51
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Fischer A, Häuptli F, Lill MA, Smieško M. Computational Assessment of Combination Therapy of Androgen Receptor-Targeting Compounds. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1001-1009. [PMID: 33523669 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The ligand-binding domain of the androgen receptor (AR) is a target for drugs against prostate cancer and offers three distinct binding sites for small molecules. Drugs acting on the orthosteric hormone binding site suffer from resistance mechanisms that can, in the worst case, reverse their therapeutic effect. While many allosteric ligands targeting either the activation function-2 (AF-2) or the binding function-3 (BF-3) have been reported, their potential for simultaneous administration with currently prescribed antiandrogens was disregarded. Here, we report results of 60 μs molecular dynamics simulations to investigate combinations of orthosteric and allosteric AR antagonists. Our results suggest BF-3 inhibitors to be more suitable in combination with classical antiandrogens as opposed to AF-2 inhibitors based on binding free energies and binding modes. As a mechanistic explanation for these observations, we deduced a structural adaptation of helix-12 involved in the formation of the AF-2 site by classical AR antagonists. Additionally, the changes were accompanied by an expansion of the orthosteric binding site. Considering our predictions, the selective combination of AR-targeting compounds may improve the treatment of prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Fischer
- Computational Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 61, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Florian Häuptli
- Computational Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 61, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus A Lill
- Computational Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 61, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Smieško
- Computational Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 61, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
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52
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Eighty Years of Targeting Androgen Receptor Activity in Prostate Cancer: The Fight Goes on. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13030509. [PMID: 33572755 PMCID: PMC7865914 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13030509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men world-wide, with nearly 1.3 million new cases each year, and over the next twenty years the incidence and death rate are predicted to nearly double. For decades, this lethal disease has been more or less successfully treated using hormonal therapy, which has the ultimate aim of inhibiting androgen signalling. However, prostate tumours can evade such hormonal therapies in a number of different ways and therapy resistant disease, so-called castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is the major clinical problem. Somewhat counterintuitively, the androgen receptor remains a key therapy target in CRPC. Here, we explain why this is the case and summarise both new hormone therapy strategies and the recent advances in knowledge of androgen receptor structure and function that underpin them. Abstract Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer in men in the West, other than skin cancer, accounting for over a quarter of cancer diagnoses in US men. In a seminal paper from 1941, Huggins and Hodges demonstrated that prostate tumours and metastatic disease were sensitive to the presence or absence of androgenic hormones. The first hormonal therapy for PCa was thus castration. In the subsequent eighty years, targeting the androgen signalling axis, where possible using drugs rather than surgery, has been a mainstay in the treatment of advanced and metastatic disease. Androgens signal via the androgen receptor, a ligand-activated transcription factor, which is the direct target of many such drugs. In this review we discuss the role of the androgen receptor in PCa and how the combination of structural information and functional screenings is continuing to be used for the discovery of new drug to switch off the receptor or modify its function in cancer cells.
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53
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Kato K, Nakayoshi T, Inoue H, Fukuyoshi S, Ohta K, Endo Y, Kurimoto E, Oda A. Development of Force Field Parameters for p-Carborane to Investigate the Structural Influence of Carborane Derivatives on Drug Targets by Complex Formation. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:1931-1939. [PMID: 33268711 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b20-00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) has a key role in the development and progression of prostate cancer, and AR antagonists are used for its remedy. Recently, carborane derivatives, which are carbon-containing boron clusters have attracted attention as new AR ligands. Here we determined the force field parameters of 10-vertex and 12-vertex p-carborane to facilitate in silico drug design of boron clusters. Then, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of complexes of AR-carborane derivatives were performed to evaluate the parameters and investigate the influences of carborane derivatives on the three-dimensional structure of AR. Energy profiles were obtained using quantum chemical calculations, and the force-field parameters were determined by curve fitting of the energy profiles. The results of MD simulations indicated that binding of the antagonist-BA341 changed some hydrogen-bond formations involved in the structure and location of helix 12. Those results were consistent with previously reported data. The determined parameters are also useful for refining the structure of the carborane-receptor complex obtained by docking simulations and development of new ligands with carborane cages not only for AR but also for various receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Kato
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University.,College of Pharmacy, Kinjo Gakuin University
| | | | | | - Shuichi Fukuyoshi
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University
| | - Kiminori Ohta
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University.,School of Pharmacy, Showa University
| | - Yasuyuki Endo
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University
| | | | - Akifumi Oda
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University.,Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University.,Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University
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54
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Li J, Cao H, Feng H, Xue Q, Zhang A, Fu J. Evaluation of the Estrogenic/Antiestrogenic Activities of Perfluoroalkyl Substances and Their Interactions with the Human Estrogen Receptor by Combining In Vitro Assays and In Silico Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:14514-14524. [PMID: 33111528 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The potential estrogenic activities of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are controversial. Here, we investigated the estrogenic/antiestrogenic activities of PFASs and explored the corresponding interaction mode of PFASs with the estrogen receptor (ER) by combining in vitro assays and in silico modeling. We found that three PFASs (perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorobutane sulfonate, and perfluoropentanoic acid) exerted antiestrogenic effects by inhibiting luciferase activity, whereas perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) exerted estrogenic effects by inducing luciferase activity. When coexposed to 17β-estradiol (E2), all tested PFASs attenuated the E2-stimulated luciferase activity; unexpectedly, each PFAS could further attenuate the luciferase activity generated by the cotreatment with ICI 182,780 and E2, with a minimal effective concentration comparable to that found in human serum. PFHxS and PFOS significantly induced the gene expression of TFF1; additionally, all PFASs inhibited the E2-induced gene expression of TFF1 and EGR3. Furthermore, the results of the blind docking analyses suggested that the interaction with the coactivator-binding region on the ER surface should be included as a pathway through which PFASs exert estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities. Finally, we revealed the critical molecular property of the zero-order molecular connectivity index (MCI) (0χ) that affects the antiestrogenic activity of PFASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Huiming Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
- Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Hongru Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Qiao Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Aiqian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jianjie Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100085, China
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55
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Azhagiya Singam ER, Tachachartvanich P, Fourches D, Soshilov A, Hsieh JCY, La Merrill MA, Smith MT, Durkin KA. Structure-based virtual screening of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) as endocrine disruptors of androgen receptor activity using molecular docking and machine learning. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 190:109920. [PMID: 32795691 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) pose a substantial threat as endocrine disruptors, and thus early identification of those that may interact with steroid hormone receptors, such as the androgen receptor (AR), is critical. In this study we screened 5,206 PFASs from the CompTox database against the different binding sites on the AR using both molecular docking and machine learning techniques. We developed support vector machine models trained on Tox21 data to classify the active and inactive PFASs for AR using different chemical fingerprints as features. The maximum accuracy was 95.01% and Matthew's correlation coefficient (MCC) was 0.76 respectively, based on MACCS fingerprints (MACCSFP). The combination of docking-based screening and machine learning models identified 29 PFASs that have strong potential for activity against the AR and should be considered priority chemicals for biological toxicity testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Denis Fourches
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Anatoly Soshilov
- Division of Scientific Programs, Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology Branch, Water Toxicology Section, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, USA
| | - Jennifer C Y Hsieh
- Division of Scientific Programs, Reproductive and Cancer Hazard Assessment Branch, Cancer Toxicology and Epidemiology Section, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, USA
| | - Michele A La Merrill
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Martyn T Smith
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Kathleen A Durkin
- Molecular Graphics and Computation Facility, College of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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56
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Bafna D, Ban F, Rennie PS, Singh K, Cherkasov A. Computer-Aided Ligand Discovery for Estrogen Receptor Alpha. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4193. [PMID: 32545494 PMCID: PMC7352601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21124193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BCa) is one of the most predominantly diagnosed cancers in women. Notably, 70% of BCa diagnoses are Estrogen Receptor α positive (ERα+) making it a critical therapeutic target. With that, the two subtypes of ER, ERα and ERβ, have contrasting effects on BCa cells. While ERα promotes cancerous activities, ERβ isoform exhibits inhibitory effects on the same. ER-directed small molecule drug discovery for BCa has provided the FDA approved drugs tamoxifen, toremifene, raloxifene and fulvestrant that all bind to the estrogen binding site of the receptor. These ER-directed inhibitors are non-selective in nature and may eventually induce resistance in BCa cells as well as increase the risk of endometrial cancer development. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop novel drugs with alternative ERα targeting mechanisms that can overcome the limitations of conventional anti-ERα therapies. Several functional sites on ERα, such as Activation Function-2 (AF2), DNA binding domain (DBD), and F-domain, have been recently considered as potential targets in the context of drug research and discovery. In this review, we summarize methods of computer-aided drug design (CADD) that have been employed to analyze and explore potential targetable sites on ERα, discuss recent advancement of ERα inhibitor development, and highlight the potential opportunities and challenges of future ERα-directed drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; (D.B.); (F.B.); (P.S.R.); (K.S.)
