphenol S (BPS), as an alternative to BPA, was detected in most urine samples. Total concentrations of phthalate metabolites and BPs ranged from 3.42 to 3570 (GM: 45.6) ng/mL and from <LOQ to 80.3 (0.91) ng/mL, respectively, which were within the ranges observed in women in previous studies. Exposure to diethyl phthalate (DEP) was significantly associated with the use of cosmetics and personal care products such as perfume, body lotion, and sunscreen. Higher ratios of urinary BPS/BPA were observed in younger and more highly educated women and in women living in urbanized regions than others. This result suggests that a shift in consumption from BPA to BPS was preferentially occurring in urbanized regions. The assessment of the cumulative risk posed by phthalates and BPs showed that they pose only a small health risk to Korean women. This study provides baseline data on exposure levels, profiles, and influencing factors for phthalates and BPs in childbearing-aged women.

Environmental Distribution of Personal Care Products and Their Effects on Human Health

Personal care products (PCPs) are generally used for personal hygiene, cleaning, grooming, and beautification. These include hair and skin care products, baby care products, UV blocking creams, facial cleansers, insect repellents, perfumes, fragrances, soap, detergents, shampoos, conditioners, toothpaste, etc., thus exposing humans easily. Personal preferences related to PCPs usage frequency are highly variable and depend on socioeconomic status and lifestyle factors. The increasing availability and diversity of PCPs from the retailer outlets consequently result in higher loading of PCPs into wastewater systems and, therefore, the environment. These compounds persistently and continuously release biologically active and inactive ingredients in the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere, and demonstrating adverse effects on human, wild, and marine life. Advanced techniques such as granular activated carbon filtration and algae-based system may help biotransformation and remove PCP contaminants from water with improved efficiency. Additionally, harmony among PCPs related regulations of different countries may encourage standard checks to control their manufacturing, sale, and distribution across the borders to ensure consumers' safety. Furthermore, all intended ingredients, their concentrations, and instructions for frequency of use as per age groups may be clearly labeled on packages of PCPs. In conclusion, the emerging environmental contaminants of PCPs and their association with the growing risks of negative effects on human health and globally on the environment emphasize the chemical-free simple lifestyle.

Bisphenol A and Its Analogues in Chinese Total Diets: Contaminated Levels and Risk Assessment

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues (BPs) are suspected posing potential endocrine disrupting properties. They might migrate into foodstuffs through food packaging materials or contaminated water and soil. Dietary exposure is of paramount importance way for human health. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) lowered the value of tolerable daily intake (TDI) from 50 μg/kg bw/day (d) to a temporary (t) TDI (t-TDI) of 4 μg/kg bw/d. In this study, the Chinese total dietary samples were analyzed for assessing the exposure risk of BPs by diets. BPA, bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol AF (BPAF) were found in 12 kinds of food samples except for bisphenol B (BPB). A deterministic approach was used to calculate the dietary intakes of 4 kinds of compounds. For different age and gender groups, the exposure levels of BPA (178.440-403.672 ng/kg bw/d) was the highest, followed by BPS (21.372-52.112 ng/kg bw/d), BPF (20.641-50.507 ng/kg bw/d), and BPAF (0.434-1.210 ng/kg bw/d). Based on the t-TDI set by EFSA (4 μg/kg bw/d for BPA), the BPs through dietary intake pose low risks on the Chinese general population even summarization exposure levels of different BPs. However, human can be exposed to multiple endocrine disrupting chemicals rather than BPs alone; combined exposure risks should be further considered.

The associations between personal care products use and urinary concentrations of phthalates, parabens, and triclosan in various age groups: The Korean National Environmental Health Survey Cycle 3 2015-2017

