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Quabius ES, Möller P, Haag J, Pfannenschmidt S, Hedderich J, Görögh T, Röcken C, Hoffmann M. The role of the antileukoprotease SLPI in smoking-induced human papillomavirus-independent head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Int J Cancer 2013; 134:1323-34. [PMID: 23996702 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we showed that increased SLPI levels prevent human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and metastasis in smoking-induced, non-HPV-driven head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Here, we focus on the role of SLPI in non-HPV-driven HNSCC, investigating tumor tissue and non-neoplastic mucosa from the same patients and from non-HNSCC patients. Gene and protein expression of SLPI and gene expression of annexin 2 (a SLPI receptor), nicotine receptor (α7AChR) and arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) were analyzed in HNSCC patients (20 smokers; 16 nonsmokers). SLPI-results were correlated with the patients' HPV status. Non-neoplastic mucosa of HNSCC patients and normal mucosa from non-HNSCC individuals (18 smokers; 20 nonsmokers) was analyzed for the same parameters. Tissue of the inferior turbinate (n = 10) was incubated with nicotine for analysis of the same genes. SLPI gene expression in tumor tissue was 109.26 ± 23.08 times higher in smokers versus nonsmokers. Non-neoplastic mucosa of smokers showed also higher SLPI gene expression (10.49 ± 1.89-fold non-HNSCC; 18.02 ± 3.93-fold HNSCC patients). Annexin 2 gene expression was also increased in smokers. SLPI data were corroborated by immunohistochemistry. A nicotine dependent correlation between SLPI and annexin 2 gene expression (r(2) = 0.15, p < 0.001) was shown ex vivo. Nicotine and smoking increased α7AChR and AhR gene expression. Five patients, showing no/low SLPI expression, were HPV16-positive. A significant correlation between smoking and SLPI expression in tumors and to our knowledge for the first time in mucosa of HNSCC and non-HNSCC patients was established. Together with the finding that all patients with HPV infection showed no/low SLPI expression, these data support our intriguing hypothesis that smoking induced upregulated SLPI prevents HPV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elgar Susanne Quabius
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, D-24105, Kiel, Germany; Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, D-24105, Kiel, Germany
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Nixon B, Fakioglu E, Stefanidou M, Wang Y, Dutta M, Goldstein H, Herold BC. Genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in humanized HIV-transgenic mice triggers HIV shedding and is associated with greater neurological disease. J Infect Dis 2013; 209:510-22. [PMID: 23990571 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological studies consistently demonstrate synergy between herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Higher HIV-1 loads are observed in coinfected individuals, and conversely, HIV-1 is associated with more-severe herpetic disease. A small animal model of coinfection would facilitate identification of the biological mechanisms underlying this synergy and provide the opportunity to evaluate interventions. METHODS Mice transgenic for HIV-1 provirus and human cyclin T1 under the control of a CD4 promoter (JR-CSF/hu-cycT1) were intravaginally infected with HSV-2 and evaluated for disease progression, HIV shedding, and mucosal immune responses. RESULTS HSV-2 infection resulted in higher vaginal HIV loads and genital tissue expression of HIV RNA, compared with HSV-uninfected JR-CSF/hu-cycT1 mice. There was an increase in genital tract inflammatory cells, cytokines, chemokines, and interferons in response to HSV-2, although the kinetics of the response were delayed in HIV-transgenic, compared with control mice. Moreover, the JR-CSF/hu-cycT1 mice exhibited earlier and more-severe neurological disease. The latter was associated with downregulation of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor expression in neuronal tissue, a molecule with antiinflammatory, antiviral, and neuroprotective properties. CONCLUSIONS JR-CSF/hu-cycT1 mice provide a valuable model to study HIV/HSV-2 coinfection and identify potential mechanisms by which HSV-2 facilitates HIV-1 transmission and HIV modulates HSV-2-mediated disease.