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57
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Synthesis and biological activity of 5-aryliden-2-thiohydantoin S-aryl derivatives. Bioorg Chem 2020; 100:103900. [PMID: 32428745 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Three new and complementary approaches to S-arylation of 2-thiohydantoins have been developed: copper-catalyzed cross coupling with either arylboronic acids or aryl iodides under mild conditions, or direct nucleophilic substitution in activated aryl halides. For 38 diverse compounds, reaction yields for all three methods have been determined. Selected by molecular docking, they have been tested on androgen receptor activation, and p53-Mdm2 regulation, and A549, MCF7, VA13, HEK293T, PC3, LnCAP cell lines for cytotoxicity, Two of them turned out to be promising as androgen receptor activators (likely by allosteric regulation), and another one is shown to activate the p53 cascade. It is hoped that 2-thiohydantoin S-arylidenes are worth further studies as biologically active compounds.
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58
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Hu X, Chai X, Wang X, Duan M, Pang J, Fu W, Li D, Hou T. Advances in the computational development of androgen receptor antagonists. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:1453-1461. [PMID: 32439609 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor is a ligand-dependent transcriptional factor and an essential therapeutic target for prostate cancer. Competitive binding of antagonists to the androgen receptor can alleviate aberrant activation of the androgen receptor in prostate cancer. In recent years, computer-aided drug design has played an essential part in the discovery of novel androgen receptor antagonists. This review summarizes the recent advances in the discovery of novel androgen receptor antagonists through computer-aided drug design approaches; and discusses the applications of molecular modeling techniques to understand the resistance mechanisms of androgen receptor antagonists at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueping Hu
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xin Chai
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Xuwen Wang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Mojie Duan
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Jinping Pang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Weitao Fu
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Dan Li
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
| | - Tingjun Hou
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
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59
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Chen Y, Li J, Wu Z, Liu G, Li H, Tang Y, Li W. Computational Insight into the Allosteric Activation Mechanism of Farnesoid X Receptor. J Chem Inf Model 2020; 60:1540-1550. [PMID: 32097559 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a bile acid-sensing transcription factor with indispensable roles in regulating metabolic processes. Nowadays, FXR has become a highly promising drug target for severe liver disorders, especially nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). A recent study showed that imatinib and its analogues were able to allosterically enhance agonist-induced FXR activation and its target gene expression. However, the allosteric modulation mechanism of FXR by these compounds remains unclear. In this work, the most effective imatinib analogue, P16, was used as a probe to explore this issue by computational approaches. Our results identified one potential allosteric site surrounded by residues Ile335, Phe336, Lys338, Glu339, Leu340, and Leu348, which could efficiently accommodate P16. In addition, the long-time molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the binding of P16 could significantly decrease the fluctuation of the co-activator and enhance the communications between the endogenous ligand chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) and FXR. By analyzing the residue interaction network, we observed two unique communication pathways connecting P16 and CDCA through three key residues, Arg331, Ser332, and Phe336. The communications of network organization in the P16-bound complex may allow the synergistic effect of the two compounds via robust signal transmission between the binding sites and global network bridges, which coordinate allosteric transitions and modulate the receptor activity. Our study offers insights into the allosteric modulation occurring in FXR and would be helpful for discovery of new allosteric modulators targeting FXR for further clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Junhao Li
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry and Biology, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health (CBH), KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Zengrui Wu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Guixia Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Honglin Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yun Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Weihua Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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60
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Díaz L, Soler D, Tresadern G, Buyck C, Perez-Benito L, Saen-Oon S, Guallar V, Soliva R. Monte Carlo simulations using PELE to identify a protein-protein inhibitor binding site and pose. RSC Adv 2020; 10:7058-7064. [PMID: 35493910 PMCID: PMC9049779 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra01127d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In silico binding site location and pose prediction for a molecule targeted at a large protein surface is a challenging task. We report a blind test with two peptidomimetic molecules that bind the flu virus hemagglutinin (HA) surface antigen, JNJ7918 and JNJ4796 (recently disclosed in van Dongen et al., Science, 2019, 363). Tests with a series of conventional approaches such as rigid (receptor) docking against available X-ray crystal structures or against an ensemble of structures generated by quick methodologies (NMA, homology modeling) gave mixed results, due to the shallowness and flexibility of the binding site and the sheer size of the target. However, tests with our Monte Carlo platform PELE in two protocols involving either exploration of the whole protein surface (global exploration), or the latter followed by refinement of best solutions (local exploration) yielded remarkably good results by locating the actual binding site and generating binding modes that recovered all native contacts found in the X-ray structures. Thus, the Monte Carlo scheme of PELE seems promising as a quick methodology to overcome the challenge of identifying entirely unknown binding sites and modes for protein–protein disruptors. PELE prospectively unveils the binding site and mode of a protein–protein disruptor.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Díaz
- Nostrum Biodiscovery Jordi Girona 29, Nexus II D128 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Daniel Soler
- Nostrum Biodiscovery Jordi Girona 29, Nexus II D128 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Gary Tresadern
- Computational Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N. V. Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340 Beerse Belgium
| | - Christophe Buyck
- Computational Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N. V. Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340 Beerse Belgium
| | - Laura Perez-Benito
- Computational Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica N. V. Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340 Beerse Belgium
| | - Suwipa Saen-Oon
- Nostrum Biodiscovery Jordi Girona 29, Nexus II D128 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Victor Guallar
- Barcelona Supercomputing Center, Join IRB-BSC Program in Computational Biology Spain.,ICREA Passeig Lluís Companys 23 E-08010 Barcelona Spain
| | - Robert Soliva
- Nostrum Biodiscovery Jordi Girona 29, Nexus II D128 08034 Barcelona Spain
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61
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Fogha J, Diharce J, Obled A, Aci-Sèche S, Bonnet P. Computational Analysis of Crystallization Additives for the Identification of New Allosteric Sites. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:2114-2122. [PMID: 32064372 PMCID: PMC7016913 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Allosteric effect can modulate the biological activity of a protein. Thus, the discovery of new allosteric sites is very attractive for designing new modulators or inhibitors. Here, we propose an innovative way to identify allosteric sites, based on crystallization additives (CA), used to stabilize proteins during the crystallization process. Density and clustering analyses of CA, applied on protein kinase and nuclear receptor families, revealed that CA are not randomly distributed around protein structures, but they tend to aggregate near common sites. All orthosteric and allosteric cavities described in the literature are retrieved from the analysis of CA distribution. In addition, new sites were identified, which could be associated to putative allosteric sites. We proposed an efficient and easy way to use the structural information of CA to identify allosteric sites. This method could assist medicinal chemists for the design of new allosteric compounds targeting cavities of new drug targets.
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62
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Chaturvedi AP, Dehm SM. Androgen Receptor Dependence. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1210:333-350. [PMID: 31900916 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Androgens and the androgen receptor (AR) play crucial roles in the biology of normal and diseased prostate tissue, including prostate cancer (PCa). This dependence is evidenced by the use of androgen depletion therapy (ADT) as the primary treatment for locally advanced, metastatic, or relapsed PCa. This dependence is further evidenced by the various mechanisms employed by PCa cells to re-activate the AR to circumvent the growth-inhibitory effects of ADT. Re-activation of the AR during ADT is central to the disease evolving into the lethal castration resistant PCa (CRPC) phenotype, which is responsible for nearly all PCa mortality. Thus, understanding the regulation of AR and AR signaling is important for understanding the development and progression of PCa. This understanding provides the foundation for development of newer approaches for targeting CRPC therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott M Dehm
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
- Department of Urology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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63
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Fusani L, Palmer DS, Somers DO, Wall ID. Exploring Ligand Stability in Protein Crystal Structures Using Binding Pose Metadynamics. J Chem Inf Model 2020; 60:1528-1539. [PMID: 31910338 PMCID: PMC7145342 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Identification of
correct protein–ligand binding poses is
important in structure-based drug design and crucial for the evaluation
of protein–ligand binding affinity. Protein–ligand coordinates are commonly obtained from
crystallography experiments that provide a static model of an ensemble
of conformations. Binding pose metadynamics (BPMD) is an enhanced
sampling method that allows for an efficient assessment of ligand
stability in solution. Ligand poses that are unstable under the bias
of the metadynamics simulation are expected to be infrequently occupied
in the energy landscape, thus making minimal contributions to the
binding affinity. Here, the robustness of the method is studied using
crystal structures with ligands known to be incorrectly modeled, as
well as 63 structurally diverse crystal structures with ligand fit
to electron density from the Twilight database. Results show that
BPMD can successfully differentiate compounds whose binding pose is
not supported by the electron density from those with well-defined
electron density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Fusani
- Molecular Design UK, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire SG1 2NY, U.K.,Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G11XL, U.K
| | - David S Palmer
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G11XL, U.K
| | - Don O Somers
- Protein, Cellular and Structural Sciences, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire SG1 2NY, U.K
| | - Ian D Wall
- Molecular Design UK, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire SG1 2NY, U.K
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64
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Allosteric Binding Sites On Nuclear Receptors: Focus On Drug Efficacy and Selectivity. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020534. [PMID: 31947677 PMCID: PMC7014104 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear receptors (NRs) are highly relevant drug targets in major indications such as oncologic, metabolic, reproductive, and immunologic diseases. However, currently, marketed drugs designed towards the orthosteric binding site of NRs often suffer from resistance mechanisms and poor selectivity. The identification of two superficial allosteric sites, activation function-2 (AF-2) and binding function-3 (BF-3), as novel drug targets sparked the development of inhibitors, while selectivity concerns due to a high conservation degree remained. To determine important pharmacophores and hydration sites among AF-2 and BF-3 of eight hormonal NRs, we systematically analyzed over 10 μ s of molecular dynamics simulations including simulations in explicit water and solvent mixtures. In addition, a library of over 300 allosteric inhibitors was evaluated by molecular docking. Based on our results, we suggest the BF-3 site to offer a higher potential for drug selectivity as opposed to the AF-2 site that is more conserved among the selected receptors. Detected similarities among the AF-2 sites of various NRs urge for a broader selectivity assessment in future studies. In combination with the Supplementary Material, this work provides a foundation to improve both selectivity and potency of allosteric inhibitors in a rational manner and increase the therapeutic applicability of this promising compound class.