Phthalates and parabens are ubiquitous chemicals of public concern. This study aimed to investigate the use of personal care products (PCPs) as predictors of exposure to phthalates, parabens, and triclosan (TCS) among various age groups in a nationally representative population. The concentrations of eight phthalate metabolites, three parabens, and TCS were measured in a random spot urine sample in 5962 study participants (age range: 3-86 years). The information on PCPs use was obtained in seven categories over previous three months. The exposure risks to phthalates, parabens, and TCS were different according to the pattern of PCPs use in different age groups and gender. In adolescents and adults, females used all categories of PCPs more frequently than males, with statistical significance. The use rates of PCPs and the significant exposure risks to phthalates, parabens, and TCS associated with PCP use were more clearly observed in adults. The least square geometric means (LSGMs) of urinary methylparaben (MeP), ethylparaben (EtP), and propylparaben (PrP) steadily increased, as the cumulative number of used PCPs increased with statistical significance. The exposure risks to MeP were consistently observed with various PCPs use and showed a significant increase as the cumulative number of PCPs use increased in adults. Furthermore, the use of fragrance products, makeup, and air fresheners significantly increased the exposure risk to EtP in preschoolers. The significant exposure risk to mono-(3-carboxypropyl)- phthalate (MCPP) associated with nail polishes use was observed in preschoolers and adults. This study showed the associations between PCPs use and urinary concentrations of phthalates, parabens, and TCS in various age groups. Environmental health policies to reduce exposure to phthalates and parabens should be widely implemented, including industry regulations and increasing public awareness. Future studies are needed to explore other important exposure sources of these chemicals and their related adverse health effects.

Bioaccumulation potential of bisphenols and benzophenone UV filters: A multiresidue approach in raptor tissues

Environmental exposure to bisphenols and benzophenone UV filters has received considerable attention due to the ubiquitous occurrence of these contaminants in the environment and their potential adverse health effects. The occurrence of bisphenols and benzophenone UV filters is well established in human populations, but data is scarce for wildlife, and especially for raptors (birds of prey, falcons and owls). In this study, concentrations of eight bisphenols and five benzophenone UV filters were determined in six raptor tissues, including muscle, kidney, liver, brain, preen gland (uropygial gland) and adipose. The tissue samples (n = 44) were taken from dead raptor species (1997-2011), including Eurasian sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus, n = 2) and long-eared owls (Asio otus, n = 2), both from France, and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla, n = 16) from Greenland. Overall, six bisphenols and four benzophenone UV filters were found in the samples. Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), benzophenone-8 (BzP-8) and 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OH-BzP) were the most abundant contaminants, accounting for median concentrations of 67.5, 3.01, 27.1 and 9.70 ng/g wet weight (w.w.), respectively. The potential role of the preen gland as a major excretory organ for bisphenols and benzophenone UV filters was suggested since the median sum concentration of the two contaminant classes in the white-tailed eagle tissues showed higher bioaccumulation potential in the preen gland (5.86 ng/g w.w.) than the liver (2.92) and kidney (0.71). The concentrations of these contaminants in the tissues of the three raptor species indicated a pattern of increasing detection rates and median concentrations with an increase of the species size and their expected trophic position. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first peer-reviewed study to document multiresidues of both contaminant classes in raptor tissues.

Characterization of triclosan and triclocarban in indoor dust from home micro-environments in Vietnam and relevance of non-dietary exposure

Contamination status, spatial variability, and exposure risk of triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) in indoor dusts from different micro-environments were evaluated for the first time in Vietnam as well as in Southeast Asian region. TCS and TCC were measured in 89 dust samples collected from bedrooms, living rooms, and kitchens of private houses in four northern cities including Hanoi, Bac Ninh, Hung Yen, and Nam Dinh, by means of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Concentrations of TCS and TCC ranged from <5 to 1090 (median 33.2) and from <3 to 531 (median 19.3) ng g^-1, respectively. Concentrations of TCS and TCC in the kitchen and bedroom dusts were markedly higher than levels found in the living room samples, probably due to their applications in kitchen utensils, household cleaning reagents, and personal care products. A strong positive correlation between TCS and TCC concentrations was detected in the whole dataset (R² = 0.810, p < 0.001). For samples in which both TCS and TCC were quantified, TCS/TCC ratios ranged from 0.3 to 12 with a median value of 1.8, and did not show big differences between micro-environments. Human exposures to TCS and TCC through dust ingestion were estimated for various age groups with 95% CI daily intake doses ranging from (0.032-0.070) to (0.340-0.740) and from (0.017-0.033) to (0.175-0.345) ng kg-bw^-1 d^-1 for adults and infants respectively. Although our derived values were much lower than reference doses, more comprehensive risk assessment considering multiple exposure pathways of TCS and TCC is needed.

