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Zarei M, Rahimi K, Hassanzadeh K, Abdi M, Hosseini V, Fathi A, Kakaei K. From the environment to the cells: An overview on pivotal factors which affect spreading and infection in COVID-19 pandemic. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 201:111555. [PMID: 34197816 PMCID: PMC8236413 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Several factors ranging from environmental risks to the genetics of the virus and that of the hosts, affect the spread of COVID-19. The impact of physicochemical variables on virus vitality and spread should be taken into account in experimental and clinical studies. Another avenue to explore is the effect of diet and its interaction with the immune system on SARS-CoV-2 infection and mortality rate. Past year have witnessed extensive studies on virus and pathophysiology of the COVID-19 disease and the cellular mechanisms of virus spreading. However, our knowledge has not reached a level where we plan an efficient therapeutic approach to prevent the virus entry to the cells or decreasing the spreading and morbidity in severe cases of disease. The risk of infection directly correlates with the control of virus spreading via droplets and aerosol transmission, as well as patient immune system response. A key goal in virus restriction and transmission rate is to understand the physicochemical structure of aerosol and droplet formation, and the parameters that affect the droplet-borne and airborne in different environmental conditions. The lifetime of droplets on different surfaces is described based on the contact angle. Hereby, we recommend regular use of high-quality face masks in high temperature and low humidity conditions. However, in humid and cold weather conditions, wearing gloves and frequently hand washing, gain a higher priority. Additionally, social distancing rules should be respected in all aforementioned conditions. We will also discuss different routes of SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cells and how multiple genetic factors play a role in the spread of the virus. Given the role of environmental and nutritional factors, we discuss and recommend some strategies to prevent the disease and protect the population against COVID-19. Since an effective vaccine can prevent the transmission of communicable diseases and abolish pandemics, we added a brief review of candidate SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Zarei
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Karim Rahimi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gene Expression and Gene Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kambiz Hassanzadeh
- Laboratory of Neuronal Cell Signaling, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, 00161, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, 67100, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Mohammad Abdi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Vahedeh Hosseini
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Ali Fathi
- FUJIFILM Cellular Dynamics, Inc., Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Karim Kakaei
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maragheh, Maragheh, Iran.
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52
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Cell Entry of Animal Coronaviruses. Viruses 2021; 13:v13101977. [PMID: 34696406 PMCID: PMC8540712 DOI: 10.3390/v13101977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a group of enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses and can cause deadly diseases in animals and humans. Cell entry is the first and essential step of successful virus infection and can be divided into two ongoing steps: cell binding and membrane fusion. Over the past two decades, stimulated by the global outbreak of SARS-CoV and pandemic of SARS-CoV-2, numerous efforts have been made in the CoV research. As a result, significant progress has been achieved in our understanding of the cell entry process. Here, we review the current knowledge of this essential process, including the viral and host components involved in cell binding and membrane fusion, molecular mechanisms of their interactions, and the sites of virus entry. We highlight the recent findings of host restriction factors that inhibit CoVs entry. This knowledge not only enhances our understanding of the cell entry process, pathogenesis, tissue tropism, host range, and interspecies-transmission of CoVs but also provides a theoretical basis to design effective preventive and therapeutic strategies to control CoVs infection.
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Knyazev E, Nersisyan S, Tonevitsky A. Endocytosis and Transcytosis of SARS-CoV-2 Across the Intestinal Epithelium and Other Tissue Barriers. Front Immunol 2021; 12:636966. [PMID: 34557180 PMCID: PMC8452982 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.636966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 2003, the world has been confronted with three new betacoronaviruses that cause human respiratory infections: SARS-CoV, which causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), MERS-CoV, which causes Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and SARS-CoV-2, which causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The mechanisms of coronavirus transmission and dissemination in the human body determine the diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. An important problem is the possibility that viral particles overcome tissue barriers such as the intestine, respiratory tract, blood-brain barrier, and placenta. In this work, we will 1) consider the issue of endocytosis and the possibility of transcytosis and paracellular trafficking of coronaviruses across tissue barriers with an emphasis on the intestinal epithelium; 2) discuss the possibility of antibody-mediated transcytosis of opsonized viruses due to complexes of immunoglobulins with their receptors; 3) assess the possibility of the virus transfer into extracellular vesicles during intracellular transport; and 4) describe the clinical significance of these processes. Models of the intestinal epithelium and other barrier tissues for in vitro transcytosis studies will also be briefly characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny Knyazev
- Laboratory of Microfluidic Technologies for Biomedicine, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE), Moscow, Russia
| | - Stepan Nersisyan
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE), Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Tonevitsky
- Laboratory of Microfluidic Technologies for Biomedicine, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE), Moscow, Russia
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54
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Socher E, Conrad M, Heger L, Paulsen F, Sticht H, Zunke F, Arnold P. Computational decomposition reveals reshaping of the SARS-CoV-2-ACE2 interface among viral variants expressing the N501Y mutation. J Cell Biochem 2021; 122:1863-1872. [PMID: 34516024 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.30142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Variants of concern of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with an asparagine-to-tyrosine substitution at position 501 (N501Y) in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) show enhanced infectivity compared to wild-type, resulting in an altered pandemic situation in affected areas. These SARS-Cov-2 variants comprise the two Alpha variants (B.1.1.7, United Kingdom and B.1.1.7 with the additional E484K mutation), the Beta variant (B.1.351, South Africa), and the Gamma variant (P.1, Brazil). Understanding the binding modalities between these viral variants and the host cell receptor ACE2 allows to depict changes, but also common motifs of virus-host cell interaction. The trimeric spike protein expressed at the viral surface contains the RBD that forms the molecular interface with ACE2. All the above-mentioned variants carry between one and three amino acid exchanges within the interface-forming region of the RBD, thereby altering the binding interface with ACE2. Using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and decomposition of intermolecular contacts between the RBD and ACE2, we identified phenylalanine 486, glutamine 498, threonine 500, and tyrosine 505 as important interface-forming residues across viral variants. However, especially the N501Y exchange increased contact formation for this residue and also induced some local conformational changes. Comparing here, the in silico generated B.1.1.7 RBD-ACE2 complex with the now available experimentally solved structure reveals very similar behavior during MD simulation. We demonstrate, how computational methods can help to identify differences in conformation as well as contact formation for newly emerging viral variants. Altogether, we provide extensive data on all N501Y expressing SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern with respect to their interaction with ACE2 and how this induces reshaping of the RBD-ACE2 interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Socher
- Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany.,Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marcus Conrad
- Division of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lukas Heger
- Department of Dermatology, Laboratory of Dendritic Cell Biology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Friedrich Paulsen
- Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany.,Department of Operative Surgery and Topographic Anatomy, Sechenov University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Heinrich Sticht
- Division of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany.,Erlangen National High Performance Computing Center (NHR@FAU), Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Philipp Arnold
- Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Institute of Anatomy, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
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55
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Zheng HY, He XY, Li W, Song TZ, Han JB, Yang X, Liu FL, Luo RH, Tian RR, Feng XL, Ma YH, Liu C, Li MH, Zheng YT. Pro-inflammatory microenvironment and systemic accumulation of CXCR3+ cell exacerbate lung pathology of old rhesus macaques infected with SARS-CoV-2. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2021; 6:328. [PMID: 34471088 PMCID: PMC8409077 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00734-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the pathological features of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in an animal model is crucial for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Here, we compared immunopathological changes in young and old rhesus macaques (RMs) before and after SARS-CoV-2 infection at the tissue level. Quantitative analysis of multiplex immunofluorescence staining images of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sections showed that SARS-CoV-2 infection specifically induced elevated levels of apoptosis, autophagy, and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)+ cells, and increased interferon α (IFN-α)- and interleukin 6 (IL-6)-secreting cells and C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3)+ cells in lung tissue of old RMs. This pathological pattern, which may be related to the age-related pro-inflammatory microenvironment in both lungs and spleens, was significantly correlated with the systemic accumulation of CXCR3+ cells in lungs, spleens, and peripheral blood. Furthermore, the ratio of CXCR3+ to T-box protein expression in T cell (T-bet)+ (CXCR3+/T-bet+ ratio) in CD8+ cells may be used as a predictor of severe COVID-19. These findings uncovered the impact of aging on the immunopathology of early SARS-CoV-2 infection and demonstrated the potential application of CXCR3+ cells in predicting severe COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yi Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiao-Yan He
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Wei Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Tian-Zhang Song
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Jian-Bao Han
- Kunming National High-Level Biosafety Research Center for Non-Human Primates, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiang Yang
- Kunming National High-Level Biosafety Research Center for Non-Human Primates, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Feng-Liang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Rong-Hua Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ren-Rong Tian
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiao-Li Feng
- Kunming National High-Level Biosafety Research Center for Non-Human Primates, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yu-Hua Ma
- National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Chao Liu
- National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ming-Hua Li
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yong-Tang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences, KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
- Kunming National High-Level Biosafety Research Center for Non-Human Primates, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
- National Resource Center for Non-Human Primates, National Research Facility for Phenotypic & Genetic Analysis of Model Animals (Primate Facility), Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou, China.