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MacKerell AD, Jo S, Lakkaraju SK, Lind C, Yu W. Identification and characterization of fragment binding sites for allosteric ligand design using the site identification by ligand competitive saturation hotspots approach (SILCS-Hotspots). Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2020; 1864:129519. [PMID: 31911242 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2020.129519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fragment-based ligand design is used for the development of novel ligands that target macromolecules, most notably proteins. Central to its success is the identification of fragment binding sites that are spatially adjacent such that fragments occupying those sites may be linked to create drug-like ligands. Current experimental and computational approaches that address this problem typically identify only a limited number of sites as well as use a limited number of fragment types. METHODS The site-identification by ligand competitive saturation (SILCS) approach is extended to the identification of fragment bindings sites, with the method termed SILCS-Hotspots. The approach involves precomputation of the SILCS FragMaps following which the identification of Hotspots, performed by identifying of all possible fragment binding sites on the full 3D structure of the protein followed by spatial clustering. RESULTS The SILCS-Hotspots approach identifies a large number of sites on the target protein, including many sites not accessible in experimental structures due to low binding affinities and binding sites on the protein interior. The identified sites are shown to recapitulate the location of known drug-like molecules in both allosteric and orthosteric binding sites on seven proteins including the androgen receptor, the CDK2 and Erk5 kinases, PTP1B phosphatase and three GPCRs; the β2-adrenergic, GPR40 fatty-acid binding and M2-muscarinic receptors. Analysis indicates the importance of considering all possible fragment binding sites, and not just those accessible to experimental methods, when identifying novel binding sites and performing ligand design versus just considering the most favorable sites. The approach is shown to identify a larger number of known binding sites of drug-like molecules versus the commonly used FTMap and Fpocket methods. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE The present results indicate the potential utility of the SILCS-Hotspots approach for fragment-based rational design of ligands, including allosteric modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander D MacKerell
- Computer Aided Drug Design Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States of America.
| | - Sunhwan Jo
- SilcsBio, LLC, 8 Market Place, Suite 300, Baltimore, MD 21202, United States of America
| | | | - Christoffer Lind
- Computer Aided Drug Design Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States of America
| | - Wenbo Yu
- Computer Aided Drug Design Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States of America
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Sabanés Zariquiey F, de Souza JV, Bronowska AK. Cosolvent Analysis Toolkit (CAT): a robust hotspot identification platform for cosolvent simulations of proteins to expand the druggable proteome. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19118. [PMID: 31836830 PMCID: PMC6910964 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55394-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cosolvent Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations are increasingly popular techniques developed for prediction and characterization of allosteric and cryptic binding sites, which can be rendered “druggable” by small molecule ligands. Despite their conceptual simplicity and effectiveness, the analysis of cosolvent MD trajectories relies on pocket volume data, which requires a high level of manual investigation and may introduce a bias. In this work, we present CAT (Cosolvent Analysis Toolkit): an open-source, freely accessible analytical tool, suitable for automated analysis of cosolvent MD trajectories. CAT is compatible with commonly used molecular graphics software packages such as UCSF Chimera and VMD. Using a novel hybrid empirical force field scoring function, CAT accurately ranks the dynamic interactions between the macromolecular target and cosolvent molecules. To benchmark, CAT was used for three validated protein targets with allosteric and orthosteric binding sites, using five chemically distinct cosolvent molecules. For all systems, CAT has accurately identified all known sites. CAT can thus assist in computational studies aiming at identification of protein “hotspots” in a wide range of systems. As an easy-to-use computational tool, we expect that CAT will contribute to an increase in the size of the potentially ‘druggable’ human proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesc Sabanés Zariquiey
- Chemistry - School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, NE1 7RU, Newcastle, United Kingdom
| | - João V de Souza
- Chemistry - School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, NE1 7RU, Newcastle, United Kingdom
| | - Agnieszka K Bronowska
- Chemistry - School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, NE1 7RU, Newcastle, United Kingdom.
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67
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Chai SC, Wright WC, Chen T. Strategies for developing pregnane X receptor antagonists: Implications from metabolism to cancer. Med Res Rev 2019; 40:1061-1083. [PMID: 31782213 DOI: 10.1002/med.21648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a ligand-activated nuclear receptor (NR) that was originally identified as a master regulator of xenobiotic detoxification. It regulates the expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters to control the degradation and excretion of endobiotics and xenobiotics, including therapeutic agents. The metabolism and disposition of drugs might compromise their efficacy and possibly cause drug toxicity and/or drug resistance. Because many drugs can promiscuously bind and activate PXR, PXR antagonists might have therapeutic value in preventing and overcoming drug-induced PXR-mediated drug toxicity and drug resistance. Furthermore, PXR is now known to have broader cellular functions, including the regulation of cell proliferation, and glucose and lipid metabolism. Thus, PXR might be involved in human diseases such as cancer and metabolic diseases. The importance of PXR antagonists is discussed in the context of the role of PXR in xenobiotic sensing and other disease-related pathways. This review focuses on the development of PXR antagonists, which has been hampered by the promiscuity of PXR ligand binding. However, substantial progress has been made in recent years, suggesting that it is feasible to develop selective PXR antagonists. We discuss the current status, challenges, and strategies in developing selective PXR antagonists. The strategies are based on the molecular mechanisms of antagonism in related NRs that can be applied to the design of PXR antagonists, primarily driven by structural information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio C Chai
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - William C Wright
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee.,Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Taosheng Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee.,Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
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68
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Kumar P, Swagatika S, Dasari S, Tomar RS, Patra AK. Modulation of ruthenium anticancer drugs analogs with tolfenamic acid: Reactivity, biological interactions and growth inhibition of yeast cell. J Inorg Biochem 2019; 199:110769. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.110769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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69
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Singam ERA, Tachachartvanich P, Merrill MAL, Smith MT, Durkin KA. Structural Dynamics of Agonist and Antagonist Binding to the Androgen Receptor. J Phys Chem B 2019; 123:7657-7666. [PMID: 31431014 PMCID: PMC6742532 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.9b05654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is a steroid hormone nuclear receptor which upon binding its endogenous androgenic ligands (agonists), testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), alters gene transcription, producing a diverse range of biological effects. Antiandrogens, such as the pharmaceuticals bicalutamide and hydroxyflutamide, act as agonists in the absence of androgens and as antagonists in their presence or in high concentration. The atomic level mechanism of action by agonists and antagonists of AR is less well characterized. Therefore, in this study, multiple 1 μs molecular dynamics (MD), docking simulations, and perturbation-response analyses were performed to more fully explore the nature of interaction between agonist or antagonist and AR and the conformational changes induced in the AR upon interaction with different ligands. We characterized the mechanism of the ligand entry/exit and found that helix-12 and nearby structural motifs respond dynamically in that process. Modeling showed that the agonist and antagonist/agonist form a hydrogen bond with Thr877/Asn705 and that this interaction is absent for antagonists. Agonist binding to AR increases the mobility of residues at allosteric sites and coactivator binding sites, while antagonist binding decreases mobility at these important sites. A new site was also identified as a potential surface for allosteric binding. These results shed light on the effect of agonists and antagonists on the structure and dynamics of AR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Martyn T. Smith
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Kathleen A. Durkin
- Molecular Graphics and Computation Facility, College of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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70
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Skowron KJ, Booker K, Cheng C, Creed S, David BP, Lazzara PR, Lian A, Siddiqui Z, Speltz TE, Moore TW. Steroid receptor/coactivator binding inhibitors: An update. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 493:110471. [PMID: 31163202 PMCID: PMC6645384 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.110471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to highlight recent developments in small molecules and peptides that block the binding of coactivators to steroid receptors. These coactivator binding inhibitors bind at the coregulator binding groove, also known as Activation Function-2, rather than at the ligand-binding site of steroid receptors. Steroid receptors that have been targeted with coactivator binding inhibitors include the androgen receptor, estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor. Coactivator binding inhibitors may be useful in some cases of resistance to currently prescribed therapeutics. The scope of the review includes small-molecule and peptide coactivator binding inhibitors for steroid receptors, with a particular focus on recent compounds that have been assayed in cell-based models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kornelia J Skowron
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Kenneth Booker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Changfeng Cheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Simone Creed
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Brian P David
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Phillip R Lazzara
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Amy Lian
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Zamia Siddiqui
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Thomas E Speltz
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 929 E. 57th Street, E547, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Terry W Moore
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA; University of Illinois Cancer Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1801 W. Taylor Street, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
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71
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Elshan NGRD, Rettig MB, Jung ME. Molecules targeting the androgen receptor (AR) signaling axis beyond the AR-Ligand binding domain. Med Res Rev 2019; 39:910-960. [PMID: 30565725 PMCID: PMC6608750 DOI: 10.1002/med.21548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common cause of cancer-related mortality in men in the United States. The androgen receptor (AR) and the physiological pathways it regulates are central to the initiation and progression of PCa. As a member of the nuclear steroid receptor family, it is a transcription factor with three distinct functional domains (ligand-binding domain [LBD], DNA-binding domain [DBD], and transactivation domain [TAD]) in its structure. All clinically approved drugs for PCa ultimately target the AR-LBD. Clinically active drugs that target the DBD and TAD have not yet been developed due to multiple factors. Despite these limitations, the last several years have seen a rise in the discovery of molecules that could successfully target these domains. This review aims to present and comprehensively discuss such molecules that affect AR signaling through direct or indirect interactions with the AR-TAD or the DBD. The compounds discussed here include hairpin polyamides, niclosamide, marine sponge-derived small molecules (eg, EPI compounds), mahanine, VPC compounds, JN compounds, and bromodomain and extraterminal domain inhibitors. We highlight the significant in vitro and in vivo data found for each compound and the apparent limitations and/or potential for further development of these agents as PCa therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew B. Rettig