Biomonitoring of co-exposure to bisphenols by consumers of canned foodstuffs

For non-occupationally exposed adults, dietary intake is the main route of exposure to bisphenols (BPs), with canned foodstuffs playing a key role. This study was aimed at biomonitoring bisphenol A (BPA) and 5 more BP analogues (BPB, BPE, BPF, BPAF and BPZ) in spot urine and blood samples of a cohort of adults, who followed a diet based on a high consumption of canned food. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study aimed at assessing the co-exposure of BP analogues in food and biological samples after a two-day duplicate diet study. The estimated total dietary exposure was 0.37 and 0.045 µg/kg body weight/day, for the canned-diet and control groups, respectively. BPA was the compound with the highest concentration in urine in comparison with the values of the remaining BP analogues. A high detection rate of BPA was noted in urine for both groups, 96% for the canned-diet group and 90% for the control group, while in blood it could be only quantified in 6% of the samples. The identification of other analogues was hardly related to diet, so it could be the result of other potential exposure sources, such as personal care products (PCPs) or air inhalation. After 2 days, the excretion of BPA was considerably higher in the canned-diet group subjects than those in the control group (7.02 vs. 1.89 µg/day), confirming that diet and canned foodstuffs are the main route of exposure to BPA. Anyhow, the temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) established by the EFSA was not exceeded, even by those consumers with a diet rich in canned food. Moreover, spot urine samples provided accurate information about exposure and excretion of BPA, being the 4 h, instead of 24 h, the optimal sampling interval, when the collection of spot urine samples is not possible.

Predicting Transdermal Uptake of Phthalates and a Paraben from Cosmetic Cream Using the Measured Fugacity

Transdermal uptake models compliment in vitro and in vivo experiments in assessing risk of environmental exposures to semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs). A key parameter for mechanistic models is the chemical driving force for mass transfer from environmental media to human skin. In this research, we measure this driving force in the form of fugacity for chemicals in cosmetic cream and use it to model uptake from cosmetics as a surrogate for condensed environmental media. A simple cosmetic cream, containing no target analytes, was mixed with diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and butyl paraben (BP) and diluted to make creams with concentrations ranging from 0.025% to 6%. The fugacity, relative to the pure compound, was measured using solid-phase micro extraction (SPME). We found that the relationship between the concentration and fugacity is highly nonlinear. The relative fugacity of the chemicals for a 2% w/w formulation was used in a diffusion-based model to predict transdermal uptake of each chemical and was compared with excretion data from a prior human subject study with the same formulation. Dynamic simulations of excretion are generally consistent with the results of the human subject experiment but sensitive to the input parameters, especially the time between cream application and showering.

Occurrence of bisphenol A and its alternatives in paired urine and indoor dust from Chinese university students: Implications for human exposure

Bisphenol analogs (BPs), as the industrial chemicals, are widely used in consumer products. Limited information exists regarding human exposure to BPs in university students in China. In this study, we detected concentrations of seven BPs, namely bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol P (BPP), bisphenol AP (BPAP), bisphenol Z (BPZ), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol F (BPF), in paired urine (n = 160) and indoor dust samples (n = 40) from university students in South China. High detection rates and levels (median) was found in BPA in paired urine (99%, 3.57 ng/mL) and indoor dust (80%, 2.98 μg/g) samples, followed by BPS (88%, 0.24 ng/mL; 78%, 0.22 μg/g). These findings suggest that BPA remains the major BPs used in consumer products. A positive relationship between urinary ∑BPs (sum of six BPs) concentration and indoor dust was observed (r = 0.444, p < 0.01), indicated that exposure to non-dietary BPs may also be significant to human exposure. The median EDI_urine values (ng/kg bw/day) of ∑BPs in males (119.6) were relatively higher than (p < 0.05) those in females (84.6). By contrast, the median EDI_dust of BPs (except for BPAF) in dust form female dormitories were slightly higher than that in dust from male dormitories. Notably, BPF was the most ingested from indoor dust (dormitory dust). This study is the first time to document the occurrence of BPs in paired urine and indoor dust in university students from China.