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Zhang N, Zhang Z, Feng S, Wang Q, Malamud D, Deng H. Quantitative analysis of differentially expressed saliva proteins in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infected individuals. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 774:61-6. [PMID: 23567117 PMCID: PMC4507271 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, we have established a new methodology to analyze saliva proteins from HIV-1-seropositive patients before highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and seronegative controls. A total of 593 and 601 proteins were identified in the pooled saliva samples from 5 HIV-1 subjects and 5 controls, respectively. Forty-one proteins were found to be differentially expressed. Bioinformatic analysis of differentially expressed salivary proteins showed an increase of antimicrobial proteins and decrease of protease inhibitors upon HIV-1 infection. To validate some of these differentially expressed proteins, a high-throughput quantitation method was established to determine concentrations of 10 salivary proteins in 40 individual saliva samples from 20 seropositive patients before HAART and 20 seronegative subjects. This method was based on limited protein separation within the zone of the stacking gel of the 1D SDS PAGE and using isotope-coded synthetic peptides as internal standards. The results demonstrated that a combination of protein profiling and targeted quantitation is an efficient method to identify and validate differentially expressed salivary proteins. Expression levels of members of the calcium-binding S100 protein family and deleted in malignant brain tumors 1 protein (DMBT1) were up-regulated while that of Mucin 5B was down-regulated in HIV-1 seropositive saliva samples, which may provide new perspectives for monitoring HIV-infection and understanding the mechanism of HIV-1 infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawei Zhang
- Beijing Chaoyang Hospital Affiliated Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- Beijing Chaoyang Hospital Affiliated Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Feng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qingtao Wang
- Beijing Chaoyang Hospital Affiliated Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Daniel Malamud
- NYU College of Dentistry, 345 East 24th Street, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Haiteng Deng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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Hoffmann M, Quabius ES, Tribius S, Hebebrand L, Görögh T, Halec G, Kahn T, Hedderich J, Röcken C, Haag J, Waterboer T, Schmitt M, Giuliano AR, Kast WM. Human papillomavirus infection in head and neck cancer: the role of the secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Oncol Rep 2013; 29:1962-8. [PMID: 23467841 PMCID: PMC3658815 DOI: 10.3892/or.2013.2327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) gene and protein expression is significantly lower in metastatic versus non-metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). However, we did not assess the human papillomavirus (HPV) status of these cases. Since SLPI plays a role in HIV and herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, we hypothesized that SLPI may be involved in HPV-infected HNSCC. In HNSCC tissue (n=54), HPV DNA was determined and correlated with SLPI expression. Additionally, to investigate a possible role of smoking on SLPI expression in clinically normal mucosa, 19 patients treated for non-malignant diseases (non-HNSCC) were analyzed for SLPI expression and correlated with smoking habits. In HNSCC patients, SLPI expression showed a significant inverse correlation with HPV status. In patients with moderate/strong SLPI expression (n=19), 10.5% were HPV-positive. By contrast, patients with absent/weak SLPI expression (n=35), 45.7% were HPV-positive. Low SLPI expression was correlated with metastasis (P=0.003) independent of HPV status. HPV-positivity was clearly associated with lymph node status (81.3% N1-3 cases). In smoking non-HNSCC patients (n=7), 42.9% showed absent/weak and 57.1% moderate/strong SLPI staining. In non-smoking non-HNSCC patients (n=10) 83.3% showed absent/weak and 16.7% moderate/strong SLPI expression. For the first time, a correlation between SLPI downregulation and HPV infection was demonstrated, suggesting that high levels of SLPI, possibly induced by environmental factors such as tobacco smoking, correlate with protective effects against HPV infection. SLPI may be a potential biomarker identifying head and neck cancer patients not at risk of developing metastases (SLPI-positive), and those at risk to be infected by HPV (SLPI-negative) and likely to develop metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Hoffmann
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, D-24105 Kiel, Germany.