- . Division of Hematology/Oncology, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System West LA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- . Departments of Medicine and Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Michael E. Jung
- . Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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72
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Lee II, Kuznik NC, Rottenberg JT, Brown M, Cato ACB. BAG1L: a promising therapeutic target for androgen receptor-dependent prostate cancer. J Mol Endocrinol 2019; 62:R289-R299. [PMID: 30913537 DOI: 10.1530/jme-19-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are important determinants of normal and malignant prostate growth. They function by binding to the C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the androgen receptor (AR). All clinically approved AR-targeting antiandrogens for prostate cancer therapy function by competing with endogenous androgens. Despite initial robust responses to androgen deprivation therapy, nearly all patients with advanced prostate cancer relapse with lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Progression to CRPC is associated with ongoing AR signaling, which in part, is due to the expression of constitutively active AR splice variants that contain the N-terminus of the receptor but lack the C-terminus. Currently, there are no approved therapies specifically targeting the AR N-terminus. Current pharmacologic targeting strategies for inhibiting the AR N-terminal region have proven difficult, due to its intrinsically unstructured nature and lack of enzymatic activity. An alternative approach is to target key molecules such as the cochaperone BAG1L that bind to and enhance the activity of the AR AF1. Here, we review recent literature that suggest Bag-1L is a promising target for AR-positive prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene I Lee
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nane C Kuznik
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Jaice T Rottenberg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Myles Brown
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Functional Cancer Epigenetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrew C B Cato
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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73
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Meijer FA, Leijten-van de Gevel IA, de Vries RMJM, Brunsveld L. Allosteric small molecule modulators of nuclear receptors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 485:20-34. [PMID: 30703487 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear Receptors (NRs) are multi-domain proteins, whose natural regulation occurs via ligands for a classical, orthosteric, binding pocket and via intra- and inter-domain allosteric mechanisms. Allosteric modulation of NRs via synthetic small molecules has recently emerged as an interesting entry to address the need for small molecules targeting NRs in pathology, via novel modes of action and with beneficial profiles. In this review the general concept of allosteric modulation in drug discovery is first discussed, serving as a background and inspiration for NRs. Subsequently, the review focuses on examples of small molecules that allosterically modulate NRs, with a strong focus on structural information and the ligand binding domain. Recently discovered nanomolar potent allosteric site NR modulators are catapulting allosteric targeting of NRs to the center of attention. The obtained insights serve as a basis for recommendations for the next steps to take in allosteric small molecular targeting of NRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Femke A Meijer
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Iris A Leijten-van de Gevel
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Rens M J M de Vries
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Luc Brunsveld
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Den Dolech 2, 5612AZ, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
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74
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Mutchie TR, Yu OB, Di Milo ES, Arnold LA. Alternative binding sites at the vitamin D receptor and their ligands. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 485:1-8. [PMID: 30654005 PMCID: PMC6444937 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, the majority of ligands developed for the vitamin D receptor (VDR) bind at its deeply buried genomic ligand binding pocket. Theses ligands can be categorized into agonists and partial agonists/antagonists. A limited number of ligands, most of them peptides, bind the VDR‒coactivator binding site that is formed in the presence of an agonist and inhibit coactivator recruitment, and therefore transcription. Another solvent exposed VDR‒ligand binding pocket was identified for lithocholic acid, improving the overall stability of the VDR complex. Additional proposed interactions with VDR are discussed herein that include the alternative VDR‒ligand binding pocket that may mediate both non-genomic cellular responses and binding function 3 that was identified for the androgen receptor. Many VDR ligands increase blood calcium levels at therapeutic concentrations in vivo, thus the identification of alternative VDR‒ligand binding pockets might be crucial to develop non-calcemic and potent ligands for VDR to treat cancer and inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania R Mutchie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Milwaukee Institute for Drug Discovery (MIDD), University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Olivia B Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Milwaukee Institute for Drug Discovery (MIDD), University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Elliot S Di Milo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Milwaukee Institute for Drug Discovery (MIDD), University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Leggy A Arnold
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Milwaukee Institute for Drug Discovery (MIDD), University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA.
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75
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Okafor CD, Colucci JK, Ortlund EA. Ligand-Induced Allosteric Effects Governing SR Signaling. NUCLEAR RECEPTOR RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.32527/2019/101382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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76
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Li D, Zhou W, Pang J, Tang Q, Zhong B, Shen C, Xiao L, Hou T. A magic drug target: Androgen receptor. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:1485-1514. [PMID: 30569509 DOI: 10.1002/med.21558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is closely associated with a group of hormone-related diseases including the cancers of prostate, breast, ovary, pancreas, etc and anabolic deficiencies such as muscle atrophy and osteoporosis. Depending on the specific type and stage of the diseases, AR ligands including not only antagonists but also agonists and modulators are considered as potential therapeutics, which makes AR an extremely interesting drug target. Here, we at first review the current understandings on the structural characteristics of AR, and then address why and how AR is investigated as a drug target for the relevant diseases and summarize the representative antagonists and agonists targeting five prospective small molecule binding sites at AR, including ligand-binding pocket, activation function-2 site, binding function-3 site, DNA-binding domain, and N-terminal domain, providing recent insights from a target and drug development view. Further comprehensive studies on AR and AR ligands would bring fruitful information and push the therapy of AR relevant diseases forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenfang Zhou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jinping Pang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qin Tang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bingling Zhong
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chao Shen
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Li Xiao
- School of Life Science, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Tingjun Hou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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77
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Liu N, Zhou W, Guo Y, Wang J, Fu W, Sun H, Li D, Duan M, Hou T. Molecular Dynamics Simulations Revealed the Regulation of Ligands to the Interactions between Androgen Receptor and Its Coactivator. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 58:1652-1661. [PMID: 29993249 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.8b00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) plays important roles in gene expression regulation, sexual phenotype maintenance, and prostate cancer (PCa) development. The communications between the AR ligand-binding domain (LBD) and its coactivator are critical to the activation of AR. It is still unclear how the ligand binding would affect the AR-coactivator interactions. In this work, the effects of the ligand binding on the AR-coactivator communications were explored by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The results showed that the ligand binding regulates the residue interactions in the function site AF-2. The ligand-to-coactivator allosteric pathway, which involves the coactivator, helix 3 (H3), helix 4 (H4), the loop between H3 and H4 (L3), and helix 12 (H12), and ligands, was characterized. In addition, the interactions of residues on the function site BF-3, especially on the boundary of AF-2 and BF-3, are also affected by the ligands. The MM/GBSA free energy calculations demonstrated that the binding affinity between the coactivator and apo-AR is roughly weaker than those between the coactivator and antagonistic ARs but stronger than those between the coactivator and agonistic ARs. The results indicated that the long-range electrostatic interactions and the conformational entropies are the main factors affecting the binding free energies. In addition, the F876L mutation on AR-LBD affects the ligand-to-coactivator allosteric pathway, which could be the reason for point mutation induced tolerance for the antagonistic drugs such as enzalutamide. Our study would help to develop novel drug candidates against PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Liu
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan , Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Wuhan 430071 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , People's Republic of China
| | - Wenfang Zhou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Guo
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan , Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Wuhan 430071 , China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , People's Republic of China
| | - Junmei Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15261 , United States
| | - Weitao Fu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyong Sun
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , People's Republic of China
| | - Mojie Duan
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan , Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Wuhan 430071 , China
| | - Tingjun Hou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , People's Republic of China
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78
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Graham SE, Leja N, Carlson HA. MixMD Probeview: Robust Binding Site Prediction from Cosolvent Simulations. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 58:1426-1433. [PMID: 29905479 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.8b00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mixed-solvent molecular dynamics (MixMD) is a cosolvent simulation technique for identifying binding hotspots and specific favorable interactions on a protein's surface. MixMD studies have the ability to identify these biologically relevant sites by examining the occupancy of the cosolvent over the course of the simulation. However, previous MixMD analysis required a great deal of manual inspection to identify relevant sites. To address this limitation, we have developed MixMD Probeview as a plugin for the freely available, open-source version of the molecular visualization program PyMOL. MixMD Probeview incorporates two analysis procedures: (1) identifying and ranking whole binding sites and (2) identifying and ranking local maxima for each probe type. These functionalities were validated using four common benchmark proteins, including two with both active and allosteric sites. In addition, three different cosolvent procedures were compared to examine the impact of including more than one cosolvent in the simulations. For all systems tested, MixMD Probeview successfully identified known active and allosteric sites based on the total occupancy of neutral probe molecules. As an easy-to-use PyMOL plugin, we expect that MixMD Probeview will facilitate identification and analysis of binding sites from cosolvent simulations performed on a wide range of systems.