Use of personal care products during pregnancy in relation to urinary concentrations of select phenols: A longitudinal analysis from the SEPAGES feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Exposure to certain synthetic phenols is of growing concern, in particular among pregnant women, because of their endocrine disrupting nature. Many phenols are still authorized in personal care products (PCP). We aimed to assess if use of PCPs, by pregnant women could influence their urinary concentrations of synthetic phenols.

METHODS

We used a panel design with intense urine sample collection. Eight women completed a diary with exact time and use of PCPs in three weeks. We measured the concentrations of phenols (four parabens, bisphenol A and S, two dichlorophenols, triclosan, and benzophenone-3) in 178 urine samples, collected during 7 consecutive days at 3 time points during pregnancy. We characterized PCP use as the total number of PCP applications or as a single PCP use (yes/no) in three time windows (0-6, 6 to 12 and 12 to 24h before each urine sample collection). We used adjusted linear and Tobit regressions to assess associations between PCP use and phenol urinary concentrations.

RESULTS

The total number of PCP applications was positively associated with ethylparaben, propylparaben and butylparaben concentrations. We observed a peak in urinary concentration of ethylparaben, butylparaben and propylparaben at 2.86, 2.55 and 2.67 h since last PCP use, respectively and twelve different types of PCPs were positively associated with at least one of these parabens. The bisphenol S concentration increased by 12.4% (95%CI: confidence interval: 5.9; 19.3) for each additional PCP application in the 12 to 24 time window and use of specific PCPs such as anti-stretchmarks cream, facial cleanser and shower gel. Associations varied by time window.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that PCP use was associated with a short-term increase in the urinary concentration of ethylparaben, butylparaben and propylparaben, but not methylparaben. This study also reported a positive association between the use of PCPs and the bisphenol S concentration, a finding that warrants further investigation in cohorts with repeated collection of urine samples and detailed information on PCP use.

The EuroMix human biomonitoring study: Source-to-dose modeling of cumulative and aggregate exposure for the bisphenols BPA, BPS, and BPF and comparison with measured urinary levels

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA) and, with increasing occurrence, its analogs bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) are applied in many consumer products, leading to humans being exposed from a vast number of sources and via several routes. Estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects are exerted by the chemical BPA, and also by its analogs. Therefore, realistic exposure assessments are needed for assessing risks related to cumulative exposure.

OBJECTIVES

Biomonitoring for BPA, BPS, and BPF was conducted in a human study embedded in the EU project EuroMix and the measured urinary concentrations were compared to source-to-dose calculations for source allocation and plausibility test of the model.

METHODS

For two 24-hour study periods separated by 2-3 weeks, 144 adult volunteers in Norway kept detailed diaries on food consumption, personal care product (PCP) use, and thermal paper (TP) handling. Concurrently, 24 h urine was collected and urinary levels of BPA, BPS, and BPF were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS-MS). In line with the information obtained from the first study day, bisphenol exposure from food, PCPs, TP, and dust was modeled primarily individual-based with probabilistic models. Estimates for BP excretion over 24 h were obtained with the models and compared to measured amounts.

RESULTS

Modeled aggregate internal exposures covered the full range of measured urinary amounts for all BP analogs. In general, individual-based medians of modeled BPA exposures were in good agreement with the measurements, but individual-specific correlation was lacking. Modeled exposures mostly underestimated BPS and BPF levels in participants with positive measurements (53% and 8%), except for the P95 values of modeled BPS exposure that were higher than measured amounts if TP was handled. Most likely, diet and TP were the sources contributing the most to BP exposure in this study. Urinary measurements did not reveal a significant correlation between the amounts of canned food consumed, the number of PCPs used, or the number of TP handling events and levels of BPA, BPS, or BPF.

CONCLUSIONS

The good agreement between the ranges of modeled BPA exposure and measured BPA amounts indicates that available concentrations, especially from the main exposure source food, mirror the exposure situation realistically, and suggests that the exposure model considers the relevant exposure sources. The lack of individual-specific correlations means that the individual measured amounts and modeled exposures did not vary in parallel, e.g. due to mismatch of BP concentrations in food, TP, and other sources, or delayed internal exposure. The underestimation of modeled BPS and BPF exposure suggests that not all relevant sources were included in the respective exposure models. This could be due to a lack of input data, e.g. for food items, or due to an increased replacement of BPA with structural analogs compared to the used concentration and occurrence data.