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56
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Chen F, Shi Q, Pei F, Vogt A, Porritt RA, Garcia G, Gomez AC, Cheng MH, Schurdak ME, Liu B, Chan SY, Arumugaswami V, Stern AM, Taylor DL, Arditi M, Bahar I. A systems-level study reveals host-targeted repurposable drugs against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Mol Syst Biol 2021; 17:e10239. [PMID: 34339582 PMCID: PMC8328275 DOI: 10.15252/msb.202110239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 infection and identifying potential therapeutics are global imperatives. Using a quantitative systems pharmacology approach, we identified a set of repurposable and investigational drugs as potential therapeutics against COVID-19. These were deduced from the gene expression signature of SARS-CoV-2-infected A549 cells screened against Connectivity Map and prioritized by network proximity analysis with respect to disease modules in the viral-host interactome. We also identified immuno-modulating compounds aiming at suppressing hyperinflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients, based on the transcriptome of ACE2-overexpressing A549 cells. Experiments with Vero-E6 cells infected by SARS-CoV-2, as well as independent syncytia formation assays for probing ACE2/SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-mediated cell fusion using HEK293T and Calu-3 cells, showed that several predicted compounds had inhibitory activities. Among them, salmeterol, rottlerin, and mTOR inhibitors exhibited antiviral activities in Vero-E6 cells; imipramine, linsitinib, hexylresorcinol, ezetimibe, and brompheniramine impaired viral entry. These novel findings provide new paths for broadening the repertoire of compounds pursued as therapeutics against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Chen
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- School of MedicineTsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Qingya Shi
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- School of MedicineTsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Fen Pei
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
| | - Andreas Vogt
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
| | - Rebecca A Porritt
- Department of PediatricsDivision of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and ImmunologyCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCAUSA
- Biomedical Sciences, Infectious and Immunologic Diseases Research CenterCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Gustavo Garcia
- Department of Molecular and Medical PharmacologyDavid Geffen School of MedicineUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Angela C Gomez
- Department of PediatricsDivision of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and ImmunologyCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Mary Hongying Cheng
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
| | - Mark E Schurdak
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
| | - Bing Liu
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
| | - Stephen Y Chan
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood, and Vascular Medicine InstituteUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical CenterPittsburghPAUSA
- Division of CardiologyDepartment of MedicineUniversity of Pittsburgh Medical CenterPittsburghPAUSA
| | - Vaithilingaraja Arumugaswami
- Department of Molecular and Medical PharmacologyDavid Geffen School of MedicineUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Andrew M Stern
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
| | - D Lansing Taylor
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
| | - Moshe Arditi
- Department of PediatricsDivision of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and ImmunologyCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCAUSA
- Biomedical Sciences, Infectious and Immunologic Diseases Research CenterCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Ivet Bahar
- Department of Computational and Systems BiologySchool of MedicineUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- University of Pittsburgh Drug Discovery InstitutePittsburghPAUSA
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57
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D614G Substitution of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Increases Syncytium Formation and Virus Titer via Enhanced Furin-Mediated Spike Cleavage. mBio 2021; 12:e0058721. [PMID: 34311586 PMCID: PMC8406174 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00587-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the D614G substitution in the spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged, the variant strain has undergone a rapid expansion to become the most abundant strain worldwide. Therefore, this substitution may provide an advantage for viral spreading. To explore the mechanism, we analyzed 18 viral isolates containing S proteins with either G614 or D614 (S-G614 and S-D614, respectively). The plaque assay showed a significantly higher virus titer in S-G614 than in S-D614 isolates. We further found increased cleavage of the S protein at the furin substrate site, a key event that promotes syncytium formation, in S-G614 isolates. The enhancement of the D614G substitution in the cleavage of the S protein and in syncytium formation has been validated in cells expressing S protein. The effect on the syncytium was abolished by furin inhibitor treatment and mutation of the furin cleavage site, suggesting its dependence on cleavage by furin. Our study pointed to the impact of the D614G substitution on syncytium formation through enhanced furin-mediated S cleavage, which might increase the transmissibility and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 strains containing S-G614.
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58
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Sarker J, Das P, Sarker S, Roy AK, Momen AZMR. A Review on Expression, Pathological Roles, and Inhibition of TMPRSS2, the Serine Protease Responsible for SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Activation. SCIENTIFICA 2021; 2021:2706789. [PMID: 34336361 PMCID: PMC8313365 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2706789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, uses the host cell membrane receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) for anchoring its spike protein, and the subsequent membrane fusion process is facilitated by host membrane proteases. Recent studies have shown that transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), a protease known for similar role in previous coronavirus infections, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), is responsible for the proteolytic cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, enabling host cell fusion of the virus. TMPRSS2 is known to be expressed in the epithelial cells of different sites including gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary system. The infection site of the SARS-CoV-2 correlates with the coexpression sites of ACE2 and TMPRSS2. Besides, age-, sex-, and comorbidity-associated variation in infection rate correlates with the expression rate of TMPRSS2 in those groups. These findings provide valid reasons for the assumption that inhibiting TMPRSS2 can have a beneficial effect in reducing the cellular entry of the virus, ultimately affecting the infection rate and case severity. Several drug development studies are going on to develop potential inhibitors of the protease, using both conventional and computational approaches. Complete understanding of the biological roles of TMPRSS2 is necessary before such therapies are applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotirmoy Sarker
- Department of Pharmacy, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Pritha Das
- Independent Author, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Sabarni Sarker
- Department of Pharmacy, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh
| | - Apurba Kumar Roy
- Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh
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59
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Wu T, Kang S, Peng W, Zuo C, Zhu Y, Pan L, Fu K, You Y, Yang X, Luo X, Jiang L, Deng M. Original Hosts, Clinical Features, Transmission Routes, and Vaccine Development for Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:702066. [PMID: 34295915 PMCID: PMC8291337 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.702066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has led to public concern worldwide. Although a variety of hypotheses about the hosts of SARS-CoV-2 have been proposed, an exact conclusion has not yet been reached. Initial clinical manifestations associated with COVID-19 are similar to those of other acute respiratory infections, leading to misdiagnoses and resulting in the outbreak at the early stage. SARS-CoV-2 is predominantly spread by droplet transmission and close contact; the possibilities of fecal-oral, vertical, and aerosol transmission have not yet been fully confirmed or rejected. Besides, COVID-19 cases have been reported within communities, households, and nosocomial settings through contact with confirmed COVID-19 patients or asymptomatic individuals. Environmental contamination is also a major driver for the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering the absence of specific treatment for COVID-19, it is urgent to decrease the risk of transmission and take preventive measures to control the spread of the virus. In this review, we summarize the latest available data on the potential hosts, entry receptors, clinical features, and risk factors of COVID-19 and transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2, and we present the data about development of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shuntong Kang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wenyao Peng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chenzhe Zuo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuhao Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Liangyu Pan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Keyun Fu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yaxian You
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xinyuan Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xuan Luo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Yuanpin Cell Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Changsha, China
| | - Liping Jiang
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Meichun Deng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Hematology, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
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60
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Barrett CT, Neal HE, Edmonds K, Moncman CL, Thompson R, Branttie JM, Boggs KB, Wu CY, Leung DW, Dutch RE. Effect of clinical isolate or cleavage site mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on protein stability, cleavage, and cell-cell fusion. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100902. [PMID: 34157282 PMCID: PMC8214756 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The trimeric severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (S) is the sole viral protein responsible for both viral binding to a host cell and the membrane fusion event needed for cell entry. In addition to facilitating fusion needed for viral entry, S can also drive cell-cell fusion, a pathogenic effect observed in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2-infected patients. While several studies have investigated S requirements involved in viral particle entry, examination of S stability and factors involved in S cell-cell fusion remain limited. A furin cleavage site at the border between the S1 and S2 subunits (S1/S2) has been identified, along with putative cathepsin L and transmembrane serine protease 2 cleavage sites within S2. We demonstrate that S must be processed at the S1/S2 border in order to mediate cell-cell fusion and that mutations at potential cleavage sites within the S2 subunit alter S processing at the S1/S2 border, thus preventing cell-cell fusion. We also identify residues within the internal fusion peptide and the cytoplasmic tail that modulate S-mediated cell-cell fusion. In addition, we examined S stability and protein cleavage kinetics in a variety of mammalian cell lines, including a bat cell line related to the likely reservoir species for SARS-CoV-2, and provide evidence that proteolytic processing alters the stability of the S trimer. This work therefore offers insight into S stability, proteolytic processing, and factors that mediate S cell-cell fusion, all of which help give a more comprehensive understanding of this high-profile therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea T Barrett
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Hadley E Neal
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Kearstin Edmonds
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Carole L Moncman
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Rachel Thompson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Jean M Branttie
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Kerri Beth Boggs
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Cheng-Yu Wu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Daisy W Leung
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rebecca E Dutch
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.
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Najafi Fard S, Petrone L, Petruccioli E, Alonzi T, Matusali G, Colavita F, Castilletti C, Capobianchi MR, Goletti D. In Vitro Models for Studying Entry, Tissue Tropism, and Therapeutic Approaches of Highly Pathogenic Coronaviruses. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:8856018. [PMID: 34239932 PMCID: PMC8221881 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8856018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped nonsegmented positive-sense RNA viruses belonging to the family Coronaviridae that contain the largest genome among RNA viruses. Their genome encodes 4 major structural proteins, and among them, the Spike (S) protein plays a crucial role in determining the viral tropism. It mediates viral attachment to the host cell, fusion to the membranes, and cell entry using cellular proteases as activators. Several in vitro models have been developed to study the CoVs entry, pathogenesis, and possible therapeutic approaches. This article is aimed at summarizing the current knowledge about the use of relevant methodologies and cell lines permissive for CoV life cycle studies. The synthesis of this information can be useful for setting up specific experimental procedures. We also discuss different strategies for inhibiting the binding of the S protein to the cell receptors and the fusion process which may offer opportunities for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeid Najafi Fard
- Translational Research Unit, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Linda Petrone
- Translational Research Unit, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Elisa Petruccioli
- Translational Research Unit, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Tonino Alonzi
- Translational Research Unit, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Matusali
- Laboratory of Virology, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Colavita
- Laboratory of Virology, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- Laboratory of Virology, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Capobianchi
- Laboratory of Virology, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Epidemiology and Preclinical Research Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy
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Borges E, Setti AS, Iaconelli A, Braga DPDAF. Current status of the COVID-19 and male reproduction: A review of the literature. Andrology 2021; 9:1066-1075. [PMID: 33998143 PMCID: PMC8222884 DOI: 10.1111/andr.13037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which causes serious respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia and lung failure, was first reported in mid-December 2019 in China and has spread around the world. In addition to causing serious respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia and lung failure, there have been conflicting reports about the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the semen of patients who were previously diagnosed with COVID-19 and possible implications for the male reproductive tract. OBJECTIVE The goal for the present study was to review the current status of the literature concerning COVID-19 and male reproduction. MATERIAL AND METHODS An electronic literature search was done by using PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Relevant papers, concerning SARS-COV-2 and COVID-19 and male reproduction, published between January 2020 and December 2020 were selected, analyzed and eventually included in the present literature review. RESULTS SARS-CoV-2 may infect any cell type expressing angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), including reproductive cells. Besides the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, the expression of host proteases, such as transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), is needed to cleave the viral S protein, allowing permanent fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. Here, we aimed to review the current status of the literature concerning COVID-19 and male reproduction. The lack of co-expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in the testis suggests that sperm cells may not be at increased risk of viral entry and spread. However, the presence of orchitis in COVID-19-confirmed patients and compromised sex-related hormonal balance among these patients intrigues reproductive medicine. DISCUSSION SARS-CoV-2 may use alternate receptors to enter certain cell types, or the expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 may not be detected in healthy individuals. CONCLUSION COVID-19 challenges all medical areas, including reproductive medicine. It is not yet clear what effects, if any, the COVID-19 pandemic will have on male reproduction. Further research is needed to understand the long-term impact of SARS-CoV-2 on male reproductive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edson Borges
- Fertility Medical Group, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto Sapientiae - Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa em Reprodução Humana Assistida, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Amanda Souza Setti
- Fertility Medical Group, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto Sapientiae - Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa em Reprodução Humana Assistida, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Assumpto Iaconelli
- Fertility Medical Group, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto Sapientiae - Centro de Estudos e Pesquisa em Reprodução Humana Assistida, São Paulo, Brazil
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Raghav PK, Kalyanaraman K, Kumar D. Human cell receptors: potential drug targets to combat COVID-19. Amino Acids 2021; 53:813-842. [PMID: 33950300 PMCID: PMC8097256 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-02991-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The World Health Organization (WHO) has announced that COVID-19 is a pandemic having a higher spread rate rather than the mortality. Identification of a potential approach or therapy against COVID-19 is still under consideration. Therefore, it is essential to have an insight into SARS-CoV-2, its interacting partner, and domains for an effective treatment. The present study is divided into three main categories, including SARS-CoV-2 prominent receptor and its expression levels, other interacting partners, and their binding domains. The first section focuses primarily on coronaviruses' general aspects (SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronaviruses (MERS-CoV)) their structures, similarities, and mode of infections. The second section discusses the host receptors which includes the human targets of coronaviruses like dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), CD147, CD209L, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2), and other miscellaneous targets (type-II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs), furin, trypsin, cathepsins, thermolysin, elastase, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase, two-pore segment channel, and epithelium sodium channel C-α subunit). The human cell receptor, ACE2 plays an essential role in the Renin-Angiotensin system (RAS) pathway and COVID-19. Thus, this section also discusses the ACE2 expression and risk of COVID-19 infectivity in various organs and tissues such as the liver, lungs, intestine, heart, and reproductive system in the human body. Absence of ACE2 protein expression in immune cells could be used for limiting the SARS-CoV-2 infection. The third section covers the current available approaches for COVID-19 treatment. Overall, this review focuses on the critical role of human cell receptors involved in coronavirus pathogenesis, which would likely be used in designing target-specific drugs to combat COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keerthana Kalyanaraman
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Sector-125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention & Research, Noida, 201301, India.