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79
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Sakkiah S, Kusko R, Pan B, Guo W, Ge W, Tong W, Hong H. Structural Changes Due to Antagonist Binding in Ligand Binding Pocket of Androgen Receptor Elucidated Through Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:492. [PMID: 29867496 PMCID: PMC5962723 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
When a small molecule binds to the androgen receptor (AR), a conformational change can occur which impacts subsequent binding of co-regulator proteins and DNA. In order to accurately study this mechanism, the scientific community needs a crystal structure of the Wild type AR (WT-AR) ligand binding domain, bound with antagonist. To address this open need, we leveraged molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to construct a structure of the WT-AR ligand binding domain bound with antagonist bicalutamide. The structure of mutant AR (Mut-AR) bound with this same antagonist informed this study. After molecular docking analysis pinpointed the suitable binding orientation of a ligand in AR, the model was further optimized through 1 μs of MD simulations. Using this approach, three molecular systems were studied: (1) WT-AR bound with agonist R1881, (2) WT-AR bound with antagonist bicalutamide, and (3) Mut-AR bound with bicalutamide. Our structures were very similar to the experimentally determined structures of both WT-AR with R1881 and Mut-AR with bicalutamide, demonstrating the trustworthiness of this approach. In our model, when WT-AR is bound with bicalutamide, Val716/Lys720/Gln733, or Met734/Gln738/Glu897 move and thus disturb the positive and negative charge clumps of the AF2 site. This disruption of the AF2 site is key for understanding the impact of antagonist binding on subsequent co-regulator binding. In conclusion, the antagonist induced structural changes in WT-AR detailed in this study will enable further AR research and will facilitate AR targeting drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sugunadevi Sakkiah
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
| | - Rebecca Kusko
- Immuneering Corporation, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Bohu Pan
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
| | - Wenjing Guo
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
| | - Weigong Ge
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
| | - Weida Tong
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
| | - Huixiao Hong
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, United States
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80
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Ban F, Dalal K, LeBlanc E, Morin H, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Cheminformatics Driven Development of Novel Therapies for Drug Resistant Prostate Cancer. Mol Inform 2018; 37:e1800043. [PMID: 29733509 DOI: 10.1002/minf.201800043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) is a master regulator of prostate cancer (PCa), and therefore is a pivotal drug target for the treatment of PCa including its castration-resistance form (CRPC). The development of acquired resistance is a major challenge in the use of the current antiandrogens. The recent advancements in inhibiting AR activity with small molecules specifically designed to target areas distinct from the receptor's androgen binding site are carefully discussed. Our new classes of AR inhibitors of AF2 and BF3 functional sites and DBD domains designed using cheminformatics techniques are promising to circumvent various AR-dependent resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Ban
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Eric LeBlanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Hélène Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada.,Department of Urology, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre (VPC), 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H3Z6, Canada.,Department of Urology, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6H 3Z6, Canada
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81
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Badders NM, Korff A, Miranda HC, Vuppala PK, Smith RB, Winborn BJ, Quemin ER, Sopher BL, Dearman J, Messing J, Kim NC, Moore J, Freibaum BD, Kanagaraj AP, Fan B, Tillman H, Chen PC, Wang Y, Freeman BB, Li Y, Kim HJ, La Spada AR, Taylor JP. Selective modulation of the androgen receptor AF2 domain rescues degeneration in spinal bulbar muscular atrophy. Nat Med 2018; 24:427-437. [PMID: 29505030 PMCID: PMC5975249 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Spinal bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a motor neuron disease caused by toxic gain of function of the androgen receptor (AR). Previously, we found that co-regulator binding through the activation function-2 (AF2) domain of AR is essential for pathogenesis, suggesting that AF2 may be a potential drug target for selective modulation of toxic AR activity. We screened previously identified AF2 modulators for their ability to rescue toxicity in a Drosophila model of SBMA. We identified two compounds, tolfenamic acid (TA) and 1-[2-(4-methylphenoxy)ethyl]-2-[(2-phenoxyethyl)sulfanyl]-1H-benzimidazole (MEPB), as top candidates for rescuing lethality, locomotor function and neuromuscular junction defects in SBMA flies. Pharmacokinetic analyses in mice revealed a more favorable bioavailability and tissue retention of MEPB compared with TA in muscle, brain and spinal cord. In a preclinical trial in a new mouse model of SBMA, MEPB treatment yielded a dose-dependent rescue from loss of body weight, rotarod activity and grip strength. In addition, MEPB ameliorated neuronal loss, neurogenic atrophy and testicular atrophy, validating AF2 modulation as a potent androgen-sparing strategy for SBMA therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha M Badders
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ane Korff
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Helen C Miranda
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pradeep K Vuppala
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rebecca B Smith
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brett J Winborn
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Emmanuelle R Quemin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Bryce L Sopher
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jennifer Dearman
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - James Messing
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Nam Chul Kim
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jennifer Moore
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brian D Freibaum
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Anderson P Kanagaraj
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Baochang Fan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Heather Tillman
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ping-Chung Chen
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yingzhe Wang
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Burgess B Freeman
- Preclinical Pharmacokinetic Shared Resource, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yimei Li
- Department of Biostatistics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Hong Joo Kim
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Albert R La Spada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Departments of Neurology, Neurobiology and Cell Biology, and the Duke Center for Neurodegeneration & Neurotherapeutics, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - J Paul Taylor
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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82
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Starkey NJE, Li Y, Drenkhahn-Weinaug SK, Liu J, Lubahn DB. 27-Hydroxycholesterol Is an Estrogen Receptor β-Selective Negative Allosteric Modifier of 17β-Estradiol Binding. Endocrinology 2018; 159:1972-1981. [PMID: 29579190 PMCID: PMC6693046 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Estrogens bind to two nuclear estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, ERα and ERβ, which are expressed in differing amounts in various tissues. The endogenous estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2), binds to both subtypes with nearly equal affinity and is the prototypical agonist. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) may bind to both subtypes with equivalent affinities but have agonist activities in some tissues while having antagonist activities in others. In the present study, we demonstrate that the first reported endogenous SERM, 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-OHC), binds preferentially (>100-fold) to ERβ over ERα. Furthermore, 27-OHC is not able to fully compete with E2 binding, suggesting the two may bind at different sites. We provide an allosteric ternary complex model for the simultaneous binding of 27-OHC and E2 to ERβ, which accurately describes the binding data we have observed. We conclude that 27-OHC is a negative allosteric modifier of E2 binding, with an inhibitor constantof 50 nM and cooperativity factor (α) of 0.036. We also propose an in silico three-dimensional model of the simultaneous binding to guide future experiments. Further study of this unique binding model may allow for the discovery of novel ERβ-selective ligands and potentially explain the lack of effectiveness of ERβ-selective agonists in humans vs preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yufei Li
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Sara K Drenkhahn-Weinaug
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Department of Chemistry, Lindenwood University–Belleville, Belleville, Illinois
| | - Jinghua Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Dennis B Lubahn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Department of Child Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
- Correspondence: Dennis B. Lubahn, PhD, 110A Animal Science Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211. E-mail:
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83
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Abstract
The nuclear receptor family of transcription factor proteins mediates endocrine function and plays critical roles in the development, physiology and pharmacology. Malfunctioning nuclear receptors are associated with several disease states. The functional activity of nuclear receptors is regulated by small molecular hormonal and synthetic molecules. Multiple sources of evidence have identified and distinguished between the different allosteric pathways initiated by ligands, DNA and cofactors such as co-activators and co-repressors. Also, these biophysical studies are attempting to determine how these pathways that regulate co-activator and DNA recognition can control gene transcription. Thus, there is a growing interest in determining the genome-scale impact of allostery in nuclear receptors. Today, it is accepted that a detailed understanding of the allosteric regulatory pathways within the nuclear receptor molecular complex will enable the development of efficient drug therapies in the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias J Fernandez
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Tennessee, USA.