Biomonitoring of exposure to bisphenols, benzophenones, triclosan, and triclocarban in pet dogs and cats

Similar to humans, pet animals are exposed to environmental contaminants through multiple sources and pathways. Although a few studies have demonstrated exposure of cats and dogs to environmental chemicals, little is known about exposure to bisphenols, benzophenone UV filters, and antibacterial agents. In this study, we measured three bisphenols, three benzophenone-type UV filters, triclosan (TCS), and triclocarban (TCC) in dog (n = 50) and cat urine (n = 50) collected from New York State, USA. Among bisphenols, BPS was found at the highest concentrations (mean ± SD: 3.2 ± 8.5 ng/mL in dogs and 8.85 ± 30.0 ng/mL in cats) with detection frequencies of 96% in dogs and 78% in cats. Among benzophenones, BP-3 (oxybenzone) was the dominant compound in pet urine, followed by BP-1 and BP-8. TCS was found at concentrations higher than those of TCC in both cat and dog urine. There were no significant differences in bisphenol concentrations between sexes or age groups, both in dogs and cats. The calculated hazard quotients (HQ) suggested that the current exposure levels of BPS and BP-3 in pets were 2-5 orders of magnitude below the tentative threshold values available for humans.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment and human external and internal exposure in China: A review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are widely used as brominated flame retardants. Because of their toxicity and persistence, some PBDEs were restricted under the Stockholm Convention in 2009. Since then, many studies have been carried out on PBDEs in China and in many other countries. In the present review, the occurrences and contamination of PBDEs in air, water, sediment, soil, biota and daily food, human blood, hair, and other human tissues in China are comprehensively reviewed and described. The human exposure pathways and associated health risks of PBDEs are summarized. The data showed no obvious differences between North and South China, but concentrations from West China were generally lower than in East China, which can be mainly attributed to the production and widespread use of PBDEs in eastern regions. High levels of PBDEs were generally observed in the PBDE production facilities (e.g., Jiangsu Province and Shandong Province, East China) and e-waste recycling sites (Taizhou City, Zhejiang Province, East China, and Guiyu City and Qingyuan City, both located in Guangdong Province, South China) and large cities, whereas low levels were detected in rural and less-developed areas, especially in remote regions such as the Tibetan Plateau. Deca-BDE is generally the major congener. Existing problems for PBDE investigations in China are revealed, and further studies are also discussed and anticipated. In particular, non-invasive matrices such as hair should be more thoroughly studied; more accurate estimations of human exposure and health risks should be performed, such as adding bioaccessibility or bioavailability to human exposure assessments; and the degradation products and metabolites of PBDEs in human bodies should receive more attention. More investigations should be carried out to evaluate the quantitative relationships between internal and external exposure so as to provide a scientific basis for ensuring human health.

Occurrence and Concentration of Chemical Additives in Consumer Products in Korea

As the variety of chemicals used in consumer products (CPs) has increased, concerns about human health risk have grown accordingly. Even though restrictive guidelines and regulations have taken place to minimize the risks, human exposure to these chemicals and their eco-compatibility has remained a matter of greater scientific concern over the years. A major challenge in understanding the reality of the exposure is the lack of available information on the increasing number of ingredients and additives in the products. Even when ingredients of CPs formulations are identified on the product containers, the concentrations of the chemicals are rarely known to consumers. In the present study, an integrated target/suspect/non-target screening procedure using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) with stepwise identification workflow was used for the identification of known, suspect, and unknown chemicals in CPs including cosmetics, personal care products, and washing agents. The target screening was applied to identify and quantify isothiazolinones and phthalates. Among analyzed CPs, isothiazolinones and phthalates were found in 47% and in 24% of the samples, respectively. The highest concentrations were 518 mg/kg for benzisothiazolone, 7.1 mg/kg for methylisothiazolinone, 2.0 mg/kg for diethyl phthalate, and 21 mg/kg for dimethyl phthalate. Suspect and non-target analyses yielded six tentatively identified chemicals across the products including benzophenone, ricinine, iodocarb (IPBC), galaxolidone, triethanolamine, and 2-(2H-Benzotriazol-2-yl)-4, 6-bis (1-methyl-1-phenylethyl) phenol. Our results revealed that selected CPs consistently contain chemicals from multiple classes. Excessive use of these chemicals in daily life can increase the risk for human health and the environment.