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Bhattacharyya C, Das C, Ghosh A, Singh AK, Mukherjee S, Majumder PP, Basu A, Biswas NK. SARS-CoV-2 mutation 614G creates an elastase cleavage site enhancing its spread in high AAT-deficient regions. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2021; 90:104760. [PMID: 33556558 PMCID: PMC7863758 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 was first reported from China. Within three months, it evolved to 10 additional subtypes. Two evolved subtypes (A2 and A2a) carry a non-synonymous Spike protein mutation (D614G). We conducted phylodynamic analysis of over 70,000 SARS-CoV-2 coronaviruses worldwide, sequenced until July2020, and found that the mutant subtype (614G) outcompeted the pre-existing type (614D), significantly faster in Europe and North-America than in East Asia. Bioinformatically and computationally, we identified a novel neutrophil elastase (ELANE) cleavage site introduced in the G-mutant, near the S1-S2 junction of the Spike protein. We hypothesised that elevation of neutrophil elastase level at the site of infection will enhance the activation of Spike protein thus facilitating host cell entry for 614G, but not the 614D, subtype. The level of neutrophil elastase in the lung is modulated by its inhibitor α1-antitrypsin (AAT). AAT prevents lung tissue damage by elastase. However, many individuals exhibit genotype-dependent deficiency of AAT. AAT deficiency eases host-cell entry of the 614G virus, by retarding inhibition of neutrophil elastase and consequently enhancing activation of the Spike protein. AAT deficiency is highly prevalent in European and North-American populations, but much less so in East Asia. Therefore, the 614G subtype is able to infect and spread more easily in populations of the former regions than in the latter region. Our analyses provide a molecular biological and evolutionary model for the higher observed virulence of the 614G subtype, in terms of causing higher morbidity in the host (higher infectivity and higher viral load), than the non-mutant 614D subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chitrarpita Das
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India
| | - Arnab Ghosh
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India
| | - Animesh K. Singh
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India
| | - Souvik Mukherjee
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India
| | - Partha P. Majumder
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India,Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata 700108, India
| | - Analabha Basu
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India
| | - Nidhan K. Biswas
- National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani 741251, India,Corresponding author at: National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, P.O.: N.S.S., Kalyani 741251, West Bengal, India
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65
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Role of host factors in SARS-CoV-2 entry. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100847. [PMID: 34058196 PMCID: PMC8160279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The zoonotic transmission of highly pathogenic coronaviruses into the human population is a pressing concern highlighted by the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Recent work has helped to illuminate much about the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell, which determines host- and tissue-specific tropism, pathogenicity, and zoonotic transmission. Here we discuss current findings on the factors governing SARS-CoV-2 entry. We first reviewed key features of the viral spike protein (S) mediating fusion of the viral envelope and host cell membrane through binding to the SARS-CoV-2 receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. We then examined the roles of host proteases including transmembrane protease serine 2 and cathepsins in processing S for virus entry and the impact of this processing on endosomal and plasma membrane virus entry routes. We further discussed recent work on several host cofactors that enhance SARS-CoV-2 entry including Neuropilin-1, CD147, phosphatidylserine receptors, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, sialic acids, and C-type lectins. Finally, we discussed two key host restriction factors, i.e., interferon-induced transmembrane proteins and lymphocyte antigen 6 complex locus E, which can disrupt SARS-CoV-2 entry. The features of SARS-CoV-2 are presented in the context of other human coronaviruses, highlighting unique aspects. In addition, we identify the gaps in understanding of SARS-CoV-2 entry that will need to be addressed by future studies.
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Müller P, Maus H, Hammerschmidt SJ, Knaff P, Mailänder V, Schirmeister T, Kersten C. Interfering with Host Proteases in SARS-CoV-2 Entry as a Promising Therapeutic Strategy. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:635-665. [PMID: 34042026 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210526111318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Due to its fast international spread and substantial mortality, the coronavirus disease COVID-19 evolved to a global threat. Since currently, there is no causative drug against this viral infection available, science is striving for new drugs and approaches to treat the new disease. Studies have shown that the cell entry of coronaviruses into host cells takes place through the binding of the viral spike (S) protein to cell receptors. Priming of the S protein occurs via hydrolysis by different host proteases. The inhibition of these proteases could impair the processing of the S protein, thereby affecting the interaction with the host-cell receptors and preventing virus cell entry. Hence, inhibition of these proteases could be a promising strategy for treatment against SARS-CoV-2. In this review, we discuss the current state of the art of developing inhibitors against the entry proteases furin, the transmembrane serine protease type-II (TMPRSS2), trypsin, and cathepsin L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Müller
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Hannah Maus
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan Josef Hammerschmidt
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Philip Knaff
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Volker Mailänder
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Christian Kersten
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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Wang P, Lau SY, Deng S, Chen P, Mok BWY, Zhang AJ, Lee ACY, Chan KH, Tam RCY, Xu H, Zhou R, Song W, Liu L, To KKW, Chan JFW, Chen Z, Yuen KY, Chen H. Characterization of an attenuated SARS-CoV-2 variant with a deletion at the S1/S2 junction of the spike protein. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2790. [PMID: 33986286 PMCID: PMC8119425 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is of zoonotic origin and contains a PRRA polybasic cleavage motif which is considered critical for efficient infection and transmission in humans. We previously reported on a panel of attenuated SARS-CoV-2 variants with deletions at the S1/S2 junction of the spike protein. Here, we characterize pathogenicity, immunogenicity, and protective ability of a further cell-adapted SARS-CoV-2 variant, Ca-DelMut, in in vitro and in vivo systems. Ca-DelMut replicates more efficiently than wild type or parental virus in Vero E6 cells, but causes no apparent disease in hamsters, despite replicating in respiratory tissues. Unlike wild type virus, Ca-DelMut causes no obvious pathological changes and does not induce elevation of proinflammatory cytokines, but still triggers a strong neutralizing antibody and T cell response in hamsters and mice. Ca-DelMut immunized hamsters challenged with wild type SARS-CoV-2 are fully protected, with little sign of virus replication in the upper or lower respiratory tract, demonstrating sterilizing immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pui Wang
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Siu-Ying Lau
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Shaofeng Deng
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Pin Chen
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Bobo Wing-Yee Mok
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Anna Jinxia Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Andrew Chak-Yiu Lee
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kwok-Hung Chan
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Rachel Chun-Yee Tam
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Haoran Xu
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Runhong Zhou
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Wenjun Song
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Institute of Integration of Traditional and Western Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Liu
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kelvin Kai-Wang To
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jasper Fuk-Woo Chan
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Zhiwei Chen
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Honglin Chen
- Department of Microbiology and State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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You J, Seok JH, Joo M, Bae JY, Kim JI, Park MS, Kim K. Multifactorial Traits of SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Related to Diverse Host Proteases and Proteins. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2021; 29:249-262. [PMID: 33875625 PMCID: PMC8094071 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2021.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The most effective way to control newly emerging infectious disease, such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, is to strengthen preventative or therapeutic public health strategies before the infection spreads worldwide. However, global health systems remain at the early stages in anticipating effective therapeutics or vaccines to combat the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. While maintaining social distance is the most crucial metric to avoid spreading the virus, symptomatic therapy given to patients on the clinical manifestations helps save lives. The molecular properties of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been quickly elucidated, paving the way to therapeutics, vaccine development, and other medical interventions. Despite this progress, the detailed biomolecular mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 infection remains elusive. Given virus invasion of cells is a determining factor for virulence, understanding the viral entry process can be a mainstay in controlling newly emerged viruses. Since viral entry is mediated by selective cellular proteases or proteins associated with receptors, identification and functional analysis of these proteins could provide a way to disrupt virus propagation. This review comprehensively discusses cellular machinery necessary for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Understanding multifactorial traits of the virus entry will provide a substantial guide to facilitate antiviral drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaehwan You
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hyeon Seok
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Myungsoo Joo
- School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Pusan 50612, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon-Yong Bae
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Il Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
- Biosafety Center, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Man-Seong Park
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
- Biosafety Center, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kisoon Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Viral Diseases, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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The SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronavirus spike proteins are fine-tuned towards temperature and proteases of the human airways. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009500. [PMID: 33886690 PMCID: PMC8061995 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The high transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 is related to abundant replication in the upper airways, which is not observed for the other highly pathogenic coronaviruses SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. We here reveal features of the coronavirus spike (S) protein, which optimize the virus towards the human respiratory tract. First, the S proteins exhibit an intrinsic temperature preference, corresponding with the temperature of the upper or lower airways. Pseudoviruses bearing the SARS-CoV-2 spike (SARS-2-S) were more infectious when produced at 33°C instead of 37°C, a property shared with the S protein of HCoV-229E, a common cold coronavirus. In contrast, the S proteins of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV favored 37°C, in accordance with virus preference for the lower airways. Next, SARS-2-S-driven entry was efficiently activated by not only TMPRSS2, but also the TMPRSS13 protease, thus broadening the cell tropism of SARS-CoV-2. Both proteases proved relevant in the context of authentic virus replication. TMPRSS13 appeared an effective spike activator for the virulent coronaviruses but not the low pathogenic HCoV-229E virus. Activation of SARS-2-S by these surface proteases requires processing of the S1/S2 cleavage loop, in which both the furin recognition motif and extended loop length proved critical. Conversely, entry of loop deletion mutants is significantly increased in cathepsin-rich cells. Finally, we demonstrate that the D614G mutation increases SARS-CoV-2 stability, particularly at 37°C, and, enhances its use of the cathepsin L pathway. This indicates a link between S protein stability and usage of this alternative route for virus entry. Since these spike properties may promote virus spread, they potentially explain why the spike-G614 variant has replaced the early D614 variant to become globally predominant. Collectively, our findings reveal adaptive mechanisms whereby the coronavirus spike protein is adjusted to match the temperature and protease conditions of the airways, to enhance virus transmission and pathology. The devastating COVID-19 pandemic is caused by SARS-CoV-2, a novel virus that despite recent zoonotic introduction is already very well adapted to its human host. Its rapid spread is related to abundant replication in the upper airways, which is not observed for other highly pathogenic human coronaviruses. To understand the role of the viral spike protein in this airway adaptation, we constructed pseudoviruses of SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses that cause severe pneumonia or, on the contrary, a mild common cold. The key findings were verified with authentic virus. We reveal features of the spike proteins, which optimize the coronavirus towards specific parts of the respiratory tract. Namely, we show that the spike proteins exhibit intrinsic temperature preference to precisely match the upper (~33°C) or lower (37°C) airways. We recognized which proteases of human airways activate the spike for virus entry, in particular one protease that may mediate coronavirus virulence. Finally, a link was perceived between spike stability and entry via endosomal proteases. We propose that these mechanisms of spike fine-tuning may have contributed to a global shift in SARS-CoV-2 epidemiology, from the early spike-D614 to the currently predominating G614 variant.
