Phthalate Esters in Foods: Sources, Occurrence, and Analytical Methods

Allergic contact dermatitis to rubber accelerators in protective gloves: Problems, challenges, and solutions for occupational skin protection

Protective gloves are an elementary component of personal protective equipment in many occupations and are intended to protect the hands from various hazards (e.g., wetness, chemicals, mechanical forces, or thermal stress). This is particularly important when other occupational safety measures (e.g., technical-organizational measures) cannot be implemented or are insufficient. However, it is not uncommon for protective gloves themselves to become a problem, as some of their ingredients (e.g., rubber accelerators) can cause allergic reactions. Accelerators in rubber gloves include thiurams, dithiocarbamates, thiazoles, guanidines, and thioureas. If no alternative means of protection are available, this may even result in abandoning the profession. This article is about rubber accelerators, which are often contained in protective gloves made of different rubber materials (e.g., natural rubber (latex) and nitrile rubber) and may cause delayed-type allergies, as well as related challenges, problems, and solutions for occupational skin protection.

Association of urinary phthalate metabolites with cardiovascular disease among the general adult population

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explore the relationship between urinary phthalate metabolites and total and specific cardiovascular disease (CVD) among the general adult population.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study analyzed 11 urinary phthalates in the general population from the 2005-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (n = 10,427). Multivariate logistic regression and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression were applied to examine the relationship between phthalate metabolites and mixtures and the prevalence rates of total and specific CVD.

RESULTS

Compared to the lowest quartile, mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP) (OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.03-1.83, P for trend = 0.032) and mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP) (OR 1.44; 95% CI 1.10-1.88, P for trend = 0.013) in the highest quartile were independently associated with increased total CVD. The WQS index of phthalate mixtures was independently correlated with total CVD (adjusted OR 1.17; 95% CI 1.01-1.36, P = 0.039), and MBzP (weight = 0.392) was the most heavily weighted component. In addition, restricted cubic spline regression demonstrated that the MBzP level had a positive correlation and linear association with total CVD (P for nonlinearity = 0.182).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that high phthalate mixture levels are associated with an increased prevalence of CVD, with the greatest influence coming from MBzP.

Effect of Polyvinyl Chloride Microplastics on Bacterial Community and Nutrient Status in Two Agricultural Soils

Knowledge of the influence of microplastics on soil microbiome and nutrients is important for understanding the ecological consequences of microplastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, we investigated whether polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastic pollution at environmentally relevant concentrations would affect soil bacterial community and available nitrogen/phosphorus content. The results showed that although PVC microplastics at 0.1% and 1% levels did not have a significant effect on overall bacterial community diversity and composition in soil over the course of 35 days, a number of bacterial genera were significantly reduced or enriched by the presence of microplastics. Potentially due to their effect on certain functional groups, microplastics caused a significant change in soil available P content. It is noteworthy that, depending on soil type, pollution level and plasticizer presence, contrasting effects of microplastics may be observed. Further research is definitely warranted to gain a clearer picture of the threats posed by microplastic pollution in soil environments.

The ameliorative effect of ellagic acid on di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular structural alterations, oxidative stress, inflammation and sperm damages in adult mice

BACKGROUND

Phthalates such as di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are well known exogenous substances, disrupting reproductive system function and structure. The current research demonstrated the effect of ellagic acid (EA) on DEHP-induced testicular injury in mice.

METHODS

Thirty-five healthy adult male mice were randomly divided to five groups; normal saline receiving group, DEHP (2 g/kg/day, dissolved in corn oil, p.o.) receiving group, DEHP (2 g/kg/day, dissolved in corn oil, p.o.) and EA receiving groups (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/day, p.o.). Treatment duration of animals was 14 days. Body and testes weights and sperm characteristics and histological changes of testes were evaluated. Serum testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were analyzed. In the testicular tissue, oxidative/nitrosative stress markers and inflammatory cytokine levels were measured.

RESULTS

Ellagic acid significantly reduced DEHP-induced reduction of body and testes weights. The DEHP-induced reduction of spermatogonia, primary spermatocyte and sertoli cells numbers as well as reduction of sperm vitality and progressive motility were reversed by EA. Furthermore, EA inhibited DEHP-induced alterations in serum hormone levels. These effects were associated with the reduction of DEHP-induced increased level of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Ellagic acid considerably inhibits testicular toxicity of DEHP through reducing oxidative/nitrosative stress and inflammatory responses. Our data suggest that EA may be considered as a promising agent to inhibit male reproductive toxicity induced by endocrine disrupting chemicals such as DEHP.

Early-life chronic di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exposure worsens age-related long-term associative memory decline associated with insulin/IGF-1 signaling and CRH-1/CREB in Caenorhabditis elegans

The ubiquitous contamination of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in the environment, biota, and food poses potential ecological and human health risks. DEHP exposure can adversely affect learning and memory, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, Caenorhabditis elegans was used to investigate the effect of early-life DEHP exposure on age-related long-term associative memory (LTAM) decline, as well as the associations with the cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) transcription factor and insulin/IGF-1 signaling (IIS). We showed that early-life exposure to DEHP reduced LTAM in wild-type worms at day-0 adulthood. Chronic exposure to DEHP from the L1 stage to day-5 adulthood worsened the age-dependent decline of LTAM. Moreover, the effect of DEHP on age-related LTAM requires CRH-1, a homolog of CREB. Mutations in daf-2, the sole receptor of C. elegans IIS, ameliorated the inhibition of LTAM by DEHP, and the effect depended on daf-16. In addition, daf-2 mutation restored the CRH-1 level in DEHP-exposed worms, and the effect required daf-16. Our study suggests that early-life chronic exposure to DEHP worsens age-related LTAM decline and the effect is associated with CRH-1 and IIS in C. elegans. The evolutionary conservation of IIS and CREB implies possible adverse effects by DEHP across species.

Seasonal distribution and ecological risk of phthalate esters in surface water and marine organisms of the Bohai Sea

The spatiotemporal variability and ecological risks related to 16 phthalate esters (PAEs) were investigated in surface water and marine organisms of the Bohai Sea. The average PAE concentrations in the surface water were 8.02, 4.53, and 3.16 μg L^-1 in spring, summer, and winter, respectively. Additionally, suspended particle matter was positive related to PAE content in seawater in spring and winter. The predominant PAEs in both water and biota were dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-butyl phthalate (DBP), di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP), and diethylhexyl-phthalate (DEHP). Because they do not exhibit long-distance migratory behavior, Chaeturichthys hexanema, Cynoglossus lighti, and Loligo japonica were good candidate indicator organisms for PAE pollution in Bohai Sea. The risk quotient method revealed that DIBP, DBP, and DEHP posed relatively greater risks to the aquatic system. This research establishes baseline data from which future management strategies to control PAEs in the Bohai Sea can be developed.