Relationship between triclosan exposure and thyroid hormones: the Second Korean National Environmental Health Survey (2012-2014)

Background

5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol (triclosan) is used as an antiseptic and is a potential endocrine-disrupting chemical that can affect thyroid hormone levels. This study evaluated the relationship between triclosan exposure and thyroid hormones.

Methods

Data from the second Korean National Environmental Health Survey (2012-2014) were analyzed. Triclosan exposure was evaluated using urinary triclosan concentrations and classified into 2 groups: 'below detection (< limit of detection [LOD])' vs. 'detected (≥ LOD).' Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between triclosan exposure and the serum thyroid hormone concentrations, adjusting for age, body mass index, urinary creatinine, and smoking status.

Results

When grouped by sex, triclosan exposure was positively associated with the serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations in females with marginal significance (β = 0.066, p = 0.058). However, no significant association was identified between triclosan exposure and serum total triiodothyronine and thyroxine in both males and females, and TSH in males.

Conclusions

This study is the first human study to evaluate the relationship between triclosan exposure and serum thyroid hormone concentrations in the Korean population. There was suggestive positive association between triclosan exposure and the serum TSH in females. Further studies need to evaluate the relationship between long-term exposure to low-dose triclosan and thyroid hormones.

Quantification of eight bisphenol analogues in blood and urine samples of workers in a hazardous waste incinerator

Bisphenol A (BPA) has been widely used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins. In recent years, producers have started replacing BPA by other chemical analogues, such as bisphenol -S (BPS) and -F (BPF), all of them under the label "BPA-free". However, despite bisphenol (BP) analogues have a very similar structure, their endocrine-disrupting properties could differ from those of BPA. Unfortunately, information regarding human exposure to BP analogues is very limited, not only as single substances, but also as chemical mixtures. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of 8 BP analogues (A, S, F, B, AF, Z, E, and AP) in biological samples from a controlled cohort of workers in a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) located in Constantí (Catalonia, Spain). Firstly, a chemical method to analyze a mixture of those 8 analogues in total blood and urine was optimized, being samples quantified by means of gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Furthermore, a biomonitoring study was performed by collecting samples of total blood and urine of 29 people working in the HWI. Among the 8 BP analogues assessed, BPA presented the highest levels in both biological samples, with mean total (free + conjugated) BPA concentrations of 0.58 and 0.86 μg/L in blood and urine, respectively. Free vs. total BPA levels presented a mean percentage of 79% in blood and 19% in urine. Beyond BPA, traces of BPB were also found in a single sample of blood. Furthermore, none of the remaining BP analogues was detected in blood or urine. Despite BPA has been regulated, it is still very present in the environment, being human exposure to this chemical still an issue of concern for the public health.

Linking Probabilistic Exposure and Pharmacokinetic Modeling To Assess the Cumulative Risk from the Bisphenols BPA, BPS, BPF, and BPAF for Europeans

The bisphenols S, F, and AF (BPS, BPF, and BPAF) are used to replace the endocrine disrupting chemical bisphenol A (BPA) while exerting estrogenic effects of comparable potency. We assessed the cumulative risk for the aforementioned BPs in Europe and compared the risk before and after the year 2011, which was when the first BPA restrictions became effective. For this, we probabilistically modeled external exposures from food, personal care products (PCPs), thermal paper, and dust (using the tools MCRA and PACEM for exposures from food and PCPs, respectively). We calculated internal concentrations of unconjugated BPs with substance-specific PBPK models and cumulated these concentrations normalized by estrogenic potency. The resulting mean internal cumulative exposures to unconjugated BPs were 3.8 and 2.1 ng/kg bw/day before and after restrictions, respectively. This decline was mainly caused by the replacement of BPA by BPS in thermal paper and the lower dermal uptake of BPS compared to BPA. However, the decline was not significant: the selected uncertainty intervals overlapped (P2.5-P97.5 uncertainty intervals of 2.7-4.9 and 1.3-6.3 ng/kg bw/day before and after restrictions, respectively). The upper uncertainty bounds for cumulative exposure were higher after restrictions, which reflects the larger uncertainty around exposures to substitutes compared to BPA.