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70
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Lin H, Cherukupalli S, Feng D, Gao S, Kang D, Zhan P, Liu X. SARS-CoV-2 Entry inhibitors targeting virus-ACE2 or virus-TMPRSS2 interactions. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:682-699. [PMID: 33881969 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210420103021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. The life cycle of SARS-CoV-2 includes the entry into the target cells, replicase translation, replicating and transcribing genomes, translating structural proteins, assembling and releasing new virions. Entering host cells is a crucial stage in the early life cycle of the virus, and blocking this stage can effectively prevent virus infection. SARS enters the target cells mediated by the interaction between the viral S protein and the target cell surface receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), as well as the cleavage effect of type-II transmembrane serine protease (TMPRSS2) on the S protein. Therefore, the ACE2 receptor and TMPRSS2 are important targets for SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors. Herein, we provide a concise report/information on drugs with potential therapeutic value targeting virus-ACE2 or virus-TMPRSS2 interactions, to provide a reference for the design and discovery of potential entry inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Lin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Srinivasulu Cherukupalli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Da Feng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Shenghua Gao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Dongwei Kang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Jinan, Shandong, China
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71
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Arena ME, Alberto MR, Cartagena E. Potential use of Citrus essential oils against acute respiratory syndrome caused by coronavirus. JOURNAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/10412905.2021.1912839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario Eduardo Arena
- Instituto de Biotecnología Farmacéutica y Alimentaria (INBIOFAL) CONICET–UNT, Tucumán, Argentina
- Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT), Tucumán, Argentina
| | - María Rosa Alberto
- Instituto de Biotecnología Farmacéutica y Alimentaria (INBIOFAL) CONICET–UNT, Tucumán, Argentina
- Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT), Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Elena Cartagena
- Instituto de Biotecnología Farmacéutica y Alimentaria (INBIOFAL) CONICET–UNT, Tucumán, Argentina
- Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán (UNT), Tucumán, Argentina
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72
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Rodriguez T, Dobrovolny HM. Quantifying the effect of trypsin and elastase on in vitro SARS-CoV infections. Virus Res 2021; 299:198423. [PMID: 33845063 PMCID: PMC8043718 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) has the potential to cause serious disease that can spread rapidly around the world. Much of our understanding of SARS-CoV pathogenesis comes from in vitro experiments. Unfortunately, in vitro experiments cannot replicate all the complexity of the in vivo infection. For example, proteases in the respiratory tract cleave the SARS-CoV surface protein to facilitate viral entry, but these proteases are not present in vitro. Unfortunately, proteases might also have an effect on other parts of the replication cycle. Here, we use mathematical modeling to estimate parameters characterizing viral replication for SARS-CoV in the presence of trypsin or elastase, and in the absence of either. In addition to increasing the infection rate, the addition of trypsin and elastase causes lengthening of the eclipse phase duration and the infectious cell lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thalia Rodriguez
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Hana M Dobrovolny
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, United States.
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73
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Kastenhuber ER, Jaimes JA, Johnson JL, Mercadante M, Muecksch F, Weisblum Y, Bram Y, Schwartz RE, Whittaker GR, Cantley LC. Coagulation factors directly cleave SARS-CoV-2 spike and enhance viral entry. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 33821268 DOI: 10.1101/2021.03.31.437960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Coagulopathy is recognized as a significant aspect of morbidity in COVID-19 patients. The clotting cascade is propagated by a series of proteases, including factor Xa and thrombin. Other host proteases, including TMPRSS2, are recognized to be important for cleavage activation of SARS-CoV-2 spike to promote viral entry. Using biochemical and cell-based assays, we demonstrate that factor Xa and thrombin can also directly cleave SARS-CoV-2 spike, enhancing viral entry. A drug-repurposing screen identified a subset of protease inhibitors that promiscuously inhibited spike cleavage by both transmembrane serine proteases as well as coagulation factors. The mechanism of the protease inhibitors nafamostat and camostat extend beyond inhibition of TMPRSS2 to coagulation-induced spike cleavage. Anticoagulation is critical in the management of COVID-19, and early intervention could provide collateral benefit by suppressing SARS-CoV-2 viral entry. We propose a model of positive feedback whereby infection-induced hypercoagulation exacerbates SARS-CoV-2 infectivity.
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74
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Oz M, Lorke DE. Multifunctional angiotensin converting enzyme 2, the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor, and critical appraisal of its role in acute lung injury. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 136:111193. [PMID: 33461019 PMCID: PMC7836742 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent emergence of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) as a pandemic affecting millions of individuals has raised great concern throughout the world, and the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified as the causative agent for COVID-19. The multifunctional protein angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is accepted as its primary target for entry into host cells. In its enzymatic function, ACE2, like its homologue ACE, regulates the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) critical for cardiovascular and renal homeostasis in mammals. Unlike ACE, however, ACE2 drives an alternative RAS pathway by degrading Ang-II and thus operates to balance RAS homeostasis in the context of hypertension, heart failure, and cardiovascular as well as renal complications of diabetes. Outside the RAS, ACE2 hydrolyzes key peptides, such as amyloid-β, apelin, and [des-Arg9]-bradykinin. In addition to its enzymatic functions, ACE2 is found to regulate intestinal amino acid homeostasis and the gut microbiome. Although the non-enzymatic function of ACE2 as the entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2 has been well established, the contribution of enzymatic functions of ACE2 to the pathogenesis of COVID-19-related lung injury has been a matter of debate. A complete understanding of this central enzyme may begin to explain the various symptoms and pathologies seen in SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals, and may aid in the development of novel treatments for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murat Oz
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, Safat 13110, Kuwait.
| | - Dietrich Ernst Lorke
- Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Center for Biotechnology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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75
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Gallagher T. COVID19 therapeutics: Expanding the antiviral arsenal. EBioMedicine 2021; 66:103289. [PMID: 33752131 PMCID: PMC7977477 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Gallagher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois, USA.