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84
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Prekovic S, Van den Broeck T, Moris L, Smeets E, Claessens F, Joniau S, Helsen C, Attard G. Treatment-induced changes in the androgen receptor axis: Liquid biopsies as diagnostic/prognostic tools for prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 462:56-63. [PMID: 28882555 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer progression and treatment relapse is associated with changes in the androgen receptor axis, and analysis of alternations of androgen receptor signaling is valuable for prognostics and treatment optimization. The profile of androgen receptor axis is currently obtained from biopsy specimens, which are not always easy to obtain. Moreover, the information acquired only provides a snapshot of the tumor biology, with strict spatial and temporal limitations. On the other hand, circulation is easily accessible source of both circulating tumor cells and circulating tumor DNA, which can be sampled at numerous time points. This Review will explore the potential use of androgen receptor axis alternations detectable in the blood in therapeutic decision-making and precision medicine for advancing metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Prekovic
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Oncogenomics, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - T Van den Broeck
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Urology, University Hospitals Leuven, Herestraat 49, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - L Moris
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - E Smeets
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - F Claessens
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - S Joniau
- Department of Urology, University Hospitals Leuven, Herestraat 49, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - C Helsen
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - G Attard
- The Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, UK; Royal Marsden National Health Service Foundation Trust, London SM2 5PT, UK
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85
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Cao H, Li X, Zhang W, Wang L, Pan Y, Zhou Z, Chen M, Zhang A, Liang Y, Song M. Anti-estrogenic activity of tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) isocyanurate through disruption of co-activator recruitment: experimental and computational studies. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:1471-1482. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2159-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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86
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Sakkiah S, Wang T, Zou W, Wang Y, Pan B, Tong W, Hong H. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Mediated through Binding Androgen Receptor Are Associated with Diabetes Mellitus. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 15:ijerph15010025. [PMID: 29295509 PMCID: PMC5800125 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can mimic natural hormone to interact with receptors in the endocrine system and thus disrupt the functions of the endocrine system, raising concerns on the public health. In addition to disruption of the endocrine system, some EDCs have been found associated with many diseases such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, asthma, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. EDCs that binding androgen receptor have been reported associated with diabetes mellitus in in vitro, animal, and clinical studies. In this review, we summarize the structural basis and interactions between androgen receptor and EDCs as well as the associations of various types of diabetes mellitus with the EDCs mediated through androgen receptor binding. We also discuss the perspective research for further understanding the impact and mechanisms of EDCs on the risk of diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sugunadevi Sakkiah
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Tony Wang
- Department of Biology, Arkansas University, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Wen Zou
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Yuping Wang
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Bohu Pan
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Weida Tong
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Huixiao Hong
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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87
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Schweizer U, Towell H, Vit A, Rodriguez-Ruiz A, Steegborn C. Structural aspects of thyroid hormone binding to proteins and competitive interactions with natural and synthetic compounds. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 458:57-67. [PMID: 28131741 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones and their metabolites constitute a vast class of related iodothyronine compounds that contribute to the regulation of metabolic activity and cell differentiation. They are in turn transported, transformed and recognized as signaling molecules through binding to a variety of proteins from a wide range of evolutionary unrelated protein families, which renders these proteins and their iodothyronine binding sites an example for extensive convergent evolution. In this review, we will briefly summarize what is known about iodothyronine binding sites in proteins, the modes of protein/iodothyronine interaction, and the ligand conformations. We will then discuss physiological and synthetic compounds, including popular drugs and food components, that can interfere with iodothyronine binding and recognition by these proteins. The discussion also includes compounds persisting in the environment and acting as endocrine disrupting chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Schweizer
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Holly Towell
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Universität Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Allegra Vit
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Universität Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Alfonso Rodriguez-Ruiz
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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88
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Wu W, Geng Q, Liu Y, Xu Z, Li P, Xie J. Prenatal Diagnosis of Twin Fetuses with a Novel AR Gene Mutation in a Chinese Family of Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 2017; 36:432-436. [PMID: 29206494 DOI: 10.1080/15513815.2017.1332120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is an X-linked recessive genetic disorder caused by mutations in the androgen receptor (AR) gene. Only a few cases of AIS with AR gene mutations have been diagnosed prenatally. This study aimed to investigate the gene mutation in a Chinese complete androgen insensitivity syndrome family and perform prenatal diagnosis for twin fetuses. CASE REPORT We evaluated the AR gene of the child proband in a Chinese CAIS family, and detected a novel mutation c.3864T>C (p. Phe917Leu). Amniocentesis was performed when the mother presented to our hospital with a subsequent twin pregnancy. Mutation analysis revealed that both fetuses were hemizygous for this mutation. The aborted fetuses had typical female external genitalia and bilateral testes in abdomen. CONCLUSION The c.3864T>C AR novel mutation is responsible for complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, and its identification was subsequently used for a subsequent successful prenatal diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqing Wu
- a Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Medical Genetics Center , Shenzhen , China.,b Yale School of Medicine , Department of Genetics , New Haven , Connecticut , United States
| | - Qian Geng
- a Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Medical Genetics Center , Shenzhen , China
| | - Yang Liu
- a Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Medical Genetics Center , Shenzhen , China
| | - Zhiyong Xu
- a Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Medical Genetics Center , Shenzhen , China
| | - Peining Li
- b Yale School of Medicine , Department of Genetics , New Haven , Connecticut , United States
| | - Jiansheng Xie
- a Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Medical Genetics Center , Shenzhen , China
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89
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Dalal K, Munuganti R, Morin H, Lallous N, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Drug-Discovery Pipeline for Novel Inhibitors of the Androgen Receptor. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1443:31-54. [PMID: 27246333 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3724-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is an important regulator of genes responsible for the development and recurrence of prostate cancer. Current therapies for this disease rely on small-molecule inhibitors that block the transcriptional activity of the AR. Recently, major advances in the development of novel AR inhibitors resulted from X-ray crystallographic information on the receptor and utilization of in silico drug design synergized with rigorous experimental testing.Herein, we describe a drug-discovery pipeline for in silico screening for small molecules that target an allosteric region on the AR termed the binding-function 3 (BF3) site. Following the identification of potential candidates, the compounds are tested in cell culture and biochemical assays for their ability to interact with and inhibit the AR. The described pipeline is readily accessible and could be applied in drug design efforts toward any surface-exposed region on the AR or other related steroid nuclear receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kush Dalal
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6
| | - Ravi Munuganti
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6
| | - Hélène Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6
| | - Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6
| | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6H 3Z6.
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90
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Changeux JP, Christopoulos A. Allosteric modulation as a unifying mechanism for receptor function and regulation. Diabetes Obes Metab 2017; 19 Suppl 1:4-21. [PMID: 28880476 DOI: 10.1111/dom.12959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Four major receptor families enable cells to respond to chemical and physical signals from their proximal environment. The ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors, nuclear hormone receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases are all allosteric proteins that carry multiple, spatially distinct, yet conformationally linked ligand-binding sites. Recent studies point to common mechanisms governing the allosteric transitions of these receptors, including the impact of oligomerization, pre-existing and functionally distinct conformational ensembles, intrinsically disordered regions, and the occurrence of allosteric modulatory sites. Importantly, synthetic allosteric modulators are being discovered for these receptors, providing an enriched, yet challenging, landscape for novel therapeutics.