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Wei Q, Moldoveanu Z, Huang WQ, Alexander RC, Goepfert PA, Mestecky J. Comparative Evaluation of HIV-1 Neutralization in External Secretions and Sera of HIV-1-Infected Women. Open AIDS J 2012; 6:293-302. [PMID: 23346267 PMCID: PMC3549546 DOI: 10.2174/1874613601206010293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Although human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-specific antibodies are detectable in external secretions by ELISA and western blot (WB), the presence of HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies is difficult to evaluate due to the low levels of immunoglobulins (Ig) and the presence of humoral factors of innate immunity. The objective of this study was to determine virus neutralization activity and the relative contribution of HIV-1-specific antibodies of various isotypes to virus neutralization in serum/plasma samples, cervicovaginal lavages (CVL), and rectal lavages (RL). Design: Serum/plasma, CVL, and RL samples were examined by ELISA, WB and HIV-1 neutralization assays. Selected samples were Ig depleted and analyzed for virus neutralization. Results: IgG specific for three HIV-1 ENV antigens was detected in all serum/plasma samples, while IgA to at least one ENV glycoprotein was found at the low levels in 95% samples. Serum/plasma samples had the ability to neutralize at least one of three clade B and two clade C viruses. The neutralizing titers were reduced significantly or became undetectable after IgG removal. In corresponding CVL and RL, HIV-1 ENV-specific IgG antibodies were readily detected compared to IgA. Furthermore, IgG in CVL had greater ability than IgA to reduce virus infectivity. The difference in HIV-1 neutralization before and after Ig depletion was not observed in RL, implying that innate humoral factors were involved in anti-HIV-1 activity. Conclusions: Results demonstrate that HIV-1-specific neutralizing antibodies are almost exclusively of the IgG isotype in serum/plasma and CVL samples. HIV-1-specific binding antibodies detected in RL are not responsible for neutralization activity, suggesting that the antibody-mediated virus neutralization in external secretions should be verified by means of a selective depletion of Ig.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wei
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Microbiology, Birmingham, AL, USA
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56
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Van de Perre P, Rubbo PA, Viljoen J, Nagot N, Tylleskar T, Lepage P, Vendrell JP, Tuaillon E. HIV-1 Reservoirs in Breast Milk and Challenges to Elimination of Breast-Feeding Transmission of HIV-1. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:143sr3. [DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Factors Important to the Prioritization and Development of Successful Topical Microbicides for HIV-1. Mol Biol Int 2012; 2012:781305. [PMID: 22848826 PMCID: PMC3403474 DOI: 10.1155/2012/781305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant advancements in topical microbicide development have occurred since the prevention strategy was first described as a means to inhibit the sexual transmission of HIV-1. The lack of clinical efficacy of the first generation microbicide products has focused development attention on specific antiretroviral agents, and these agents have proven partially successful in human clinical trials. With greater understanding of vaginal and rectal virus infection, replication, and dissemination, better microbicide products and delivery strategies should result in products with enhanced potency. However, a variety of development gaps exist which relate to product dosing, formulation and delivery, and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics which must be better understood in order to prioritize microbicide products for clinical development. In vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models must be optimized with regard to these development gaps in order to put the right product at the right place, at the right time, and at the right concentration for effective inhibition of virus transmission. As the microbicide field continues to evolve, we must harness the knowledge gained from unsuccessful and successful clinical trials and development programs to continuously enhance our preclinical development algorithms.
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Abstract
During the course of certain inflammatory lung diseases, SLPI (secretory leucoprotease inhibitor) plays a number of important roles. As a serine antiprotease it functions to protect the airways from proteolytic damage due to neutrophil and other immune cell-derived serine proteases. With respect to infection it has known antimicrobial and anti-viral properties that are likely to contribute to host defence. Another of its properties is the ability to control inflammation within the lung where it can interfere with the transcriptional induction of pro-inflammatory gene expression induced by NF-κB (nuclear factor κB). Thus, factors that regulate the expression of SLPI in the airways can impact on disease severity and outcome. Gender represents once such idiosyncratic factor. In females with CF (cystic fibrosis), it is now thought that circulating oestrogen contributes, in part, to the observed gender gap whereby females have worse disease and poorer prognosis than males. Conversely, in asthma, sufferers who are females have more frequent exacerbations at times of low-circulating oestrogen. In the present paper, we discuss how SLPI participates in these events and speculate on whether regulatory mechanisms such as post-transcriptional modulation by miRNAs (microRNAs) are important in the control of SLPI expression in inflammatory lung disease.