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76
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Mustafa Z, Zhanapiya A, Kalbacher H, Burster T. Neutrophil Elastase and Proteinase 3 Cleavage Sites Are Adjacent to the Polybasic Sequence within the Proteolytic Sensitive Activation Loop of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:7181-7185. [PMID: 33748632 PMCID: PMC7970549 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Serine proteases neutrophil elastase (NE), protease 3 (PR3), cathepsin G (CatG), and neutrophil serine protease 4 (NSP4) are released by activated neutrophils swarming around the place of pathogen invasion to provoke an immune response. However, uncontrolled proteolytic activity of proteases results in various human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, thrombosis, and autoimmunity. In addition, proteases can be hijacked by several viruses to prime virus-derived surface proteins and evade immune detection by entering into the host cell. Indeed, porcine elastase increases the suitability of host cells to be infected by SARS-CoV-1. We compared the cleavage sites of human NE, PR3, and CatG as well as porcine-derived trypsin within the amino acid sequence of the proteolytic sensitive activation loop at the interface of S1/S2 of the spike protein (S protein) of SARS-CoV-1 as well as SARS-CoV-2. As a result, NE and PR3, but not CatG, hydrolyze the scissile peptide bond adjacent to the polybasic amino acid sequence of the S1/S2 interface of SARS-CoV-2, which is distinctive from SARS-CoV-1. These findings suggest that neutrophil-derived NE and PR3 participate in priming of the S1/S2 interface during an immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhadyra Mustafa
- Department
of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave., 53, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan Republic
| | - Anuar Zhanapiya
- Department
of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave., 53, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan Republic
| | - Hubert Kalbacher
- Eberhard
Karls University Tübingen, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Anatomy and Cell Analysis, Österbergstraße 3, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Timo Burster
- Department
of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Kabanbay Batyr Ave., 53, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan Republic
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77
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Armstrong L, Collin J, Mostafa I, Queen R, Figueiredo FC, Lako M. In the eye of the storm: SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication at the ocular surface? Stem Cells Transl Med 2021; 10:976-986. [PMID: 33710758 PMCID: PMC8235146 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.20-0543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) first emerged in December 2019 and spread quickly causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic. Recent single cell RNA‐Seq analyses have shown the presence of SARS‐CoV‐2 entry factors in the human corneal, limbal, and conjunctival superficial epithelium, leading to suggestions that the human ocular surface may serve as an additional entry gateway and infection hub for SARS‐CoV‐2. In this article, we review the ocular clinical presentations of COVID‐19 and the features of the ocular surface that may underline the overall low ocular SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. We critically evaluate the studies performed in nonhuman primates, ex vivo organ culture ocular models, stem cell derived eye organoids and the differences in infection efficiency observed in different parts of human ocular surface epithelium. Finally, we highlight the additional work that needs to be carried out to understand the immune response of the ocular surface to SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, which can be translated into prophylactic treatments that may be applied to other organ systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyle Armstrong
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Joseph Collin
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Islam Mostafa
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Rachel Queen
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Francisco C Figueiredo
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK.,Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Victoria Infirmary and Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Majlinda Lako
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
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78
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Whittaker GR, Daniel S, Millet JK. Coronavirus entry: how we arrived at SARS-CoV-2. Curr Opin Virol 2021; 47:113-120. [PMID: 33744490 PMCID: PMC7942143 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has risen to shape scientific research during 2020, with its spike (S) protein being a predominant focus. The S protein is likely the most complicated of all viral glycoproteins and is a key factor in immunological responses and virus pathogenesis. It is also the driving force dictating virus entry mechanisms, which are highly ‘plastic’ for coronaviruses, allowing a plethora of options for different virus variants and strains in different cell types. Here we review coronavirus entry as a foundation for current work on SARS-CoV-2. We focus on the post-receptor binding events and cellular pathways that direct the membrane fusion events necessary for genome delivery, including S proteolytic priming and activation. We also address aspects of the entry process important for virus evolution and therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary R Whittaker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Master of Public Health Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
| | - Susan Daniel
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jean K Millet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, UVSQ, Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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79
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Ujike M, Taguchi F. Recent Progress in Torovirus Molecular Biology. Viruses 2021; 13:435. [PMID: 33800523 PMCID: PMC7998386 DOI: 10.3390/v13030435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Torovirus (ToV) has recently been classified into the new family Tobaniviridae, although it belonged to the Coronavirus (CoV) family historically. ToVs are associated with enteric diseases in animals and humans. In contrast to CoVs, which are recognised as pathogens of veterinary and medical importance, little attention has been paid to ToVs because their infections are usually asymptomatic or not severe; for a long time, only one equine ToV could be propagated in cultured cells. However, bovine ToVs, which predominantly cause diarrhoea in calves, have been detected worldwide, leading to economic losses. Porcine ToVs have also spread globally; although they have not caused serious economic losses, coinfections with other pathogens can exacerbate their symptoms. In addition, frequent inter- or intra-recombination among ToVs can increase pathogenesis or unpredicted host adaptation. These findings have highlighted the importance of ToVs as pathogens and the need for basic ToV research. Here, we review recent progress in the study of ToV molecular biology including reverse genetics, focusing on the similarities and differences between ToVs and CoVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ujike
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan;
- Research Center for Animal Life Science, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Taguchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan;
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80
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Liou TG, Adler FR, Cahill BC, Cox DR, Cox JE, Grant GJ, Hanson KE, Hartsell SC, Hatton ND, Helms MN, Jensen JL, Kartsonaki C, Li Y, Leung DT, Marvin JE, Middleton EA, Osburn-Staker SM, Packer KA, Shakir SM, Sturrock AB, Tardif KD, Warren KJ, Waddoups LJ, Weaver LJ, Zimmerman E, Paine R. SARS-CoV-2 innate effector associations and viral load in early nasopharyngeal infection. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e14761. [PMID: 33625796 PMCID: PMC7903990 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID‐19 causes severe disease with poor outcomes. We tested the hypothesis that early SARS‐CoV‐2 viral infection disrupts innate immune responses. These changes may be important for understanding subsequent clinical outcomes. We obtained residual nasopharyngeal swab samples from individuals who requested COVID‐19 testing for symptoms at drive‐through COVID‐19 clinical testing sites operated by the University of Utah. We applied multiplex immunoassays, real‐time polymerase chain reaction assays and quantitative proteomics to 20 virus‐positive and 20 virus‐negative samples. ACE‐2 transcripts increased with infection (OR =17.4, 95% CI [CI] =4.78–63.8) and increasing viral N1 protein transcript load (OR =1.16, CI =1.10–1.23). Transcripts for two interferons (IFN) were elevated, IFN‐λ1 (OR =71, CI =7.07–713) and IFN‐λ2 (OR =40.2, CI =3.86–419), and closely associated with viral N1 transcripts (OR =1.35, CI =1.23–1.49 and OR =1.33 CI =1.20–1.47, respectively). Only transcripts for IP‐10 were increased among systemic inflammatory cytokines that we examined (OR =131, CI =1.01–2620). We found widespread discrepancies between transcription and translation. IFN proteins were unchanged or decreased in infected samples (IFN‐γ OR =0.90 CI =0.33–0.79, IFN‐λ2,3 OR =0.60 CI =0.48–0.74) suggesting viral‐induced shut‐off of host antiviral protein responses. However, proteins for IP‐10 (OR =3.74 CI =2.07–6.77) and several interferon‐stimulated genes (ISG) increased with viral load (BST‐1 OR =25.1, CI =3.33–188; IFIT1 OR =19.5, CI =4.25–89.2; IFIT3 OR =245, CI =15–4020; MX‐1 OR =3.33, CI =1.44–7.70). Older age was associated with substantial modifications of some effects. Ambulatory symptomatic patients had an innate immune response with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection characterized by elevated IFN, proinflammatory cytokine and ISG transcripts, but there is evidence of a viral‐induced host shut‐off of antiviral responses. Our findings may characterize the disrupted immune landscape common in patients with early disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore G Liou
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Center for Quantitative Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Frederick R Adler
- Center for Quantitative Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Mathematics and School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Barbara C Cahill
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - James E Cox
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Metabolomics, Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Core, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Garett J Grant
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Kimberly E Hanson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,ARUP Laboratories, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Stephen C Hartsell
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Department of Surgery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Nathan D Hatton
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - My N Helms
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Judy L Jensen
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Christiana Kartsonaki
- Clinical Trial Service Unit & Epidemiological Studies Unit and Medical Research Council Population Health Research Unit, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Yanping Li
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Daniel T Leung
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - James E Marvin
- Flow Cytometry Core Laboratory, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Middleton
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Sandra M Osburn-Staker
- Metabolomics, Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Core, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Kristyn A Packer
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Salika M Shakir
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,ARUP Laboratories, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Anne B Sturrock
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - Kristi J Warren
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Lindsey J Waddoups
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Lisa J Weaver
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Elizabeth Zimmerman
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Robert Paine
- Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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de Loyola MB, dos Reis TTA, de Oliveira GXLM, da Fonseca Palmeira J, Argañaraz GA, Argañaraz ER. Alpha-1-antitrypsin: A possible host protective factor against Covid-19. Rev Med Virol 2021; 31:e2157. [PMID: 32844538 PMCID: PMC7461031 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Understanding Covid-19 pathophysiology is crucial for a better understanding of the disease and development of more effective treatments. Alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) is a constitutive tissue protector with antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. A1AT inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection and two of the most important proteases in the pathophysiology of Covid-19: the transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) and the disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17 (ADAM17). It also inhibits the activity of inflammatory molecules, such as IL-8, TNF-α, and neutrophil elastase (NE). TMPRSS2 is essential for SARS-CoV-2-S protein priming and viral infection. ADAM17 mediates ACE2, IL-6R, and TNF-α shedding. ACE2 is the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor and a key component for the balance of the renin-angiotensin system, inflammation, vascular permeability, and pulmonary homeostasis. In addition, clinical findings indicate that A1AT levels might be important in defining Covid-19 outcomes, potentially partially explaining associations with air pollution and with diabetes. In this review, we focused on the interplay between A1AT with TMPRSS2, ADAM17 and immune molecules, and the role of A1AT in the pathophysiology of Covid-19, opening new avenues for investigating effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Julys da Fonseca Palmeira
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurovirology, Faculty of Health ScienceUniversity of BrasíliaBrasiliaBrazil
| | - Gustavo A. Argañaraz
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurovirology, Faculty of Health ScienceUniversity of BrasíliaBrasiliaBrazil
| | - Enrique R. Argañaraz
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurovirology, Faculty of Health ScienceUniversity of BrasíliaBrasiliaBrazil
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Verma J, Subbarao N. A comparative study of human betacoronavirus spike proteins: structure, function and therapeutics. Arch Virol 2021; 166:697-714. [PMID: 33483791 PMCID: PMC7821988 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-04961-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Coronaviruses are the paradigm of emerging 21st century zoonotic viruses, triggering numerous outbreaks and a severe global health crisis. The current COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has affected more than 51 million people across the globe as of 12 November 2020. The crown-like spikes on the surface of the virion are the unique structural feature of viruses in the family Coronaviridae. The spike (S) protein adopts distinct conformations while mediating entry of the virus into the host. This multifunctional protein mediates the entry process by recognizing its receptor on the host cell, followed by the fusion of the viral membrane with the host cell membrane. This review article focuses on the structural and functional comparison of S proteins of the human betacoronaviruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Here, we review the current state of knowledge about receptor recognition, the membrane fusion mechanism, structural epitopes, and glycosylation sites of the S proteins of these viruses. We further discuss various vaccines and other therapeutics such as monoclonal antibodies, peptides, and small molecules based on the S protein of these three viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Verma
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Naidu Subbarao
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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83