A critical review on human internal exposure of phthalate metabolites and the associated health risks

Phthalates (PAEs) are popular synthetic chemicals used as plasticizers and solvents for various products, such as polyvinyl chloride or personal care products. Human exposure to PAEs is associated with various diseases, resulting in PAE biomonitoring in humans. Inhalation, dietary ingestion, and dermal absorption are the major human exposure routes. However, estimating the actual exposure dose of PAEs via an external route is difficult. As a result, estimation by internal exposure has become the popular analytical methods to determine the concentrations of phthalate metabolites (mPAEs) in human matrices (such as urine, serum, breast milk, hair, and nails). The various exposure sources and patterns result in different composition profiles of PAEs in biomatrices, which vary from country to country. Nevertheless, the mPAEs of diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are predominant in the urine. These mPAEs have greater potential health risks for humans. Children have been observed to exhibit higher exposure risks to several mPAEs than adults. Besides age, other influencing factors for phthalate exposure are gender, jobs, and residential areas. Although many studies have reported biological monitoring of PAEs, only a few reviews that adequately summarized the reports are available. The current review appraised available studies on mPAE quantitation in human biomatrices and estimated the dose and health risks of phthalate exposure. While some countries lack biomonitoring data, some countries' data do not reflect the current PAE exposure. Thence, future studies should involve frequent PAE biomonitoring to accurately estimate human exposure to PAEs, which will contribute to health risk assessments of human exposure to PAEs. Such would aid the formulation of corresponding regulations and restrictions by the government.

Early-life and chronic exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate enhances amyloid-β toxicity associated with an autophagy-related gene in Caenorhabditis elegans Alzheimer's disease models

The widespread use of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has resulted in its ubiquitous presence in the environment, which has led to serious health concerns. One of these concerns is its possible link to Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is the most common neurodegenerative disease in aged individuals. This study investigated whether early-life and chronic exposure to DEHP affects AD via the toxicity of amyloid-β (Aβ), which has been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD, using Caenorhabditis elegans AD models (strains CL4176 and CL2006). We show that early-life DEHP exposure increased Aβ toxicity in C. elegans strains CL4176 and CL2006. Early-life and chronic exposure to DEHP also significantly increased intracellular ROS levels and Aβ deposition in aged CL2006 nematodes. Moreover, it was found that DEHP-induced Aβ toxicity does not require transcription factors DAF-16 or SKN-1, while early-life and chronic exposure to DEHP significantly increased the accumulation of lysosome-related organelles and the mRNA levels of the autophagy-related gene bec-1 in aged CL2006 nematodes. Our findings suggest that early-life and chronic exposure to DEHP enhances Aβ toxicity, which may be associated with the autophagy-lysosomal degradation pathway in C. elegans.

Fe-Mn oxide modified biochar decreases phthalate uptake and improves grain quality of wheat grown in phthalate-contaminated fluvo-aquic soil

We used a pot experiment to investigate the effectiveness of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% biochar (BC) or iron-manganese oxide modified biochar (FMBC) additions on the biomass, enzyme activity, and grain quality of wheat plants grown in dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di-(2-ethylhcxyl) phthalate (DEHP) polluted fluvo-aquic soils, as well as the bioavailability of DBP and DEHP. BC and FMBC applications significantly reduced DBP and DEHP accumulation in grains, which enhanced the content of starch and protein-related enzyme, thereby improving yield, and starch and protein content in wheat grains and increasing the content of minerals including Fe, Mn, K and Ca. Molecular docking assays showed that DBP and DEHP could bind to starch synthase (GBSS) through hydrogen bonds and intermolecular forces, which may have hindered the entry of substrates or occupied the binding sites of the reactants, thus inhibiting the activity of GBSS. In addition, FMBC treatment had a better inhibitory effect on the phytotoxicity of DBP and DEHP on wheat grain than BC treatment. This result might be attributed to the fact that FMBC has more functional groups and porous structure, and larger specific surface area. In summary, these findings contribute to our understanding of the mechanism of phthalate phytotoxicity, which may help us prevent/reduce it in the future.

Protective effect of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced toxicity in rat liver

Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP) is the most commonly used plasticizer and it has been a ubiquitous environmental contaminant which affects health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect of the Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) at dosages of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg bw on DEHP-induced (3000 mg/kg) toxicity in rat liver through a 28-day animal experiment. The results showed that LBP attenuated oxidative stress slightly by lowering the production of ROS and improving the activity of SOD and GSH-Px in liver and serum of DEHP treatment rats. At the same time, the levels of PXR, CYP450, CYP2E1, CYP3A1, UGT1, and GST were reduced after LBP treatment. Moreover, LBP decreased the mRNA expression of PXR, UGT1, and GST significantly. These findings suggested that LBP might ameliorate DEHP-induced liver injury by down-regulating the expression of PXR in liver, further down-regulating the downstream phase I and II detoxification enzymes, thus reducing the damage caused by DEHP. Therefore, LBP may have the potential to become an auxiliary therapeutic agent as a natural ingredient of health food.

Determinants of phthalate exposure among a U.S.-based group of Latino workers

BACKGROUND

Phthalates are endocrine disrupting compounds linked to various adverse health effects. U.S. national biomonitoring data indicate that select minority subgroups may suffer disparate exposures to phthalates. Still, exposures and their respective determinants among these subgroups are not well characterized.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to examine determinants of phthalate exposure in a subsample of US-based Latino adults.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study on 94 Latino immigrant adults in Maryland. Participants were >18 years of age and working in a service-based industry. We administered an interviewer-administered questionnaire to capture information on potential exposure determinants (e.g., demographic characteristics, consumer product use, and workplace exposures and behaviors) and using HPLC/MS-MS we quantified concentrations of 9 urinary phthalate metabolites: monoethyl phthalate (MEP, diethyl phthalate metabolite); mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP, di-n-butyl phthalate metabolite); mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP, di-isobutyl phthalate metabolite; monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP, benzylbutyl phthalate metabolite); molar sum of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate or DEHP metabolites [mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), and mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECCP)]; and mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP, a non-specific metabolite of several phthalates including di-n-butyl phthalate and di-n-octyl phthalate). DEHP was analyzed as the molar sum of four metabolites (ΣDEHP = MEHP + MEHHP + MECPP + MEOHP). Spearman correlations, Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney, and Kruskal-Wallis tests were conducted to assess bivariate associations between metabolite concentrations and potential exposure determinants. Covariates associated with metabolites at p < 0.10 in bivariate analyses were included in multivariable linear regression models to assess the independent effects of predictors on metabolite concentrations.

RESULTS

Uncorrected median phthalate metabolite concentrations were lower in our study population (50% of samples ranged between 1.4 and 23.6 μg/L. While we observed some significant associations with select predictors in our bivariate analysis, select associations were attenuated in multivariable regression models. In our final multivariable linear regression models, we found that use of bleach (β = 1.15, 95%CI:0.30, 2.00) and consumption pasta/rice/noodles (β = 0.87, 95%CI: 0.27, 1.46) was positively associated with MBzP concentrations. MEP concentrations were inversely associated with use of furniture polish (β = -1.17, 95%CI: 2.21, -0.12) and use of scented dryer sheets (β = -1.08, 95%CI: 2.01, -0.14). Lastly, ΣDEHP concentrations were inversely associated with use of degreaser (ßDEHP = -0.65, 95%CI: 1.25, -0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In this predominantly U.S.-based Central American subsample of adults, we observed lower metabolite concentrations than those previously reported in other U.S. studies and other countries. Our findings could be due, in part, to temporal trends in phthalate exposures and cultural differences related to exposure-related behaviors. While some exposure determinants were identified in our bivariate analyses, results from multivariable regression models did not provide clear results as many associations were attenuated. Environmental exposures may vary within minority subgroups and should be explored further in future studies to further inform exposure mitigation strategies.