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MESH Headings
- Allosteric Regulation/drug effects
- Allosteric Site/drug effects
- Animals
- Binding Sites/drug effects
- Dimerization
- Drug Discovery/trends
- Drugs, Investigational/chemistry
- Drugs, Investigational/pharmacology
- Humans
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/agonists
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/antagonists & inhibitors
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/chemistry
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/metabolism
- Ligands
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Conformation/drug effects
- Protein Multimerization/drug effects
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/agonists
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/chemistry
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/agonists
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/chemistry
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/chemistry
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels/chemistry
- Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arthur Christopoulos
- Drug Discovery Biology and Department of Pharmacology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052 Parkville, Australia
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91
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Cato L, Neeb A, Sharp A, Buzón V, Ficarro SB, Yang L, Muhle-Goll C, Kuznik NC, Riisnaes R, Nava Rodrigues D, Armant O, Gourain V, Adelmant G, Ntim EA, Westerling T, Dolling D, Rescigno P, Figueiredo I, Fauser F, Wu J, Rottenberg JT, Shatkina L, Ester C, Luy B, Puchta H, Troppmair J, Jung N, Bräse S, Strähle U, Marto JA, Nienhaus GU, Al-Lazikani B, Salvatella X, de Bono JS, Cato ACB, Brown M. Development of Bag-1L as a therapeutic target in androgen receptor-dependent prostate cancer. eLife 2017; 6:e27159. [PMID: 28826504 PMCID: PMC5629025 DOI: 10.7554/elife.27159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting the activation function-1 (AF-1) domain located in the N-terminus of the androgen receptor (AR) is an attractive therapeutic alternative to the current approaches to inhibit AR action in prostate cancer (PCa). Here we show that the AR AF-1 is bound by the cochaperone Bag-1L. Mutations in the AR interaction domain or loss of Bag-1L abrogate AR signaling and reduce PCa growth. Clinically, Bag-1L protein levels increase with progression to castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) and high levels of Bag-1L in primary PCa associate with a reduced clinical benefit from abiraterone when these tumors progress. Intriguingly, residues in Bag-1L important for its interaction with the AR AF-1 are within a potentially druggable pocket, implicating Bag-1L as a potential therapeutic target in PCa.
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92
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Perera L, Li Y, Coons LA, Houtman R, van Beuningen R, Goodwin B, Auerbach SS, Teng CT. Binding of bisphenol A, bisphenol AF, and bisphenol S on the androgen receptor: Coregulator recruitment and stimulation of potential interaction sites. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 44:287-302. [PMID: 28751236 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), and bisphenol S (BPS) are well known endocrine disruptors. Previous in vitro studies showed that these compounds antagonize androgen receptor (AR) transcriptional activity; however, the mechanisms of action are unclear. In the present study, we investigated interactions of coregulator peptides with BPA, BPAF, or BPS at the AR complexes using Micro Array for Real-time Coregulator Nuclear Receptor Interaction (MARCoNI) assays and assessed the binding of these compounds on AR by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The set of coregulator peptides that are recruited by BPA-bound AR, either positively/or negatively, are different from those recruited by the agonist R1881-bound AR. Therefore, the data indicates that BPA shows no similarities to R1881 and suggests that it may recruit other coregulators to the AR complex. BPAF-bound AR recruits about 70-80% of the same coregulator peptides as BPA-bound AR. Meanwhile, BPS-bound AR interacts with only few peptides compared to BPA or BPAF-bound AR. MD results show that multiple binding sites with varying binding affinities are available on AR for BPA, BPAF, and BPS, indicating the availability of modified binding surfaces on AR for coregulator interactions. These findings help explain some of the distinct AR-related toxicities observed with bisphenol chemicals and raise concern for the use of substitutes for BPA in commercial products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalith Perera
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, United States
| | - Yin Li
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, DIR, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Laurel A Coons
- Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, DIR, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Rene Houtman
- PamGene International B.V., Wolvenhoek 10, NL-5211 HH 's-Hertogenboch, The Netherlands
| | - Rinie van Beuningen
- PamGene International B.V., Wolvenhoek 10, NL-5211 HH 's-Hertogenboch, The Netherlands
| | - Bonnie Goodwin
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Scott S Auerbach
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, DNTP, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Christina T Teng
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, DNTP, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States.
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93
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Na I, Meng F, Kurgan L, Uversky VN. Autophagy-related intrinsically disordered proteins in intra-nuclear compartments. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2017; 12:2798-817. [PMID: 27377881 DOI: 10.1039/c6mb00069j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Recent analyses indicated that autophagy can be regulated via some nuclear transcriptional networks and many important players in the autophagy and other forms of programmed cell death are known to be intrinsically disordered. To this end, we analyzed similarities and differences in the intrinsic disorder distribution of nuclear and non-nuclear proteins related to autophagy. We also looked at the peculiarities of the distribution of the intrinsically disordered autophagy-related proteins in various intra-nuclear organelles, such as the nucleolus, chromatin, Cajal bodies, nuclear speckles, promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies, nuclear lamina, nuclear pores, and perinucleolar compartment. This analysis revealed that the autophagy-related proteins constitute about 2.5% of the non-nuclear proteins and 3.3% of the nuclear proteins, which corresponds to a substantial enrichment by about 32% in the nucleus. Curiously, although, in general, the autophagy-related proteins share similar characteristics of disorder with a generic set of all non-nuclear proteins, chromatin and nuclear speckles are enriched in the intrinsically disordered autophagy proteins (29 and 37% of these proteins are disordered, respectively) and have high disorder content at 0.24 and 0.27, respectively. Therefore, our data suggest that some of the nuclear disordered proteins may play important roles in autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insung Na
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
| | - Fanchi Meng
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2V4, Canada
| | - Lukasz Kurgan
- Department of Computer Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, USA.
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA. and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA and Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia and Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia
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94
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Brust R, Lin H, Fuhrmann J, Asteian A, Kamenecka TM, Kojetin DJ. Modification of the Orthosteric PPARγ Covalent Antagonist Scaffold Yields an Improved Dual-Site Allosteric Inhibitor. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:969-978. [PMID: 28165718 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
GW9662 and T0070907 are widely used commercially available irreversible antagonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). These antagonists covalently modify Cys285 located in an orthosteric ligand-binding pocket embedded in the PPARγ ligand-binding domain and are used to block binding of other ligands. However, we recently identified an alternate/allosteric ligand-binding site in the PPARγ LBD to which ligand binding is not inhibited by these orthosteric covalent antagonists. Here, we developed a series of analogs based on the orthosteric covalent antagonist scaffold with the goal of inhibiting both orthosteric and allosteric cellular activation of PPARγ by MRL20, an orthosteric agonist that also binds to an allosteric site. Our efforts resulted in the identification of SR16832 (compound 22), which functions as a dual-site covalent inhibitor of PPARγ transcription by PPARγ-binding ligands. Molecular modeling, protein NMR spectroscopy structural analysis, and biochemical assays indicate the inhibition of allosteric activation occurs in part through expansion of the 2-chloro-5-nitrobenzamidyl orthosteric covalent antagonist toward the allosteric site, weakening of allosteric ligand binding affinity, and inducing conformational changes not competent for cellular PPARγ activation. Furthermore, SR16832 better inhibits binding of rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione (TZD) that weakly activates PPARγ when cotreated with orthosteric covalent antagonists, and may better inhibit binding of endogenous PPARγ ligands such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) compared to orthosteric covalent antagonists. Compounds such as SR16832 may be useful chemical tools to use as a dual-site bitopic orthosteric and allosteric covalent inhibitor of ligand binding to PPARγ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Brust
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Hua Lin
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jakob Fuhrmann
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Alice Asteian
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Theodore M. Kamenecka
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Douglas J. Kojetin
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics,
The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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95
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Stender JD, Nwachukwu JC, Kastrati I, Kim Y, Strid T, Yakir M, Srinivasan S, Nowak J, Izard T, Rangarajan ES, Carlson KE, Katzenellenbogen JA, Yao XQ, Grant BJ, Leong HS, Lin CY, Frasor J, Nettles KW, Glass CK. Structural and Molecular Mechanisms of Cytokine-Mediated Endocrine Resistance in Human Breast Cancer Cells. Mol Cell 2017; 65:1122-1135.e5. [PMID: 28306507 PMCID: PMC5546241 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Human breast cancers that exhibit high proportions of immune cells and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines predict poor prognosis. Here, we demonstrate that treatment of human MCF-7 breast cancer cells with pro-inflammatory cytokines results in ERα-dependent activation of gene expression and proliferation, in the absence of ligand or presence of 4OH-tamoxifen (TOT). Cytokine activation of ERα and endocrine resistance is dependent on phosphorylation of ERα at S305 in the hinge domain. Phosphorylation of S305 by IKKβ establishes an ERα cistrome that substantially overlaps with the estradiol (E2)-dependent ERα cistrome. Structural analyses suggest that S305-P forms a charge-linked bridge with the C-terminal F domain of ERα that enables inter-domain communication and constitutive activity from the N-terminal coactivator-binding site, revealing the structural basis of endocrine resistance. ERα therefore functions as a transcriptional effector of cytokine-induced IKKβ signaling, suggesting a mechanism through which the tumor microenvironment controls tumor progression and endocrine resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Stender
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jerome C Nwachukwu
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Irida Kastrati
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Yohan Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Tobias Strid
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Maayan Yakir
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Sathish Srinivasan
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Jason Nowak
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Tina Izard
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Erumbi S Rangarajan
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Kathryn E Carlson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - John A Katzenellenbogen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Xin-Qiu Yao
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Barry J Grant
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Hon S Leong
- Department of Surgery, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Chin-Yo Lin
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Jonna Frasor
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Kendall W Nettles
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Christopher K Glass
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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96
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Structure of the homodimeric androgen receptor ligand-binding domain. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14388. [PMID: 28165461 PMCID: PMC5303882 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) plays a crucial role in normal physiology, development and metabolism as well as in the aetiology and treatment of diverse pathologies such as androgen insensitivity syndromes (AIS), male infertility and prostate cancer (PCa). Here we show that dimerization of AR ligand-binding domain (LBD) is induced by receptor agonists but not by antagonists. The 2.15-Å crystal structure of homodimeric, agonist- and coactivator peptide-bound AR-LBD unveils a 1,000-Å2 large dimerization surface, which harbours over 40 previously unexplained AIS- and PCa-associated point mutations. An AIS mutation in the self-association interface (P767A) disrupts dimer formation in vivo, and has a detrimental effect on the transactivating properties of full-length AR, despite retained hormone-binding capacity. The conservation of essential residues suggests that the unveiled dimerization mechanism might be shared by other nuclear receptors. Our work defines AR-LBD homodimerization as an essential step in the proper functioning of this important transcription factor. The androgen receptor is crucial for the development and physiology of reproductive organs. Here the authors present the structure of the androgen receptor ligand-binding domain bound to dihydrotestosterone, identifying a homodimerization interface that is crucial for receptor activity in vivo.