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Nguyen HT, Zhang S, Wang Q, Anang S, Wang J, Ding H, Kappes JC, Sodroski J. Spike glycoprotein and host cell determinants of SARS-CoV-2 entry and cytopathic effects. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.02304-20. [PMID: 33310888 PMCID: PMC8092844 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02304-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, a betacoronavirus, is the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein trimer mediates virus entry into host cells and cytopathic effects (syncytium formation). We studied the contribution of several S glycoprotein features to these functions, focusing on those that differ among related coronaviruses. Acquisition of the furin cleavage site by the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein decreased virus stability and infectivity, but greatly enhanced syncytium-forming ability. Notably, the D614G change found in globally predominant SARS-CoV-2 strains increased infectivity, modestly enhanced responsiveness to the ACE2 receptor and susceptibility to neutralizing sera, and tightened association of the S1 subunit with the trimer. Apparently, these two features of the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, the furin cleavage site and D614G, have evolved to balance virus infectivity, stability, cytopathicity and antibody vulnerability. Although the endodomain (cytoplasmic tail) of the S2 subunit was not absolutely required for virus entry or syncytium formation, alteration of palmitoylated cysteine residues in the cytoplasmic tail decreased the efficiency of these processes. As proteolytic cleavage contributes to the activation of the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, we evaluated the ability of protease inhibitors to suppress S glycoprotein function. Matrix metalloprotease inhibitors suppressed S-mediated cell-cell fusion, but not virus entry. Synergy between inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases and TMPRSS2 suggests that both host proteases can activate the S glycoprotein during the process of syncytium formation. These results provide insights into SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein-host cell interactions that likely contribute to the transmission and pathogenicity of this pandemic agent.IMPORTANCE The development of an effective and durable SARS-CoV-2 vaccine is essential for combating the growing COVID-19 pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein is the main target of neutralizing antibodies elicited during virus infection or following vaccination. Knowledge of the spike glycoprotein evolution, function and interactions with host factors will help researchers to develop effective vaccine immunogens and treatments. Here we identify key features of the spike glycoprotein, including the furin cleavage site and the D614G natural mutation, that modulate viral cytopathic effects, infectivity and sensitivity to inhibition. We also identify two inhibitors of host metalloproteases that block S-mediated cell-cell fusion, a process that contributes to the destruction of the virus-infected cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanh T Nguyen
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Shijian Zhang
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Saumya Anang
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jia Wang
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Haitao Ding
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Research Service, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
| | - John C Kappes
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Research Service, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
| | - Joseph Sodroski
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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84
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Senapati S, Banerjee P, Bhagavatula S, Kushwaha PP, Kumar S. Contributions of human ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in determining host–pathogen interaction of COVID-19. J Genet 2021. [PMID: 33707363 PMCID: PMC7904510 DOI: 10.1007/s12041-021-01262-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is at present an emerging global public health crisis. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and trans-membrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) are the two major host factors that contribute to the virulence of SARS-CoV-2 and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from animal to human is considered a rare event that necessarily requires strong evolutionary adaptations. Till date no other human cellular receptors are identified beside ACE2 for SARS-CoV-2 entry inside the human cell. Proteolytic cleavage of viral spike (S)-protein and ACE2 by TMPRSS2 began the entire host–pathogen interaction initiated with the physical binding of ACE2 to S-protein. SARS-CoV-2 S-protein binds to ACE2 with much higher affinity and stability than that of SARS-CoVs. Molecular interactions between ACE2-S and TMPRSS2-S are crucial and preciously mediated by specific residues. Structural stability, binding affinity and level of expression of these three interacting proteins are key susceptibility factors for COVID-19. Specific protein–protein interactions (PPI) are being identified that explains uniqueness of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Amino acid substitutions due to naturally occurring genetic polymorphisms potentially alter these PPIs and poses further clinical heterogeneity of COVID-19. Repurposing of several phytochemicals and approved drugs against ACE2, TMPRSS2 and S-protein have been proposed that could inhibit PPI between them. We have also identified some novel lead phytochemicals present in Azadirachta indica and Aloe barbadensis which could be utilized for further in vitro and in vivo anti-COVID-19 drug discovery. Uncovering details of ACE2-S and TMPRSS2-S interactions would further contribute to future research on COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabyasachi Senapati
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151 401, India.
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85
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de Freitas Santoro D, de Sousa LB, Câmara NOS, de Freitas D, de Oliveira LA. SARS-COV-2 and Ocular Surface: From Physiology to Pathology, a Route to Understand Transmission and Disease. Front Physiol 2021; 12:612319. [PMID: 33643063 PMCID: PMC7907452 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.612319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses gained public attention during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in East Asia in 2003 and spread of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2012. Direct human-to-human contact and droplet are the main methods of transmission. Viral stability in aerosols on different surfaces supports evidence on indirect viral acquisition from fomites through the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes. Given the pandemic circumstances, the level of evidence in COVID-19 and ophthalmology regarding eye infection, conjunctival transmission, and viral shedding through tears is insufficient. Presently, conjunctival transmission of coronaviruses has not been confirmed and remains controversial. Considering the physiology of the lacrimal system and ocular surface, the eyes are considered an immunoprotective site, with several antiviral molecules and anti-inflammatory proteins. Nevertheless, they represent an interface with the exterior world and face daily putative aggressors. Understanding the host's ocular surface immunological and protective environment is crucial to clarify the potential of the conjunctiva as an entry route for SARS-CoV-2 and as part of this viral infection. We will discuss hypothetical ocular surface transmission mechanisms and related counterarguments addressed to both angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors found on the conjunctival and corneal epithelia and lactoferrin, lysozyme, lipocalin and secretory IgA levels in the tear film. Hopefully, we will promote better understanding of this organ in COVID-19 infection and the potential transmission route that can be helpful in setting recommendations on best practices and protective guidelines to mitigate the disease spread.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciene Barbosa de Sousa
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Niels O. S. Câmara
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences IV, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Nephrology Division, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Denise de Freitas
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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86
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Krebs F, Scheller C, Grove-Heike K, Pohl L, Wätzig H. Isoelectric point determination by imaged CIEF of commercially available SARS-CoV-2 proteins and the hACE2 receptor. Electrophoresis 2021; 42:687-692. [PMID: 33533060 PMCID: PMC8013610 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In order to contribute to the scientific research on the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), we have investigated the isoelectric points (pI) of several related proteins, which are commercially available: the receptor‐binding domain (RBD) with His‐ and Fc‐tag, the S1 subunit with His‐tag, the S1/S2 subunits with His‐tag and the human angiotensin‐converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) with His‐tag. First, the theoretical pI values, based on the amino acid (AA) sequences of the proteins, were calculated using the ProtParam tool from the Bioinformatics Resource Portal ExPASy. The proteins were then measured with the Maurice imaged CIEF system (native fluorescence detection), testing various measurement conditions, such as different ampholytes or ampholyte mixtures. Due to isoforms, we get sections with several peaks and not just one peak for each protein. The determined pI range for the RBD/Fc is 8.24–9.32 (theoretical pI: 8.55), for the RBD/His it is 7.36–9.88 (8.91) and for the S1/His it is 7.30–8.37 (7.80). The pI range of the S1/S2/His is 4.41–5.87 (no theoretical pI, AA sequence unknown) and for hACE2/His, the determined global range is 5.19–6.11 (5.60) for all experimental conditions chosen. All theoretically derived values were found within these ranges, usually close to the center. Therefore, we consider theoretical values as useful to make predictions about the isoelectric points of SARS‐CoV‐2 proteins. The experimental conditions had only a minor influence on the pI ranges obtained and mainly influenced the peak shapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finja Krebs
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Christin Scheller
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Kristina Grove-Heike
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lena Pohl
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Hermann Wätzig
- Institute of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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87
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Choudhary J, Dheeman S, Sharma V, Katiyar P, Karn SK, Sarangi MK, Chauhan AK, Verma G, Baliyan N. Insights of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic: a current review. Biol Proced Online 2021; 23:5. [PMID: 33526007 PMCID: PMC7849622 DOI: 10.1186/s12575-020-00141-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19, a pandemic of the 21st century caused by novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 was originated from China and shallowed world economy and human resource. The medical cures via herbal treatments, antiviral drugs, and vaccines still in progress, and studying rigorously. SARS-CoV-2 is more virulent than its ancestors due to evolution in the spike protein(s), mediates viral attachment to the host's membranes. The SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding spike domain associates itself with human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptors. It causes respiratory ailments with irregularities in the hepatic, nervous, and gastrointestinal systems, as reported in humans suffering from COVID-19 and reviewed in the present article. There are several approaches, have been put forward by many countries under the world health organization (WHO) recommendations and some trial drugs were introduced for possible treatment of COVID-19, such as Lopinavir or Ritonavir, Arbidol, Chloroquine (CQ), Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and most important Remdesivir including other like Tocilizumab, Oritavancin, Chlorpromazine, Azithromycin, Baricitinib, etc. RT-PCR is the only and early detection test available besides the rapid test kit (serodiagnosis) used by a few countries due to unreasonable causes. Development of vaccine by several leader of pharmaceutical groups still under trial or waiting for approval for mass inoculation. Management strategies have been evolved by the recommendations of WHO, specifically important to control COVID-19 situations, in the pandemic era. This review will provide a comprehensive collection of studies to support future research and enhancement in our wisdom to combat COVID-19 pandemic and to serve humanity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Choudhary
- Department of Microbiology, Chinmaya Degree College (Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand), Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249401 India
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri Deemed to be University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249404 India
| | - Shrivardhan Dheeman
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248161 India
| | - Vipin Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceuticals Sciences, Faculty of Ayurvedic and Medicinal Sciences, Gurukula Kangri Deemed to be University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249404 India
| | - Prashant Katiyar
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri Deemed to be University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249404 India
| | - Santosh Kumar Karn
- Deaprtment of Biotechnology and Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248161 India
| | - Manoj Kumar Sarangi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248161 India
| | - Ankit Kumar Chauhan
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri Deemed to be University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249404 India
- Atal Bihari Vajpayee Institute of Medical Sciences and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, 110001 India
| | - Gaurav Verma
- Deaprtment of Microbiology, Shri Dev Suman Subharti Medical College, Ras Bihari Bose Subharti University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248001 India
| | - Nitin Baliyan
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukula Kangri Deemed to be University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand 249404 India
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88
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El‐Shimy IA, Mohamed MMA, Hasan SS, Hadi MA. Targeting host cell proteases as a potential treatment strategy to limit the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the respiratory tract. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2021; 9:e00698. [PMID: 33369210 PMCID: PMC7758277 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
As the death toll of Coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) continues to rise worldwide, it is imperative to explore novel molecular mechanisms for targeting SARS-CoV-2. Rather than looking for drugs that directly interact with key viral proteins inhibiting its replication, an alternative and possibly add-on approach is to dismantle the host cell machinery that enables the virus to infect the host cell and spread from one cell to another. Excellent examples of such machinery are host cell proteases whose role in viral pathogenesis has been demonstrated in numerous coronaviruses. In this review, we propose two therapeutic modalities to tackle SARS-CoV-2 infections; the first is to transcriptionally modulate the expression of cellular proteases and their endogenous inhibitors and the second is to directly inhibit their enzymatic activity. We present a nonexhaustive collection of clinically investigated drugs that act by one of these mechanisms and thus represent promising candidates for preclinical in vitro testing and hopefully clinical testing in COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail A. El‐Shimy
- Integrative Research Institute (IRI) for Life SciencesHumboldt University BerlinBerlinGermany
- Institute of PathologyCharité ‐ Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
| | | | | | - Muhammad A. Hadi
- School of PharmacyCollege of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamUK
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89
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Domon H, Maekawa T, Isono T, Furuta K, Kaito C, Terao Y. Proteolytic cleavage of HLA class II by human neutrophil elastase in pneumococcal pneumonia. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2432. [PMID: 33510372 PMCID: PMC7843615 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82212-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial and viral respiratory infections can initiate acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Neutrophils and their granule enzymes, including neutrophil elastase, are key mediators of the pathophysiology of acute respiratory failure. Although intracellular neutrophil elastase functions as a host defensive factor against pathogens, its leakage into airway spaces induces degradation of host connective tissue components. This leakage disrupts host innate immune responses via proteolytic cleavage of Toll-like receptors and cytokines. Here, we investigated whether neutrophils possess proteases that cleave adaptive immune molecules. We found that expression of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II molecule HLA-DP β1 was decreased in THP-1-derived macrophages treated with supernatants from dead neutrophils. This decreased HLA-DP β1 expression was counteracted by treatment with neutrophil elastase inhibitor, suggesting proteolytic cleavage of HLA-DP β1 by neutrophil elastase. SDS-PAGE showed that neutrophil elastase cleaved recombinant HLA-DP α1, -DP β1, -DQ α1, -DQ β1, -DR α, and -DR β1. Neutrophil elastase also cleaved HLA-DP β1 on extracellular vesicles isolated from macrophages without triggering morphological changes. Thus, leakage of neutrophil elastase may disrupt innate immune responses, antigen presentation, and T cell activation. Additionally, inhibition of neutrophil elastase is a potential therapeutic option for treating bacterial and viral pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisanori Domon
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tomoki Maekawa
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Toshihito Isono
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Furuta
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Chikara Kaito
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yutaka Terao
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan.