Phthalimide Residue in Coffee: Does It Solely Derive from Folpet?

Folpet, a fungicide used on several crops, easily degrades into phthalimide (PAI) at high temperatures and basic pH. The maximum admitted limit for Folpet in foodstuffs as coffee is defined by the sum of its amount and that of PAI. Noteworthy, PAI can also arise from the reaction between ubiquitous phthalate derivatives and NH₃. This work aims to demonstrate that the detection of PAI in roasted coffee is not necessarily diagnostic for Folpet as it can also originate from the reaction between phthalic anhydride (PAA), derived from phthalates, and amino acids (AAs), as a NH₃ source. Thermal treatment of AAs with PAA confirmed that PAI generation follows a temperature-dependent path. Experiments with diethyl phthalate (DEP) and AAs have shown that maximum PAI generation via heating occurs at 200 °C for 60 min. PAI generation has also been proven for Folpet-free green coffee beans that were heated under laboratory and industrial roasting conditions.

Occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalates in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China

This study was to investigate the occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China. Six priority controlled PAEs were measured, among which the detection frequency of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was 100%, while the others were not detected. The concentration of DEHP was higher than BBP and DBP in all the samples. The initial ∑₃PAEs concentrations in tap water, barreled water and bottled water were 2.409 ± 0.391 μg/L, 1.495 ± 0.213 μg/L and 1.963 ± 0.160 μg/L, respectively. Boiling tap water could reduce the PAEs content to an extent, but they increased significantly in hot tap water contacting with disposable plastic cups. The migration of PAEs in barreled water and bottled water were positively correlated with storage time and temperature, which could be described by exponential models. The hazard indexes of PAEs in different types of drinking water were very low. However, the human carcinogenic risks of DEHP will reach the maximum acceptable risk level of 10^-6 when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 °C, 7.7 days at 50 °C, or 6.1 days at 60 °C.

Extraction of phthalic acid esters from soft drinks and infusions by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on the solidification of the floating organic drop using a menthol-based natural deep eutectic solvent

In this work, a natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) consisting of L-menthol and acetic acid in a 1:1 molar ratio has been applied as extraction solvent for the dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on the solidification of the floating organic drop (DLLME-SFO) of a group of nine phthalic acid esters (dipropyl phthalate, DPP; butyl benzyl phthalate, BBP; dibutyl phthalate, DBP; dicyclohexyl phthalate, DCHP; diisopentyl phthalate, DIPP; di-n-pentyl phthalate, DNPP; di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, DEHP; diisononyl phthalate, DINP; and diisodecyl phthalate, DIDP) from three common infusions (camomile, pennyroyal mint, and linden teas) and three soft drinks (green tea, tonic, and lime and lemon drink), using dihexyl phthalate (DHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP) as internal standards. After the DLLME-SFO procedure, analyses were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. Method calibration showed good linearity for all the analytes and matrices, with determination coefficients (R²) higher than 0.9910. Relative recovery values were between 71 and 125 %, with relative standard deviation values in the range 1-22 % for the six types of samples, while the limits of quantification of the method were in the range 4.3-51.1 µg/L for infusions and in the range 3.5-33.3 µg/L for soft drinks. Several samples purchased in different local supermarkets were analysed, finding DPP, DBP, DIPP, DEHP and DINP, although only DPP, DBP and DEHP could be quantified in some of them.

Secular trends of urinary phthalate metabolites in 7-year old children and association with building characteristics: Hokkaido study on environment and children's health

The widespread commercial production and use of phthalates as plasticizers in consumer products have led to significant human exposure. Some phthalates are known to disrupt the endocrine system and result in adverse health outcomes. As such, they have been regulated in materials used for children's items and food packages. In this study, we examined the secular trend of urinary phthalate metabolites in children and the association between metabolites and building characteristics. In total, 400 first-morning spot urine samples of 7 years old children collected from 2012 to 2017 from an ongoing birth cohort study were examined. Parents provided information on demographics and building questionnaires. We analyzed 10 urinary phthalate metabolites from five phthalate diesters using ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS): MiBP, MnBP, MBzP, MEHP, MEOHP, MEHHP, MECPP, MiNP, OH-MiNP, and cx-MiNP. A multivariable regression model with creatinine-corrected metabolite levels was applied to assess secular trends during 2012-2017. The association between metabolite levels and building characteristics was investigated using a mutual-adjusted linear regression. The metabolites MnBP, MEHP, MEOHP, MEHHP, MECPP, and OH-MiNP were detected in all samples. The highest median concentration was for MECPP 37.4 ng/mL, followed by MnBP and MEHHP at concentrations of 36.8 and 25.8 ng/mL, respectively. Overall, DBP, BBzP, and DINP metabolite concentrations in this study were comparable to or lower than those in previous studies from Japan and other countries in a similar study period. Higher concentrations of DEHP metabolites were observed in this study than in children from the USA and Germany, as per previous reports. Despite updated phthalate regulations and reports of production volume change in Japan, all the measured metabolites showed a stable trend between 2012 and 2017. Higher phthalate metabolite levels were observed among children from households with low annual income, those who lived in old buildings, and those with window opening habits of ≥1 h than ≤1 h. In contrast, children in houses that vacuumed 4 or more days/week showed a lower level of MnBP than those in houses that vacuumed ≤3 days/week. This study demonstrates that the internal exposure level of phthalates in Japanese children was stable from 2012 to 2017. Our findings suggest that phthalate exposure in children is consistent. Thus, improvements in the indoor environment, such as frequent vacuuming, may reduce exposure. Biomonitoring of phthalates is critical for elucidating their possible health effects and developing mitigation strategies.

Environmental occurrence of phthalate and organophosphate esters in sediments across the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean Sea)

Seven phthalate (PAEs) and nine organophosphate esters (OPEs) were measured in surface sediments across the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean Sea) at twelve stations characterized by different anthropogenic signatures. ∑PAEs and ∑OPEs concentrations ranged from 2 to 766 ng/g DW (av. 196 ng/g DW) and from 4 to 227 ng/g DW (av. 54 ng/g DW), respectively. Our analysis of the potential sources of these organic plastic additives in sediments of the Gulf of Lion suggests that the dominant factors affecting their occurrence and environmental distribution are port-based industrial activities and urban pressures. Indeed, the highest ∑PAEs and ∑OPEs concentrations were found close to the ports of Toulon and Marseille (Estaque) and at the sites impacted by the Marseille metropolitan area (i.e. at the outlets of the waste water treatment plant at Cortiou and at the mouth of the Huveaune River). The lowest levels were generally found in protected areas (e.g. Port-Cros) and at sites relatively far from the coast. DEHP was seen to be the most abundant PAE while TDCP, TEHP and TiBP were the most abundant OPEs in the area. Our results also expose the contribution of additives entering the Gulf of Lion via sedimentary material from the Rhône River, with positive correlations between the total organic carbon (TOC) content in the sediment and the ∑PAEs and ∑OPEs concentrations. However, additive concentrations decreased from shore to offshore in the Rhône River discharge area, indicating an efficient dilution of the contaminants accumulated at the river mouth area.