Widespread Occurrence of Bisphenol A in Daily Clothes and Its High Exposure Risk in Humans

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an important endocrine disrupting chemical. Although high levels of BPA in some new clothes have been reported, the occurrence of bisphenol chemicals including BPA in daily clothes is still unknown, and the human exposure to BPA in clothes has not been well assessed. In this study, used/washed clothes were collected from residents' wardrobes and the concentrations of BPA and its analogues were detected. BPA was present in all the used clothes at concentrations ranging from <3.30 to 471 ng/g (median: 34.2 ng/g; mean ± SD: 57.5 ± 93.6 ng/g), while bisphenol S was also detected in 29% of the samples. Although higher average concentration (88.4 ± 289 ng/g) and maximum concentration (1823 ng/g) of BPA were found in the new clothes, the median concentration of BPA in the used clothes (34.2 ng/g) was even higher than that in the new clothes (17.7 ng/g). Cross contamination of BPA during laundering was identified by a simulated laundry experiment, which explained the homogenizing tendency of bisphenol contaminants in the used clothes. An estimated dermal exposure dose of 52.1 ng/kg BW/d was obtained for BPA exposure in children from the highly polluted sweaty clothes (with BPA concentration of 199 ng/g). This indicates a relatively high exposure risk in humans. Compared to other exposure routes, the contribution of dermal exposure dose of BPA from the daily clothes should not be neglected.

Estimation of community-wide exposure to bisphenol A via water fingerprinting

Molecular epidemiology in human biomonitoring allows for verification of public exposure to chemical substances. Unfortunately, due to logistical difficulties and high cost, it evaluates only small study groups and as a result does not provide comprehensive large scale community-wide exposure data. Wastewater fingerprinting utilizing metabolic biomarkers of exposure that are excreted collectively by studied populations into urine and ultimately into the community's wastewater, provides a timely alternative to traditional approaches. This study aimed to provide comprehensive spatiotemporal community-wide exposure to bisphenol A (BPA, including BPA intake) using wastewater fingerprinting. Wastewater fingerprinting was undertaken using high resolution mass spectrometry retrospective data mining of characteristic BPA human metabolism marker (bisphenol A sulphate), applied to a large geographical area of 2000 km² and a population of ~1.5 million served by 5 WWTPs (wastewater treatment plants) accounting for >75% of the overall population in the studied catchment. Community-wide BPA intake was found to be below temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) level of 4 μg kg^-1 day^-1 set by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) suggesting overall low exposure at 3 WWTPs serving residential areas with low industrial/commercial presence. However, at two WWTPs serving communities with higher industrial/commercial presence, higher BPA sulphate loads corresponding to higher (up to 14 times) BPA intakes (exceeding 10 μg kg^-1 day^-1 at one WWTP and reaching 50 μg kg^-1 day^-1 at the second WWTP) were observed and they are likely linked with occupational exposure. Characteristic temporal variations of BPA intake were noted in most studied WWTPs with the lowest intake occurring during weekends and the highest during weekdays.

Parabens and triclosan in shellfish from Shenzhen coastal waters: Bioindication of pollution and human health risks

This work aimed to determine the concentrations of parabens and triclosan (TCS) in shellfish from coastal waters of Shenzhen, South China. A method of isotope dilution with high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine TCS and five paraben analogues, including methyl paraben (MeP), ethyl paraben (EtP), propyl paraben (PrP), butyl paraben (BuP), and benzyl paraben (BeP), in 186 shellfish samples covering eight species. Concentrations of parabens and TCS were 0.13-25.5 ng/g wet weight (ww) and <LOQ-6.51 ng/g ww, respectively, indicating their ubiquitous contamination in Shenzhen coastal waters. MeP was the most predominant paraben, followed by EtP and PrP. These three analogues accounted for more than 95% of the total concentrations of parabens. The "high" estimated daily intakes of parabens and TCS with the 95th percentage concentrations were estimated to be 2.15-26.1 and 0.41-10.3 ng/kg bw/day, respectively, much lower than the acceptable dietary intakes of parabens (1 × 10⁷ ng/kg bw/day) and TCS (200 ng/kg bw/day), indicating no significant human health risks from shellfish consumption in the studied region. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the occurrences of parabens and TCS in shellfish products from Shenzhen coastal waters.