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90
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Barrett CT, Neal HE, Edmonds K, Moncman CL, Thompson R, Branttie JM, Boggs KB, Wu CY, Leung DW, Dutch RE. Effect of mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on protein stability, cleavage, and cell-cell fusion function. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2021:2021.01.24.428007. [PMID: 33532777 PMCID: PMC7852270 DOI: 10.1101/2021.01.24.428007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S) is the sole viral protein responsible for both viral binding to a host cell and the membrane fusion event needed for cell entry. In addition to facilitating fusion needed for viral entry, S can also drive cell-cell fusion, a pathogenic effect observed in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients. While several studies have investigated S requirements involved in viral particle entry, examination of S stability and factors involved in S cell-cell fusion remain limited. We demonstrate that S must be processed at the S1/S2 border in order to mediate cell-cell fusion, and that mutations at potential cleavage sites within the S2 subunit alter S processing at the S1/S2 border, thus preventing cell-cell fusion. We also identify residues within the internal fusion peptide and the cytoplasmic tail that modulate S cell-cell fusion. Additionally, we examine S stability and protein cleavage kinetics in a variety of mammalian cell lines, including a bat cell line related to the likely reservoir species for SARS-CoV-2, and provide evidence that proteolytic processing alters the stability of the S trimer. This work therefore offers insight into S stability, proteolytic processing, and factors that mediate S cell-cell fusion, all of which help give a more comprehensive understanding of this highly sought-after therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea T. Barrett
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Hadley E. Neal
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Kearstin Edmonds
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Carole L. Moncman
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Rachel Thompson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Jean M. Branttie
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Kerri Beth Boggs
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Cheng-Yu Wu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Daisy W. Leung
- Division of Infection Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rebecca E. Dutch
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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91
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SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses: Mapping of protease recognition sites, antigenic variation of spike protein and their grouping through molecular phylogenetics. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 89:104729. [PMID: 33497837 PMCID: PMC7826164 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, a total of seven human pathogenic coronaviruses (HCoVs) strains were identified, i.e., SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-HKU1. Here, we performed an analysis of the protease recognition sites and antigenic variation of the S-protein of these HCoVs. We showed tissue-specific expression pattern, functions, and a number of recognition sites of proteases in S-proteins from seven strains of HCoVs. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, we found two new protease recognition sites, each of calpain-2, pepsin-A, and caspase-8, and one new protease recognition site each of caspase-6, caspase-3, and furin. Our antigenic mapping study of the S-protein of these HCoVs showed that the SARS-CoV-2 virus strain has the most potent antigenic epitopes (highest antigenicity score with maximum numbers of epitope regions). Additionally, the other six strains of HCoVs show common antigenic epitopes (both B-cell and T-cell), with low antigenicity scores compared to SARS-CoV-2. We suggest that the molecular evolution of structural proteins of human CoV can be classified, such as (i) HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E, (ii) SARS-CoV-2, and SARS-CoV and (iii) HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-HKU1. In conclusion, we can presume that our study might help to prepare the interventions for the possible HCoVs outbreaks in the future.
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Sasaki M, Uemura K, Sato A, Toba S, Sanaki T, Maenaka K, Hall WW, Orba Y, Sawa H. SARS-CoV-2 variants with mutations at the S1/S2 cleavage site are generated in vitro during propagation in TMPRSS2-deficient cells. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009233. [PMID: 33476327 PMCID: PMC7853460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The spike (S) protein of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) binds to a host cell receptor which facilitates viral entry. A polybasic motif detected at the cleavage site of the S protein has been shown to broaden the cell tropism and transmissibility of the virus. Here we examine the properties of SARS-CoV-2 variants with mutations at the S protein cleavage site that undergo inefficient proteolytic cleavage. Virus variants with S gene mutations generated smaller plaques and exhibited a more limited range of cell tropism compared to the wild-type strain. These alterations were shown to result from their inability to utilize the entry pathway involving direct fusion mediated by the host type II transmembrane serine protease, TMPRSS2. Notably, viruses with S gene mutations emerged rapidly and became the dominant SARS-CoV-2 variants in TMPRSS2-deficient cells including Vero cells. Our study demonstrated that the S protein polybasic cleavage motif is a critical factor underlying SARS-CoV-2 entry and cell tropism. As such, researchers should be alert to the possibility of de novo S gene mutations emerging in tissue-culture propagated virus strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michihito Sasaki
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Kentaro Uemura
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Akihiko Sato
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Toba
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Takao Sanaki
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Katsumi Maenaka
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - William W Hall
- International Collaboration Unit, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine, University College of Dublin, Ireland
- Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yasuko Orba
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- International Collaboration Unit, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Sawa
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- International Collaboration Unit, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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93
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Katsi V, Pavlidis G, Charalambous G, Tousoulis D, Toutouzas K. COVID-19, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 and Renin-Angiotensin System Inhibition: Implications for Practice. Curr Hypertens Rev 2021; 18:3-10. [PMID: 33475077 DOI: 10.2174/1573402117666210121100201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies suggested that patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who use renin-angiotensin system (RAS) inhibitors have an increased risk of respiratory failure and death. The hypothesis was that angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARBs) may up-regulate ACE2 expression that is used as receptor for viral entry into cells. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this review is to discuss the existing evidence on the interaction between COVID-19 infection, ACE2 and ACEIs or ARBs and to examine the main implications for clinical practice. In addition, novel therapeutic strategies for blocking ACE2-mediated COVID-19 infection will be displayed. METHODS We performed a comprehensive review of the literature to identify data from clinical and experimental studies for the association between COVID-19 infection, ACE2 and RAS inhibition. RESULTS The current clinical and experimental evidence for ACEIs or ARBs to facilitate severe acute respiratory distress syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is insufficient to suggest discontinuing these drugs. Several observational studies arrive at the conclusion that the continued use of RAS inhibitors is unlike to be harmful in COVID-19-positive patients. CONCLUSIONS Further randomized trials are needed to answer definitely the question of whether RAS inhibitors are harmful or beneficial to patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Katsi
- 1 st Department of Cardiology, 'Hippokration' General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens. Greece
| | - George Pavlidis
- Emergency Department, 'Hippokration' General Hospital, Athens. Greece
| | | | - Dimitrios Tousoulis
- 1 st Department of Cardiology, 'Hippokration' General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens. Greece
| | - Konstantinos Toutouzas
- 1 st Department of Cardiology, 'Hippokration' General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens. Greece
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94
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Schuler BA, Habermann AC, Plosa EJ, Taylor CJ, Jetter C, Negretti NM, Kapp ME, Benjamin JT, Gulleman P, Nichols DS, Braunstein LZ, Hackett A, Koval M, Guttentag SH, Blackwell TS, Webber SA, Banovich NE, Kropski JA, Sucre JM. Age-determined expression of priming protease TMPRSS2 and localization of SARS-CoV-2 in lung epithelium. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:140766. [PMID: 33180746 DOI: 10.1172/jci140766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) global pandemic has led to millions of cases and hundreds of thousands of deaths. While older adults appear at high risk for severe disease, hospitalizations and deaths due to SARS-CoV-2 among children have been relatively rare. Integrating single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of developing mouse lung with temporally resolved immunofluorescence in mouse and human lung tissue, we found that expression of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein primer TMPRSS2 was highest in ciliated cells and type I alveolar epithelial cells (AT1), and TMPRSS2 expression increased with aging in mice and humans. Analysis of autopsy tissue from fatal COVID-19 cases detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA most frequently in ciliated and secretory cells in airway epithelium and AT1 cells in peripheral lung. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was highly colocalized in cells expressing TMPRSS2. Together, these data demonstrate the cellular spectrum infected by SARS-CoV-2 in lung epithelium and suggest that developmental regulation of TMPRSS2 may underlie the relative protection of infants and children from severe respiratory illness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - A Christian Habermann
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | | | - Chase J Taylor
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | | | | | - Meghan E Kapp
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | | | | | - David S Nichols
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Lior Z Braunstein
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Michael Koval
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Timothy S Blackwell
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, and.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Jonathan A Kropski
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, and.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jennifer Ms Sucre
- Department of Pediatrics.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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95
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Domains and Functions of Spike Protein in Sars-Cov-2 in the Context of Vaccine Design. Viruses 2021; 13:v13010109. [PMID: 33466921 PMCID: PMC7829931 DOI: 10.3390/v13010109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The spike protein in SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-2-S) interacts with the human ACE2 receptor to gain entry into a cell to initiate infection. Both Pfizer/BioNTech's BNT162b2 and Moderna's mRNA-1273 vaccine candidates are based on stabilized mRNA encoding prefusion SARS-2-S that can be produced after the mRNA is delivered into the human cell and translated. SARS-2-S is cleaved into S1 and S2 subunits, with S1 serving the function of receptor-binding and S2 serving the function of membrane fusion. Here, I dissect in detail the various domains of SARS-2-S and their functions discovered through a variety of different experimental and theoretical approaches to build a foundation for a comprehensive mechanistic understanding of how SARS-2-S works to achieve its function of mediating cell entry and subsequent cell-to-cell transmission. The integration of structure and function of SARS-2-S in this review should enhance our understanding of the dynamic processes involving receptor binding, multiple cleavage events, membrane fusion, viral entry, as well as the emergence of new viral variants. I highlighted the relevance of structural domains and dynamics to vaccine development, and discussed reasons for the spike protein to be frequently featured in the conspiracy theory claiming that SARS-CoV-2 is artificially created.