Phthalic acid esters and adipates in herbal-based soft drinks: an eco-friendly method

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and adipates are plasticizers with high applicability in several products and building materials (e.g. cosmetics, packing) very persistent in the environment, features which render them ubiquitous pollutants. These substances can contaminate food through the environment (water, air, and soil) and/or migration from packaging materials, which creates a health concern due to their toxicity. This paper describes an eco-friendly dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) procedure to extract five phthalates and bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) from bottled herbal-based beverages followed by GC-MS/MS quantification. The method showed low limits of detection (5.0-13 μg L^-1) and quantification (20-35 μg L^-1), good inter- and intraday precision (RSD < 19%), and recoveries ranging from 82 to 111%. It was applied to 16 real samples, of which 13 showed the presence of at least one of the analytes under study. Additionally, an exposure assessment was performed, and resulted in a hazard quotient less than 1 (HQ < 1) for all analytes. Therefore, PAEs and DEHA found in samples do not pose a health issue.

Dietary Intake of Endocrine Disrupting Substances Presents in Environment and Their Impact on Thyroid Function

According to the available data, environmental pollution is a serious problem all over the world. Between 2015 and 2016, pollution was responsible for approximately nine million deaths worldwide. They also include endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that can interfere with the functioning of the thyroid gland. They are characterized by high persistence in the environment. These substances can enter the body through the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, as well as contact with the skin and overcome the placental barrier. EDC can be found in food, water, and personal care products. They can get into food from the environment and as a result of their migration to food products and cosmetics from packaging. EDCs can disrupt the functioning of the thyroid gland through a number of mechanisms, including disrupting the activation of thyroid receptors and the expression of genes that are related to the metabolism, synthesis, and transport of thyroid hormones (HT). There is a need to strengthen the food safety policy that aimed at the use of appropriate materials in direct contact with food. At the same time, an important action is to reduce the production of all waste and, when possible, use biodegradable packaging, which may contribute to the improvement of the quality of the entire ecosystem and the health of food, thus reducing the risk of developing thyroid diseases.

Conjugation of Di-n-butyl Phthalate Metabolites in Arabidopsis thaliana and Potential Deconjugation in Human Microsomes

Plasticizers, due to the widespread use of plastics, occur ubiquitously in the environment. The reuse of waste resources (e.g., treated wastewater, biosolids, animal waste) and other practices (e.g., plastic mulching) introduce phthalates into agroecosystems. As a detoxification mechanism, plants are known to convert phthalates to polar monophthalates after uptake, which are followed by further transformations, including conjugation with endogenous biomolecules. The objective of this study was 2-fold: to obtain a complete metabolic picture of the widely used di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) by using a suite of complementary techniques, including stable isotope labeling, ¹⁴C tracing, and high-resolution mass spectrometry, and to determine if conjugates are deconjugated in human microsomes to release bioactive metabolites. In Arabidopsis thaliana cells, the primary initial metabolite of DnBP was mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), and MnBP was rapidly metabolized via hydroxylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, and malonylation to seven transformation products. One of the conjugates, MnBP-acyl-β-d-glucoside (MnBP-Glu), was incubated in human liver (HLM) and intestinal (HIM) microsomes and was found to undergo rapid transformations. Approximately 15% and 10% of MnBP-Glu were deconjugated to the free form MnBP in HIM and HLM, respectively. These findings highlight that phthalates, as diesters, are susceptible to hydrolysis to form monoesters that can be readily conjugated via a phase II metabolism in plants. Conjugates may be deconjugated to release bioactive compounds after human ingestion. Therefore, an accurate assessment of the dietary exposure of phthalates and other contaminants must consider plant metabolites, especially including conjugates, to better predict their potential environmental and human health risks.

Exposure to di-n-octyl phthalate during puberty induces hypergonadotropic hypogonadism caused by Leydig cell hyperplasia but reduced steroidogenic function in male rats

Humans are exposed to phthalates ubiquitously, which may threaten health. However, whether di-n-octyl phthalate can prevent pubertal sexual maturity is still elusive. In this study, male Sprague Dawley rats (age 35 days) were treated daily by gavage with 0, 10, 100, and 1000 mg/kg body weight of di-n-octyl phthalate from day 35 to day 49 after birth. Di-n-octyl phthalate significantly reduced serum testosterone levels at doses of 100 and 1000 mg/kg, but increased serum luteinizing hormone levels of 1000 mg/kg and decreased testosterone/luteinizing hormone ratio at ≥10 mg/kg, without affecting serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels. Di-n-octyl phthalate significantly induced Leydig cell hyperplasia (increased number of CYP11A1-positive Leydig cells) at 100 and 1000 mg/kg. Di-n-octyl phthalate down-regulates the gene expression of Cyp11a1, Hsd3b1 and Insl3 in individual Leydig cells. Di-n-octyl phthalate can also reduce the number of sperm in the epididymis. Di-n-octyl phthalate increased phosphorylated AKT1/AKT2 without affecting their total proteins, but increased the total protein and phosphorylated protein of ERK1/2 and GSK-3β. Primary immature Leydig cells isolated from 35-day-old rats were treated with 0-50 μM di-n-octyl phthalate for 3 h. This phthalate inhibited androgen production under basal, LH-stimulated, and cAMP-stimulated conditions by 5 and 50 μM in vitro via down-regulating Cyp11a1 expression but up-regulating Srd5a1 expression in vitro. In conclusion, di-n-octyl phthalate induces hypergonadotropic hypogonadism caused by Leydig cell hyperplasia but reduced steroidogenic function and prevents sperm production.

Application of an MOF-based dispersive micro solid phase extraction method followed by dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for plasticizers’ detection and determination

In this research, MIL-68 (Al) was synthesized and used for the extraction of some plasticizers from various samples stored in plastic bottles.

An overview of chemical contaminants and other undesirable chemicals in alcoholic beverages and strategies for analysis

The presence of chemical contaminant in alcoholic beverages is a widespread and notable problem with potential implications for human health. With the complexity and wide variation in the raw materials, production processes, and contact materials involved, there are a multitude of opportunities for a diverse host of undesirable compounds to make their way into the final product-some of which may currently remain unidentified and undetected. This review provides an overview of the notable contaminants (including pesticides, environmental contaminants, mycotoxins, process-induced contaminants, residues of food contact material [FCM], and illegal additives) that have been detected in alcoholic products thus far based on prior reviews and findings in the literature, and will additionally consider the potential sources for contamination, and finally discuss and identify gaps in current analytical strategies. The findings of this review highlight a need for further investigation into unwanted substances in alcoholic beverages, particularly concerning chemical migrants from FCMs, as well as a need for comprehensive nontargeted analytical techniques capable of determining unanticipated contaminants.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate limits the pleiotropic effects of statins in chronic kidney disease patients undergoing dialysis and endothelial cells

The level of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is elevated in chronic kidney disease patients undergoing dialysis. However, statins are unable to reduce the cardiovascular events in chronic dialysis patients. In this study, we investigated the effects of DEHP on statin-conferred pleiotropic effects and the underlying molecular mechanism in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients and endothelial cells (ECs). In PD patients with serum DEHP level ≥0.0687 μg/mL, statin treatment was not associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease. In ECs, exposure to DEHP abrogated the simvastatin-induced NO bioavailability and EC-related functions. Additionally, DEHP abolished the anti-inflammatory effect of simvastatin on the tumor necrosis factor α-induced upregulation of adhesion molecules and monocyte adhesion to ECs. Mechanistically, DEHP blunted the activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), which is required for NO production by simvastatin in ECs. Notably, DEHP increased the activity and expression of protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B), a negative regulator of TRPV1 activity. The effect of DEHP on PP2B activation was mediated by the activation of the NADPH oxidase/reactive oxygen species (NOX-ROS) pathway. Inhibition of PP2B activity by pharmacological antagonists prevented the inhibitory effects of DEHP on simvastatin-induced Ca²⁺ influx, NO bioavailability, and EC migration, proliferation, tube formation, and anti-inflammatory action. Collectively, DEHP activates the NOX-ROS-PP2B pathway, which in turns inhibits TRPV1/Ca²⁺-dependent signaling and abrogates the statin-conferred pleiotropic protection in ECs.