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97
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Ittiwut C, Pratuangdejkul J, Supornsilchai V, Muensri S, Hiranras Y, Sahakitrungruang T, Watcharasindhu S, Suphapeetiporn K, Shotelersuk V. Novel mutations of the SRD5A2 and AR genes in Thai patients with 46, XY disorders of sex development. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2017; 30:19-26. [PMID: 27849622 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2016-0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormalities of dihydrotestosterone conversion [5α-reductase deficiency: online Mendelian inheritance in man (OMIM) 607306] or actions of androgens [partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS): OMIM 312300] during the 8th-12th weeks of gestation cause varying degrees of undervirilized external genitalia in 46, XY disorders of sex development (DSD) with increased testosterone production. The objective of the study was to determine clinical and genetic characteristics of Thai patients with 46, XY DSD. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted in 46, XY DSD with increased testosterone production (n=43) evaluated by a human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulation test or clinical features consistent with 5α-reductase deficiency or PAIS. PCR sequencing of the entire coding regions of the SRD5A2 and AR genes was performed. Molecular modeling analysis of the androgen receptor-ligand-binding domain (AR-LBD) of a novel mutation was constructed. RESULTS Mutations were found in seven patients (16.3%): five (11.6%) and two (4.7%) patients had mutations in SRD5A2 and AR, respectively. Two novel mutations, SRD5A2 c.383A>G (p.Y128C) and AR c.2176C>T (p.R726C), were identified. Dimensional structural analysis of the novel mutated AR (p.R726C) revealed that it affected the co-activator binding [binding function-3 (BF-3)], not the testosterone binding site. Short phallus length was associated with 5α-reductase deficiency. CONCLUSIONS Around 16.3% of our patients with 46, XY DSD had 5α-reductase deficiency or PAIS. Two novel mutations of SRD5A2 and AR were identified. The novel mutated AR (p.R726C) might affect the co-activator binding (BF-3), not the testosterone binding site.
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MESH Headings
- 3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase/genetics
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Androgens/metabolism
- Biomarkers/metabolism
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Cross-Sectional Studies
- Dihydrotestosterone/metabolism
- Disorder of Sex Development, 46,XY/genetics
- Disorder of Sex Development, 46,XY/metabolism
- Disorder of Sex Development, 46,XY/pathology
- Female
- Follow-Up Studies
- Humans
- Infant
- Male
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Mutation/genetics
- Prognosis
- Protein Conformation
- Receptors, Androgen/chemistry
- Receptors, Androgen/genetics
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Testosterone/metabolism
- Thailand
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98
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Hughes TS, Shang J, Brust R, de Vera IMS, Fuhrmann J, Ruiz C, Cameron MD, Kamenecka TM, Kojetin DJ. Probing the Complex Binding Modes of the PPARγ Partial Agonist 2-Chloro-N-(3-chloro-4-((5-chlorobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)thio)phenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenesulfonamide (T2384) to Orthosteric and Allosteric Sites with NMR Spectroscopy. J Med Chem 2016; 59:10335-10341. [PMID: 27783520 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In a previous study, a cocrystal structure of PPARγ bound to 2-chloro-N-(3-chloro-4-((5-chlorobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)thio)phenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenesulfonamide (1, T2384) revealed two orthosteric pocket binding modes attributed to a concentration-dependent biochemical activity profile. However, 1 also bound an alternate/allosteric site that could alternatively account for the profile. Here, we show ligand aggregation afflicts the activity profile of 1 in biochemical assays. However, ligand-observed fluorine (19F) and protein-observed NMR confirms 1 binds PPARγ with two orthosteric binding modes and to an allosteric site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis S Hughes
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Jinsai Shang
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Richard Brust
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Ian Mitchelle S de Vera
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Jakob Fuhrmann
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Claudia Ruiz
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Michael D Cameron
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Theodore M Kamenecka
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Douglas J Kojetin
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458
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99
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Zhang Y, Mantravadi PK, Jobbagy S, Bao W, Koh JT. Antagonizing the Androgen Receptor with a Biomimetic Acyltransferase. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:2797-2802. [PMID: 27548116 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b00659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The Androgen Receptor (AR) remains the leading target of advanced prostate cancer therapies. Thiosalicylamide analogs have previously been shown to act in cells as acyltransfer catalysts that are capable of transferring cellular acetate, presumably from acetyl-CoA, to HIV NCp7. Here we explore if the cellular acetyl-transfer activity of thiosalicylamides can be redirected to other cellular targets guided by ligands for AR. We constructed conjugates of thiosalicylamides and the AR-binding small molecule tolfenamic acid, which binds the BF-3 site of AR, proximal to the coactivator "FXXLF" binding surface. The thiosalicylamide-tolfenamic acid conjugate, YZ03, but not the separate thiosalicylamide plus tolfenamic acid, significantly enhanced acetylation of endogenous AR in CWR22Rv1 cells. Further analysis confirms that Lys720, a residue critical to FXXLF coactivator peptide binding, is a site of acyl-YZ03 acetylation. Under acyl-transfer conditions, YZ03 significantly enhances the ability of BF-3 site binding ligands to inhibit AR-coactivator peptide association. These data suggest that biomimetic acyltransferases can enhance protein-protein interaction inhibitors through covalent modification of critical interfacial residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemsitry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Pavan K. Mantravadi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemsitry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Soma Jobbagy
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemsitry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Wei Bao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemsitry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - John T. Koh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemsitry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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100
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Lallous N, Leblanc E, Munuganti RSN, Hassona MDH, Nakouzi NA, Awrey S, Morin H, Roshan-Moniri M, Singh K, Lawn S, Yamazaki T, Adomat HH, Andre C, Daugaard M, Young RN, Guns EST, Rennie PS, Cherkasov A. Targeting Binding Function-3 of the Androgen Receptor Blocks Its Co-Chaperone Interactions, Nuclear Translocation, and Activation. Mol Cancer Ther 2016; 15:2936-2945. [PMID: 27765852 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-16-0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The development of new antiandrogens, such as enzalutamide, or androgen synthesis inhibitors like abiraterone has improved patient outcomes in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. However, due to the development of drug resistance and tumor cell survival, a majority of these patients progress to the refractory state of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Thus, newer therapeutic agents and a better understanding of their mode of action are needed for treating these CRPC patients. We demonstrated previously that targeting the Binding Function 3 (BF3) pocket of the androgen receptor (AR) has great potential for treating patients with CRPC. Here, we explore the functional activity of this site by using an advanced BF3-specific small molecule (VPC-13566) that was previously reported to effectively inhibit AR transcriptional activity and to displace the BAG1L peptide from the BF3 pocket. We show that VPC-13566 inhibits the growth of various prostate cancer cell lines, including an enzalutamide-resistant cell line, and reduces the growth of AR-dependent prostate cancer xenograft tumors in mice. Importantly, we have used this AR-BF3 binder as a chemical probe and identified a co-chaperone, small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-containing protein alpha (SGTA), as an important AR-BF3 interacting partner. Furthermore, we used this AR-BF3-directed small molecule to demonstrate that inhibition of AR activity through the BF3 functionality can block translocation of the receptor into the nucleus. These findings suggest that targeting the BF3 site has potential clinical importance, especially in the treatment of CRPC and provide novel insights on the functional role of the BF3 pocket. Mol Cancer Ther; 15(12); 2936-45. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Lallous
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Eric Leblanc
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ravi S N Munuganti
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mohamed D H Hassona
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nader Al Nakouzi
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Shannon Awrey
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Helene Morin
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mani Roshan-Moniri
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kriti Singh
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sam Lawn
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Takeshi Yamazaki
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Hans H Adomat
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christophe Andre
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Mads Daugaard
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Robert N Young
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | | | - Paul S Rennie
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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