Urinary concentration of personal care products and polycystic ovary syndrome: A case-control study

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common endocrine disorder among females of reproductive age. Many emerging contaminants in personal care products have been confirmed with endocrine disruptive effects. We performed a case-control study to explore the association between the concentrations of certain emerging contaminants (organic UV filters, bisphenol A, and triclosan) and the risk of PCOS. Urine samples were collected from 40 women with PCOS (case group) and 83 healthy women (control group). No significant differences were found in detection rate or total concentrations of analytes in women with PCOS and controls (p > 0.05). In addition, no association was found between certain emerging contaminants and PCOS either in an unadjusted binary logistic regression model or in a model adjusted for potential confounders. However, with stratification according to body mass index, one organic UV filter - octocrylene(OC) was significantly associated with PCOS in women with BMI ≥ 24 (adjusted OR = 1.512, 95% CI: 1.043, 2.191). It's the first time to investigate the association between exposure of organic UV filters and PCOS risk. We conclude that there is positive association between OC and PCOS risk in obese and overweight women.

The Case for BPA as an Obesogen: Contributors to the Controversy

Since the inception of the term endocrine disruptor, the idea that the environment is an important determinant of phenotype has motivated researchers to explore the effect of low dose exposure to BPA during organogenesis. The syndrome observed was complex, affecting various endpoints such as reproduction and reproductive tissues, behavior, mammary gland development and carcinogenesis, glucose homeostasis, and obesity. This constellation of impacted endpoints suggests the possibility of complex interactions among the multiple effects of early BPA exposure. One key finding of our rodent studies was alterations of energy and amino-acid metabolism that were detected soon after birth and continued to be present at all time points examined through 6 months of age. The classical manifestations of obesity and associated elements of metabolic disease took a longer time to become apparent. Here we examine the validity of the often-mentioned lack of reproducibility of obesogenic effects of BPA, starting from the known environmental causes of variation, which are diverse and range from the theoretical like the individuation process and the non-monotonicity of the dose-response curve, to the very pragmatic like housing, feed, and time and route of exposure. We then explore environmental conditions that may hinder reproducibility and discuss the effect of confounding factors such as BPA-induced hyperactivity. In spite of all the potential sources of variation, we find that some obesogenic or metabolic effects of BPA are reproducibly observed when study conditions are analogous. We recommend that study authors describe details of their study conditions including the environment, husbandry, and feed. Finally, we show that when experimental conditions are strictly maintained, reproducibility, and stability of the obese phenotype is consistently observed.

Spatial distribution of bisphenol S in surface water and human serum from Yangtze River watershed, China: Implications for exposure through drinking water

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an emerging environmental contaminant. The occurrence of this compound in humans and the environment is not well described. In this study, 120 surface water samples and 240 human serum samples were collected along the Yangtze River in 2015 for the determination of the occurrence of BPS. Surface water and human serum samples were extracted by solid phase extraction and liquid-liquid extraction, respectively, and analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). BPS was detected in all river water samples at concentrations that ranged from 0.18 to 14.9 ng/L (median: 0.98 ng/L), with higher concentrations in spring than summer. The median estimated daily intake (EDI) of BPS through water ingestion by infants in spring and summer was 0.12 and 0.06 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively. BPS was detected in human serum with the highest concentrations in samples from Nanjing (median: 0.65 ng/mL, maximum: 169 ng/mL) among the four cities studied. No significant gender related difference in BPS concentrations was observed in human sera, while higher concentrations were found in younger individuals than elderly. The EDI of BPS calculated based on serum concentrations of adults in Nanjing was 22.8 ng/kg bw/day. Ingestion of water accounted for <1% of the total BPS intake by the Chinese population. This is the first report of the occurrence of BPS in water from the Yangtze River and human serum from several cities located along this river in China.