Migration of phthalates from PET water bottle in events of repeated uses and associated risk assessment

Phthalates are widely used as a plasticizer in manufacturing polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to improve softness, flexibility, durability, longevity, and workability. Phthalates are known in instigating profound human health hazards. In many developing countries, lack of proper disposal facilities established for empty PET bottles and the absence of legislation on reuse invariably persuade people to reuse them for storing potable water. An experiment was conducted with two commercial brands of PET bottles to explore the potential of phthalate migration when domestically refilled and reused in multiple times at two temperature conditions. Temperatures of ambient (27 ± 2 °C) and warm (60 ± 2 °C) were selected as the refilling temperatures because of the common practice by people. For both brands, only bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) levels were detected in refilled water in every event of reuse. For both brands, mean DEHP levels migrated to water at 60 ± 2 °C were significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to those at 27 ± 2 °C. Risk analyses carried out on human health suggested that there exist no definite acute or chronic health risks when the refilled water is consumed continuously for 30 years for both temperatures. Still, such risks were higher for the consumption of refilled water of warm temperatures than those of ambient temperature. However, this study elucidates that DEHP migration would be at an alarming rate when the events of reuse of a single bottle increase so that regulations banning the reuse of empty PET bottles are paramount, especially for developing countries.

Adsorption kinetics and mechanism of di-n-butyl phthalate by Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) poses a risk to humans as a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. A strain of Leuconostoc mesenteroides DM12 was chosen from lactic acid bacteria strains to study the DBP binding mechanisms. Adsorption of DBP by strain DM12 reached the highest binding rate of 87% after 11 hr of incubation, which could be explained by pseudo-second-order kinetics. The adsorption isotherm coincided with the model of Langmuir-Freundlich, indicating physical and chemical adsorption processes involved. Further, NaIO4 and TCA treatments were used to analyze the DBP binding mechanism of strain DM12, which indicated that peptidoglycan on the bacterial cell wall was involved in the process. The O-H, C-O, and N-H bonds were possibly involved in the binding process as the main functional groups.

Dietary Exposure Estimation to Chemicals Transferred from Milk and Dairy Products Packaging Materials in Spanish Child and Adolescent Population

Packaging materials are subject to risk assessment since they can transfer their components to the food, and they may constitute a risk for the consumers' health. Therefore, estimating the exposure to chemicals migrating from packaging is required. In this study, a novel approach based on a total diet study (TDS)-like investigation to evaluate the exposure to chemicals transferred from the packaging was presented. The proposed methodology involved a non-targeted gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method to identify potential migrants and the determination of the migrants in composite food samples. The method was applied to evaluate the dietary exposure to chemicals from food packaging materials used for milk and dairy products in the Spanish child and adolescent populations. Several migrants identified in packaging materials were selected to determine their concentration in composite food samples. These chemicals included diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), bis(2ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), benzophenone (BP), 1,3-diphenylpropane (1,3-DPP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT). The method exhibited a good sensitivity (limit of detection, LOD ≤ 0.05 µg/g) and a satisfactory recovery (78.4-124%). Finally, the exposure was estimated using the Spanish national dietary survey ENALIA. Phthalates DBP and DEHP showed the highest mean exposure, ranging from 2.42 (10-17 years)-4.40 (12-35 months) and 1.35 (10-17 years)-4.07 (12-35 months) µg/kg bw/day for DBP and DEHP, respectively.

Determination of phthalates in fish fillets by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS): A comparison of direct immersion solid phase microextraction (SPME) versus ultrasonic assisted solvent extraction (UASE)

Due to the increasing presence of plastic and plastic associated contaminants in the aquatic environments, the monitoring of this contamination in fish products and the understanding of possible human health implications is considered urgent. However, data are still relatively scarce, mostly due to the methodological challenges in the chemical analysis: these contaminants are ubiquitous and procedural contamination from the laboratory is frequent. In this work, we compared solid-phase microextraction (SPME) to ultrasonic assisted solvent extraction (UASE) as sample preparation methods for the liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) determination of phthalates in fish fillets. UASE was carried out with an acetone-hexane (1:1) solution and according to a reference procedure aimed to obtain the exhaustive extraction of the target analytes. SPME was carried out by applying C18 fibers in direct immersion mode and by using water/methanol 20:80 mixture to desorb the aliquot required for the analysis. Overall, SPME displayed an improved control of the background contamination and enabled lower LOQs. Precision, calculated as relative standard deviation (RSD) on replicates of a reference sample, was below 24% for both the method. Analysis of real samples purchased from Italian supermarkets showed that SPME might be an efficient tool for estimating the risk associated with fish consumption.

Critical Review on the Presence of Phthalates in Food and Evidence of Their Biological Impact

Phthalates are a huge class of chemicals with a wide spectrum of industrial uses, from the manufacture of plastics to food contact applications, children's toys, and medical devices. People and animals can be exposed through different routes (i.e., ingestion, inhalation, dermal, or iatrogenic exposure), as these compounds can be easily released from plastics to water, food, soil, air, making them ubiquitous environmental contaminants. In the last decades, phthalates and their metabolites have proven to be of concern, particularly in products for pregnant women or children. Moreover, many authors reported high concentrations of phthalates in soft drinks, mineral waters, wine, oil, ready-to-eat meals, and other products, as a possible consequence of their accumulation along the food production chain and their accidental release from packaging materials. However, due to their different physical and chemical properties, phthalates do not have the same human and environmental impacts and their association to several human diseases is still under debate. In this review we provide an overview of phthalate toxicity, pointing out the health and legal issues related to their occurrence in several types of food and beverage.