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96
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Mészáros B, Sámano-Sánchez H, Alvarado-Valverde J, Čalyševa J, Martínez-Pérez E, Alves R, Shields DC, Kumar M, Rippmann F, Chemes LB, Gibson TJ. Short linear motif candidates in the cell entry system used by SARS-CoV-2 and their potential therapeutic implications. Sci Signal 2021; 14:eabd0334. [PMID: 33436497 PMCID: PMC7928535 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abd0334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The first reported receptor for SARS-CoV-2 on host cells was the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). However, the viral spike protein also has an RGD motif, suggesting that cell surface integrins may be co-receptors. We examined the sequences of ACE2 and integrins with the Eukaryotic Linear Motif (ELM) resource and identified candidate short linear motifs (SLiMs) in their short, unstructured, cytosolic tails with potential roles in endocytosis, membrane dynamics, autophagy, cytoskeleton, and cell signaling. These SLiM candidates are highly conserved in vertebrates and may interact with the μ2 subunit of the endocytosis-associated AP2 adaptor complex, as well as with various protein domains (namely, I-BAR, LC3, PDZ, PTB, and SH2) found in human signaling and regulatory proteins. Several motifs overlap in the tail sequences, suggesting that they may act as molecular switches, such as in response to tyrosine phosphorylation status. Candidate LC3-interacting region (LIR) motifs are present in the tails of integrin β3 and ACE2, suggesting that these proteins could directly recruit autophagy components. Our findings identify several molecular links and testable hypotheses that could uncover mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 attachment, entry, and replication against which it may be possible to develop host-directed therapies that dampen viral infection and disease progression. Several of these SLiMs have now been validated to mediate the predicted peptide interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bálint Mészáros
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.
| | - Hugo Sámano-Sánchez
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany
| | - Jesús Alvarado-Valverde
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany
- Collaboration for joint PhD degree between EMBL and Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences
| | - Jelena Čalyševa
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany
- Collaboration for joint PhD degree between EMBL and Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences
| | - Elizabeth Martínez-Pérez
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany
- Laboratorio de bioinformática estructural, Fundación Instituto Leloir, C1405BWE Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Renato Alves
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany
| | - Denis C Shields
- School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Manjeet Kumar
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.
| | - Friedrich Rippmann
- Computational Chemistry & Biology, Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Lucía B Chemes
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. Rodolfo A. Ugalde", IIB-UNSAM, IIBIO-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, CP1650 San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Toby J Gibson
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.
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97
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Huang T, Sun L, Kang D, Poongavanam V, Liu X, Zhan P, Menéndez-Arias L. Search, Identification, and Design of Effective Antiviral Drugs Against Pandemic Human Coronaviruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1322:219-260. [PMID: 34258743 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-0267-2_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Recent coronavirus outbreaks of SARS-CoV-1 (2002-2003), MERS-CoV (since 2012), and SARS-CoV-2 (since the end of 2019) are examples of how viruses can damage health care and generate havoc all over the world. Coronavirus can spread quickly from person to person causing high morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, the antiviral armamentarium is insufficient to fight these infections. In this chapter, we provide a detailed summary of the current situation in the development of drugs directed against pandemic human coronaviruses. Apart from the recently licensed remdesivir, other antiviral agents discussed in this review include molecules targeting viral components (e.g., RNA polymerase inhibitors, entry inhibitors, or protease inhibitors), compounds interfering with virus-host interactions, and drugs identified in large screening assays, effective against coronavirus replication, but with an uncertain mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianguang Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Lin Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Dongwei Kang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | | | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Luis Menéndez-Arias
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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98
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Senapati S, Banerjee P, Bhagavatula S, Kushwaha PP, Kumar S. Contributions of human ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in determining host-pathogen interaction of COVID-19. J Genet 2021; 100:12. [PMID: 33707363 PMCID: PMC7904510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is at present an emerging global public health crisis. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and trans-membrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) are the two major host factors that contribute to the virulence of SARS-CoV-2 and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from animal to human is considered a rare event that necessarily requires strong evolutionary adaptations. Till date no other human cellular receptors are identified beside ACE2 for SARS-CoV-2 entry inside the human cell. Proteolytic cleavage of viral spike (S)-protein and ACE2 by TMPRSS2 began the entire host-pathogen interaction initiated with the physical binding of ACE2 to S-protein. SARS-CoV-2 S-protein binds to ACE2 with much higher affinity and stability than that of SARS-CoVs. Molecular interactions between ACE2-S and TMPRSS2-S are crucial and preciously mediated by specific residues. Structural stability, binding affinity and level of expression of these three interacting proteins are key susceptibility factors for COVID-19. Specific protein-protein interactions (PPI) are being identified that explains uniqueness of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Amino acid substitutions due to naturally occurring genetic polymorphisms potentially alter these PPIs and poses further clinical heterogeneity of COVID-19. Repurposing of several phytochemicals and approved drugs against ACE2, TMPRSS2 and S-protein have been proposed that could inhibit PPI between them. We have also identified some novel lead phytochemicals present in Azadirachta indica and Aloe barbadensis which could be utilized for further in vitro and in vivo anti-COVID-19 drug discovery. Uncovering details of ACE2-S and TMPRSS2-S interactions would further contribute to future research on COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabyasachi Senapati
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151 401, India.
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99
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Chepur SV, Pluzhnikov NN, Chubar OV, Bakulina LS, Litvinenko IV, Makarov VA, Gogolevsky AS, Myasnikov VA, Myasnikova IA, Al-Shehadat RI. Respiratory RNA Viruses: How to Be Prepared for an Encounter with New Pandemic Virus Strains. BIOLOGY BULLETIN REVIEWS 2021; 11. [PMCID: PMC8078390 DOI: 10.1134/s207908642102002x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The characteristics of the biology of influenza viruses and coronavirus that determine the implementation of the infectious process are presented. With provision for pathogenesis of infection possible effects of serine proteinase inhibitors, heparin, and inhibitors of heparan sulfate receptors in the prevention of cell contamination by viruses are examined. It has been determined that chelators of metals of variable valency and antioxidants should be used for the reduction of replicative activity of viruses and anti-inflammatory therapy. The possibility of a pH-dependent impairment of glycosylation of cellular and viral proteins was traced for chloroquine and its derivatives. The use of low-toxicity drugs as part of adjunct therapy increases the effectiveness of synthetic antiviral drugs and interferons and ensures the safety of baseline therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. V. Chepur
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - N. N. Pluzhnikov
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - O. V. Chubar
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - L. S. Bakulina
- Burdenko Voronezh State Medical University, 394036 Voronezh, Russia
| | | | - V. A. Makarov
- Fundamentals of Biotechnology Federal Research Center, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - A. S. Gogolevsky
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - V. A. Myasnikov
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - I. A. Myasnikova
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - R. I. Al-Shehadat
- State Scientific Research Test Institute of Military Medicine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 195043 St. Petersburg, Russia
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100
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Collin J, Queen R, Zerti D, Dorgau B, Georgiou M, Djidrovski I, Hussain R, Coxhead JM, Joseph A, Rooney P, Lisgo S, Figueiredo F, Armstrong L, Lako M. Co-expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry genes in the superficial adult human conjunctival, limbal and corneal epithelium suggests an additional route of entry via the ocular surface. Ocul Surf 2021; 19:190-200. [PMID: 32502616 PMCID: PMC7267807 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2020.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The high infection rate of SARS-CoV-2 necessitates the need for multiple studies identifying the molecular mechanisms that facilitate the viral entry and propagation. Currently the potential extra-respiratory transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 remain unclear. METHODS Using single-cell RNA Seq and ATAC-Seq datasets and immunohistochemical analysis, we investigated SARS-CoV-2 tropism in the embryonic, fetal and adult human ocular surface. RESULTS The co-expression of ACE2 receptor and entry protease TMPRSS2 was detected in the human adult conjunctival, limbal and corneal epithelium, but not in the embryonic and fetal ocular surface up to 21 post conception weeks. These expression patterns were corroborated by the single cell ATAC-Seq data, which revealed a permissive chromatin in ACE2 and TMPRSS2 loci in the adult conjunctival, limbal and corneal epithelium. Co-expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 was strongly detected in the superficial limbal, corneal and conjunctival epithelium, implicating these as target entry cells for SARS-CoV-2 in the ocular surface. Strikingly, we also identified the key pro-inflammatory signals TNF, NFKβ and IFNG as upstream regulators of the transcriptional profile of ACE2+TMPRSS2+ cells in the superficial conjunctival epithelium, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 may utilise inflammatory driven upregulation of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression to enhance infection in ocular surface. CONCLUSIONS Together our data indicate that the human ocular surface epithelium provides an additional entry portal for SARS-CoV-2, which may exploit inflammatory driven upregulation of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 entry factors to enhance infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Collin
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Rachel Queen
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Darin Zerti
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK; Microscopy Centre and Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Birthe Dorgau
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Maria Georgiou
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Ivo Djidrovski
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Rafiqul Hussain
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Jonathan M Coxhead
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Agatha Joseph
- NHS Blood and Transplant Tissue and Eye Services, Liverpool, UK
| | - Paul Rooney
- NHS Blood and Transplant Tissue and Eye Services, Liverpool, UK
| | - Steven Lisgo
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Francisco Figueiredo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Royal Victoria Infirmary and Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Lyle Armstrong
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Majlinda Lako
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, UK.
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