Association between dietary contribution of ultra-processed foods and urinary concentrations of phthalates and bisphenol in a nationally representative sample of the US population aged 6 years and older

Ultra-processed food consumption has been associated with several health outcomes such as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and cancer. The deleterious nutrient profile of these products, and the presence of food additives, neoformed contaminants and contact materials such as phthalates and bisphenol may be some of the potential pathways through which ultra-processed food influences disease outcomes. The aim of this study was to examine the association between dietary contribution of ultra-processed foods and urinary biomarker concentrations of parent compounds or their metabolites including Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (ΣDEHP), Di-isononyl phthalate (ΣDiNP), Monocarboxynonyl phthalate (mCNP), Mono (3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (mCPP), Monobenzyl phthalate (mBzP), Bisphenol A (BPA), Bisphenol F (BPF) and Bisphenol S (BPS), in the US. Participants from the cross-sectional 2009-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, aged 6+ years, with urinary measures and with one 24-hour dietary recall were included in the study. Ultra-processed foods were identified based on the NOVA classification system, a four-group food classification based on the extent and purpose of industrial food processing. Linear regression was used to compare average urinary creatinine-standardized concentrations across quintiles of energy contribution of ultra-processed foods. Models incorporated survey sample weights and were adjusted for different sociodemographic and life-style variables. Adjusted geometric means of ΣDiNP, mCNP, mCPP, mBzP and BPF increased monotonically from the lowest to the highest quintile of ultra-processed food consumption. As both phthalates/bisphenol and ultra-processed foods have been previously associated with insulin resistance, diabetes, general/abdominal obesity and hypertension, our results suggest the possibility of contact materials in ultra-processed foods as one link between ultra-processed food and these health outcomes. Future studies could confirm findings and further explore these mechanisms of action.

Urinary phthalate concentrations in the slovenian population: An attempt to exposure assessment of family units

Phthalates are widespread contaminants with differing chemical characteristics, which largely determine their product applications, and they can leach into the environment. Due to their endocrine disruptive properties at long-term low-level exposure, they propose a health threat to people that has been associated with several adverse health effects such as: decreased male fertility and impacts on neurological development. People are exposed to different phthalates on a daily basis. Accordingly, this study aims to determine urinary concentrations of seven phthalate metabolites in Slovenian mothers (n = 155), fathers (n = 77), and children (n = 155) within the European project DEMOCOPHES and to identify potential sources of exposure using questionnaire data on sociodemographic characteristics. Furthermore, the appropriateness of two adjustment methods (creatinine and specific gravity) has been evaluated. First morning urine samples were obtained from one urban and one rural location in 2011. Samples were analysed with Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry according to the COPHES SOP protocol by VITO NV laboratory in Belgium. All investigated metabolites were detected in all populations. Children's urinary concentrations exceeded those of adults for most metabolites. We observed variations in concentrations depending on sociodemographic and geographic characteristics, such as food and product sources (e.g. plastic packaging, tins, personal care products, PVC) as well as lifestyle and habits (e.g. living space, time spent outside). We observed geographic and sociodemographic differences in our populations that could be confirmed for the three populations separately and for family units. Concentrations are significantly higher at the rural sampling location as well as in households with a lower level of education. We found both the urinary concentrations and the intake doses to be within the European range as presented in the literature. Between creatinine and specific gravity, we found specific gravity the more appropriate option for phthalates. To our knowledge, this is the first study investigating exposure to phthalates in the Slovenian population while considering the common exposure of family units.

Degradation of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) by a bacterial consortium and characterization of two novel esterases capable of hydrolyzing PAEs sequentially

Phthalate esters (PAEs), a class of toxic anthropogenic compounds, have been predominantly used as additives or plasticizers, and great concern and interests have been raised regarding its environmental behavior and degradation mechanism. In the present study, a bacterial consortium consisting of Microbacterium sp. PAE-1 and Pandoraea sp. PAE-2 was isolated by the enrichment method, which could degrade dibutyl phthalate (DBP) completely by biochemical cooperation. DBP was converted to phthalic acid (PA) via monobutyl phthalate (MBP) by two sequential hydrolysis steps in strain PAE-1, and then PA was further degraded by strain PAE-2. Strain PAE-1 could hydrolyze many dialkyl Phthalate esters (PAEs) including dimethyl, diethyl, dibutyl, dipentyl, benzyl butyl, dihexyl, di-(2-ethyhexyl) and their corresponding monoalkyl PAEs. Two esterase genes named dpeH and mpeH, located in the same transcription unit, were cloned from strain PAE-1 by the shotgun method and heterologously expressed in Escherichia. coli (DE3). The Km and kcat values of DpeH for DBP were 9.60 ± 0.97 μM and (2.72 ± 0.06) × 10⁶ s^-1, while those of MpeH for MBP were 18.61 ± 2.00 μM and (5.83 ± 1.00) × 10⁵ s^-1, respectively. DpeH could only hydrolyze dialkyl PAEs to the corresponding monoalkyl PAEs, which were then hydrolyzed to PA by MpeH. DpeH shares the highest similarity (53%) with an alpha/beta hydrolase from Microbacterium sp. MED-G48 and MpeH shows only 25% identity with a secreted lipase from Trichophyton benhamiae CBS 112371, indicating that DpeH and MpeH are two novel hydrolases against PAEs.

Challenges of plastic waste generation and management in sub-Saharan Africa: A review

Recently, the issues of land-based plastics and their associated challenges in the marine world have been widely publicised in the media and scientific literature. Thus far, despite these communications, there have been few reports that have focused on the issues that acute plastic waste generation and its poor management pose to human health and the global environment. Also, articles on ways to mitigate these issues particularly in sub-Saharan Africa have not been documented. Indeed, there is significant scope for improvements in plastic waste management in developing countries, which offer a wide range of economic and environmental benefits. Plastic waste generation in sub-Saharan Africa is dependent on many factors like urbanization, etc. Currently, the population of sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 billion as of the year 2019, the amount of generated waste is 180 million tonnes at the rate of 0.5% per capita per day, the amount that is openly dumped is 70% and the plastic waste generated annually is 17 million tonnes. Therefore, this study aims to provide an overview of the plastic lifecycle and problems associated with plastic waste management in sub-Saharan Africa, including current practices, public participation and opinion, and government regulations. In addition, this highlight aims to outline the impact of plastic waste proliferation on man and the environment; and the economic and environmental benefits of proper plastic waste management. Critical discussion of current processes and the suitability of potential solutions provide the basis for proposition on mitigation measures to avert the negative impact of plastic waste.

Evaluation of Microbiome-Host Relationships in the Zebrafish Gastrointestinal System Reveals Adaptive Immunity Is a Target of Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) Exposure

To improve physical characteristics of plastics such as flexibility and durability, producers enrich materials with phthalates such as di-2-(ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). DEHP is a high production volume chemical associated with metabolic and immune disruption in animals and humans. To reveal mechanisms implicated in phthalate-related disruption in the gastrointestinal system, male and female zebrafish were fed DEHP (3 ppm) daily for two months. At the transcriptome level, DEHP significantly upregulated gene networks in the intestine associated with helper T cells' (Th1, Th2, and Th17) specific pathways. The activation of gene networks associated with adaptive immunity was linked to the suppression of networks for tight junction, gap junctional intercellular communication, and transmembrane transporters, all of which are precursors for impaired gut integrity and performance. On a class level, DEHP exposure increased Bacteroidia and Gammaproteobacteria and decreased Verrucomicrobiae in both the male and female gastrointestinal system. Further, in males there was a relative increase in Fusobacteriia and Betaproteobacteria and a relative decrease in Saccharibacteria. Predictive algorithms revealed that the functional shift in the microbiome community, and the metabolites they produce, act to modulate intestinal adaptive immunity. This finding suggests that the gut microbiota may contribute to the adverse effects of DEHP on the host by altering metabolites sensed by both intestinal and immune Th cells. Our results suggest that the microbiome-gut-immune axis can be modified by DEHP and emphasize the value of multiomics approaches to study microbiome-host interactions following chemical perturbations.

Zinc supplement ameliorates phthalates-induced reproductive toxicity in male rats

People are inevitably exposed to phthalates (PEs) ubiquitously existing in environment. Our previous studies, simulating the actual situations of people exposure to PEs, have shown that the sub-chronic exposure to low-doses PEs mixture (MIXPs) impaired reproductive function in male rats. Zinc is an important element in maintaining male reproductive functions. However, it is still unknown whether zinc supplement could mitigate PEs-induced male reproductive toxicity or not with sub-chronic low-dose mixture exposure. This study aimed to explore the effect of zinc supplement on the reproductive toxicity caused by sub-chronic MIXPs exposure (160 mg/(kg•body weight)/d, for 90 days) in male rats, and further to reveal the underlying mechanisms. Testosterone (T), FSH and LH in serum, early toxicity indicators in urine, PIWI proteins (PIWIL1 and PIWIL2) expression in testes and pathological examination were performed for toxicity evaluation. Steroidogenic proteins (17β-HSD, StAR, CYP17A1, P450scc and SRD5A) were measured for mechanisms of exploration. The results indicated that zinc supplement could inhibit the T, LH, FSH level decreases in serum, abolish the effect of 5 early toxicity indicators' levels in urine, restrain the alteration of PIWI proteins expression and improve the constructional injury of testes. These effects might be relevant with the suppressed alteration of the expression of steroidogenic proteins induced by MIXPs in rat testicular cells. This work may offer further insights into reducing health risks of MIXPs exposure.

Phthalate metabolites concentrations in amniotic fluid and maternal urine: Cumulative exposure and risk assessment

Phthalates are used in industry as plasticizers or additives in everyday products and they have been considered as endocrine disrupting chemicals. Maternal exposure during pregnancy has been associated with neonatal exposure, preterm birth and impacts in the reproductive and respiratory systems. The aim of this study is to determine six phthalate metabolites (mono isobutyl phthalate, miBP, mono n-butyl phthalate, mnBP, mono benzyl phthalate, mBzP, mono ethylhexyl phthalate, mEHP, mono 2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl phthalate, mEHHP, mono 2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl-phthalate, mEOHP) in amniotic fluid and urine from 100 pregnant women. Participants answered questionnaires for the use of plastics and cosmetics, dietary habits, health effects, pregnancy problems, health and infant development. Positive amniotic fluid samples ranged from 1% to 21% and urine from 27% to 54%. The median levels for amniotic fluid were 2.3 μg/L - 10.7 μg/L and for urine 4.9 μg/L - 46.7 μg/L. The major results include significant correlations between urinary phthalates indicating their common sources of exposure, the frequent use of deodorant was significantly associated with higher urinary miBP (p = 0.050) and mnBP (p = 0.028) and a weak inverse association was found for the use of make-up products with mBzP (p = 0.053). The frequent use of plastic food containers was significantly associated with urinary mEHP (p = 0.026), and a positive trend was noticed for mEHP in amniotic fluid (p = 0.093). An association although weak was found between urinary mEHP and lower birth length (rs = 0.396, p = 0.062). No other associations were found for infant health problems or development. The daily intake of the total phthalates was calculated 5.4 μg/kg body weight/day which corresponds to hazard index 0.10 and exposure follows the declining trend that has been observed the last decades.

Biomonitoring of bisphenols A and S and phthalate metabolites in hair from pregnant women in Crete

Phthalates, bisphenols A and S (BPA, BPS) are used as plasticizers and many of them are documented or suspected of being endocrine disruptors. Several studies indicate that exposure during pregnancy may affect the newborn's health and development. The aim of this cross-sectional study is the biomonitoring of seven phthalate metabolites, BPA and BPS in hair from 100 pregnant women in Crete. The most frequently detected compounds were monoethylhexyl phthalate (mEHP) (68%), mono isobutyl phthalate (miBP) (40%), BPA (37%), BPS (34%) and mono-n-butyl phthalate (mnBP) (28%). Phthalate metabolites were detected at medians from 19.5 to 44.4 pg/mg, BPA at 69.9 pg/mg and BPS at 3.5 pg/mg. Significant positive correlations between phthalate metabolites were found which indicated their common sources of exposure. The frequent use of plastics for food storage was strongly associated with mEHP (p = .013) and a weaker association was found for miBP (p = .063). The frequent use of cosmetics during or before pregnancy was associated with levels of phthalate metabolites in hair. More specifically, the use of hair spray before pregnancy was significantly correlated with monobenzyl phthalate (mBzP) (p = .041) and a trend was found for miBP (p = .066). The use of makeup products during pregnancy was strongly associated with miBP (p = .015) and the use of deodorant during pregnancy was inversely associated with mEHP (p = .021). Strong associations came up between mEHP and lower birth weight (Spearman correlation coefficient, r = -0.302, p = .021) and exposure to BPS was associated with increased body mass index of the participants (p = .036). Although data in literature on biomonitoring of the compounds in hair are limited, the findings of this study are promising and in agreement with existing data in hair or urine.

Associations between urine phthalate metabolites and thyroid function in pregnant women and the influence of iodine status

BACKGROUND

Human populations, including susceptible subpopulations such as pregnant women and their fetuses, are continuously exposed to phthalates. Phthalates may affect the thyroid hormone system, causing concern for pregnancy health, birth outcomes and child development. Few studies have investigated the joint effect of phthalates on thyroid function in pregnant women, although they are present as a mixture with highly inter-correlated compounds. Additionally, no studies have investigated if the key nutrient for thyroid health, iodine, modifies these relationships.

METHODS

In this study, we examined the cross-sectional relationships between concentrations of 12 urinary phthalate metabolites and 6 plasma thyroid function biomarkers measured mid-pregnancy (~17 week gestation) in pregnant women (N = 1072), that were selected from a population-based prospective birth cohort, The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort study (MoBa). We investigated if the phthalate metabolite-thyroid function biomarker associations differed by iodine status by using a validated estimate of habitual dietary iodine intake based on a food frequency questionnaire from the 22nd gestation week. We accounted for the phthalate metabolite mixture by factor analyses, ultimately reducing the exposure into two uncorrelated factors. These factors were used as predictors in multivariable adjusted linear regression models with thyroid function biomarkers as the outcomes.

RESULTS

Factor 1, which included high loadings for mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), was associated with increased total triiodothyronine (TT3) and free T3 index (fT3i). These associations appeared to be driven primarily by women with low iodine intake (<150 µg/day, ~70% of our sample). Iodine intake significantly modified (p-interaction < 0.05) the association of factor 1 with thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), total thyroxine (TT4) and free T4 index (fT4i), such that only among women in the high iodine intake category (≥150 µg/day, i.e. sufficient) was this factor associated with increased TSH and decreased TT4 and FT4i, respectively. In contrast, factor 2, which included high loadings for di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites (∑DEHP) and di-iso-nonyl phthalate metabolites (∑DiNP), was associated with a decrease in TT3 and fT3i, which appeared fairly uniform across iodine intake categories.

CONCLUSION

We find that phthalate exposure is associated with thyroid function in mid-pregnancy among Norwegian women, and that iodine intake, which is essential for thyroid health, could influence some of these relationships.

Magnetic solid-phase extraction based on magnetic carbon particles from coffee grounds for determining phthalic acid esters in plastic bottled water

Newly developed magnetic carbon particles prepared from coffee grounds were used as the sorbent for the magnetic solid-phase extraction of eight phthalic acid esters (PAEs) from plastic bottled water prior to their analysis by GC-MS. The method, which uses coffee-ground particles coated with iron oxide, was validated, and exhibited linearities for the eight PAEs, with coefficients of determination above 0.998 in the 0.005 to 0.1 mg/L concentration range. Limits of detection and limits of quantification of 0.00003 to 0.002 mg/L and 0.0001 to 0.005 mg/L, respectively, were achieved, with recoveries (%) ranging between 77% and 120%, and relative standard deviations for intra- and interday precisions below 16.3% at three fortification levels. No PAE residues were detected when the developed and validated method was applied to 10 real plastic bottled water samples. Taken together, the developed magnetic solid-phase extraction method is a useful tool for monitoring phthalate esters in aqueous samples. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The development of a new, inexpensive, and efficient magnetic sorption material derived from spent coffee grounds, and its ability to determine phthalate esters in aqueous solutions was described by GC-MS/MS. The developed magnetic solid-phase extraction method is a useful tool for monitoring phthalate esters in aqueous samples.

Phthalic acid esters - A grave ecological hazard in Cochin estuary, India

Distribution and ecological risks of Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are poorly studied in estuarine environments in India. An attempt is made to chart the sources and assess the ecological risk of six PAE congeners (∑₆PAEs), present in dissolved and particulate forms in a tropical ecosystem (Cochin Estuary, India). Terrestrial input, as attested by a clear seasonality with substantial enrichment during monsoon (2-28 μg/L and 31-1203 μg/g; dissolved and particulate PAEs respectively) and post-monsoon (1-7 μg/L and 7-321 μg/g; dissolved and particulate PAEs respectively), was identified as the primary source. DnBP (di-n-butyl phthalate) and DEHP (diethylhexyl phthalate) were found to be the dominant species except for dissolved PAEs at pre-monsoon season. Statistical analysis identified two major clusters, in the ∑₆PAEs, composed of medium to high molecular weight PAEs (derived from plastic products) and low molecular weight PAEs (derived from cosmetic products). Calculated Risk Quotient (RQ) indicated values indicated moderate to high ecological risk for DnBP and DEHP congeners is a grim pointer to their detrimental effects on human health through consumption of contaminated organisms. Although substantial enrichment of suspended matter gets flushed out of the estuary during monsoon, there is a net PAE accumulation in the estuary during post-monsoon following an increased sedimentary restitution. Data of PAEs generated herein raises a challenge for immediate enactment of statutory legislation to curb and regulate hazardous contamination of estuaries by phthalic acid esters.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate inhibits glutathione regeneration and dehydrogenases of the pentose phosphate pathway on human colon carcinoma cells

Phthalates, particularly di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), are compounds widely used as plasticizers and have become serious global contaminants. Because of the bioaccumulation of such substances, the food chain is at risk. The food contamination by some phthalates has been linked to different side effects in experimental animals. That is why we have chosen the intestinal system's cells which represent the primary targets of these compounds to test their toxic effects. Human colon carcinoma cells (HCT 116) were chosen to elucidate whether DEHP triggers oxidative stress and apoptosis. Our results indicated that DEHP is cytotoxic; it induces the overexpression of Hsp70 protein and causes oxidative damage through the generation of free radicals leading to lipid peroxidation induction and the increase of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities. In addition, cell treatment with DEHP resulted in a glutathione (GSH) content decrease and a decrease in the glutathione reductase (GR) activity. As new evidence provided in this study, we demonstrated that the DEHP affected the two enzymes' activities of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD). This leads to a decrease in the level of NADPH used by the GR to maintain the regeneration of the reduced GSH. We also demonstrated that such effects can be responsible for DEHP-induced apoptosis.

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate targets the thioredoxin system and the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway in liver of Balb/c mice

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer that gives flexibility to various polyvinyl chloride products. It is a pollutant easily released into the environment and can cause many adverse effects to living organisms including hepatotoxicity. The thioredoxin system is a determining factor in the redox balance maintaining in the liver, which is a vulnerable tissue of reactive oxygen species overproduction because of its high energy needs. In order to determine if the thioredoxin system is a target in the development of DEHP hepatotoxicity, Balb/c mice were administered with DEHP intraperitoneally daily for 30 days. Results demonstrated that after DEHP exposure, biochemical profile changes were observed. This phthalate causes oxidative damage through the induction of lipid peroxydation as well as the increase of superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. As new evidence provided in this study, we demonstrated that the DEHP affected the thioredoxin system by altering the expression and the activity of thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin Reductase (TrxR1). The two enzyme activities of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were also affected by this phthalate. This leads to a decrease in the level of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate used by the TrxR1 to maintain the regeneration of the reduced Trx. We also demonstrated that such effects can be responsible of DEHP-induced DNA damage.

Phthalate exposure and metabolic effects: a systematic review of the human epidemiological evidence

OBJECTIVE

We performed a systematic review of the epidemiology literature to identify the metabolic effects associated with phthalate exposure.

DATA SOURCES AND STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Six phthalates were included in the review: di(2‑ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP). The initial literature search (of PubMed, Web of Science, and Toxline) included all studies of metabolic effects in humans, and outcomes were selected for full systematic review based on data availability.

STUDY EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Studies of diabetes and insulin resistance were evaluated using criteria defined a priori for risk of bias and sensitivity by two reviewers using a domain-based approach; studies identified with a pre-defined critical deficiency were excluded. Evidence was synthesized by outcome and phthalate and strength of evidence was summarized using a structured framework. Studies of obesity and renal effects received "screening level" reviews to determine whether full systematic review was warranted.

RESULTS

The primary outcomes reviewed here are (number of included/excluded studies in parentheses): type 2 diabetes (1/3), insulin resistance (13/3), and impaired glucose tolerance and blood glucose in pregnancy (4/2). For DEHP exposure, there was consistency among studies of insulin resistance and coherence with the single included study of diabetes, as well as an observed exposure-response gradient observed in a study of insulin resistance. This evidence is considered moderate. Similarly, for DBP and DIBP exposure, the evidence is considered moderate due to strong positive associations in the diabetes study and coherent results for insulin resistance. For DINP, BBP, and DEP, the evidence is considered slight. No association was reported in the single study of diabetes with BBP and DEP exposure (DINP was not investigated). The available evidence does indicate an association between exposure to these phthalates and insulin resistance, but the small number of studies and the lack of coherence with diabetes decreases confidence. The screening level reviews for obesity and renal effects determined that the currently available evidence is inadequate to assess the associations between these outcomes and phthalate exposure.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF KEY FINDINGS

Overall, these results support that phthalate exposure at levels seen in human populations may have metabolic effects. Given the mechanistic support, the large effect sizes for incident diabetes in the single available study, and the coherence with insulin resistance, the association between phthalate exposure and diabetes risk should be considered when assessing the risks and costs of exposure to specific phthalates in humans. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. EPA.