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Lepage P, Van de Perre P. The Immune System of Breast Milk: Antimicrobial and Anti-inflammatory Properties. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 743:121-37. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-2251-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Fichorova RN, Yamamoto HS, Delaney ML, Onderdonk AB, Doncel GF. Novel vaginal microflora colonization model providing new insight into microbicide mechanism of action. mBio 2011; 2:e00168-11. [PMID: 22027006 PMCID: PMC3202752 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00168-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Several broad-spectrum microbicides, including cellulose sulfate (CS), have passed conventional preclinical and phase I clinical safety evaluation and yet have failed to protect women from acquiring HIV-1 in phase II/III trials. Concerns have been raised that current preclinical algorithms are deficient in addressing the complexity of the microflora-regulated vaginal mucosal barrier. We applied a novel microflora-colonized model to evaluate CS and hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC), which is used as a "universal placebo" in microbicide trials. Cervicovaginal epithelial cultures were colonized with normal vaginal microflora isolates representing common Lactobacillus species used as probiotics (L. acidophilus and L. crispatus) or Prevotella bivia and Atopobium vaginae, most prevalent in the disturbed microflora of bacterial vaginosis (BV). At baseline, all strains maintained constant epithelium-associated CFUs without inducing cytotoxicity and apoptosis. CS selectively reduced epithelium-associated CFUs and (to a lesser extent) planktonic CFUs, most significantly affecting L. crispatus. Inducing only minor changes in sterile epithelial cultures, CS induced expression of innate immunity mediators (RANTES, interleukin-8 [IL-8], and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor [SLPI]) in microflora-colonized epithelia, most significantly potentiating effects of bacteria causing BV. In the absence of CS, all bacterial strains except L. acidophilus activated NF-κB, although IL-8 and RANTES levels were increased by the presence of BV-causing bacteria only. CS enhanced NF-κB activation in a dose-dependent manner under all conditions, including L. acidophilus colonization. HEC remained inert. These results offer insights into possible mechanisms of CS clinical failure. The bacterially colonized cervicovaginal model reveals unique aspects of microflora-epithelium-drug interactions and innate immunity in the female genital tract and should become an integral part of preclinical safety evaluation of anti-HIV microbicides and other vaginal formulations. IMPORTANCE This report provides experimental evidence supporting the concept that the vaginal microflora regulates the epithelial innate immunity in a species- and strain-specific manner and that topically applied microbicides may alter both the bacterial and epithelial components of this homeostatic interaction. Our data also highlight the importance of differentiating the effects of biomedical interventions on epithelium-associated versus conventional planktonic bacterial growth when assessing vaginal mucosal health and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raina N Fichorova
- Laboratory of Genital Tract Biology, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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Kaushic C, Nazli A, Ferreira VH, Kafka JK. Primary human epithelial cell culture system for studying interactions between female upper genital tract and sexually transmitted viruses, HSV-2 and HIV-1. Methods 2011; 55:114-21. [PMID: 21996033 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2011.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2011] [Revised: 09/24/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence from clinical and epidemiological studies indicates that women are disproportionately susceptible to sexually transmitted viral infections. To understand the underlying biological basis for this increased susceptibility, more studies are needed to examine the acute events in the female reproductive tract following exposure to viruses during sexual transmission. The epithelial lining of the female reproductive tract is the primary barrier that sexually transmitted viruses, such as HIV-1 and HSV-2 need to infect or traverse, in order to initiate and establish productive infection. We have established an ex-vivo primary culture system to grow genital epithelial cells from upper reproductive tract tissues of women. Using these cultures, we have extensively examined the interactions between epithelial cells of the female genital tract and HSV-2 and HIV-1. In this review, we describe in detail the experimental protocol to grow these cultures, monitor their differentiation and inoculate with HSV-2 and HIV-1. Prospective use of these cultures to re-create the microenvironment in the reproductive tract is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charu Kaushic
- McMaster Immunology Research Center, McMaster University, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S4K1.
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Wira CR, Patel MV, Ghosh M, Mukura L, Fahey JV. Innate immunity in the human female reproductive tract: endocrine regulation of endogenous antimicrobial protection against HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 65:196-211. [PMID: 21294805 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.00970.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosal surfaces of the female reproductive tract (FRT) contain a spectrum of antimicrobials that provide the first line of defense against viruses, bacteria, and fungi that enter the lower FRT. Once thought to be a sterile compartment, the upper FRT is periodically exposed to pathogens throughout the menstrual cycle. More recently, secretions from the upper FRT have been shown to contribute to downstream protection in the lower FRT. In this review, we examine the antimicrobials in FRT secretions made by immune cells and epithelial cells in the upper and lower FRT that contribute to innate protection. Because each site is hormonally regulated to maintain fertility, this review focuses on the contributions of hormone balance during the menstrual cycle to innate immune protection. As presented in this review, studies from our laboratory and others demonstrate that sex hormones regulate antimicrobials produced by innate immune cells throughout the FRT. The goal of this review is to examine the spectrum of antimicrobials in the FRT and the ways in which they are regulated to provide protection against pathogens that compromise reproductive health and threaten the lives of women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Wira
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
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HIV-specific functional antibody responses in breast milk mirror those in plasma and are primarily mediated by IgG antibodies. J Virol 2011; 85:9555-67. [PMID: 21734046 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05174-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite months of mucosal virus exposure, the majority of breastfed infants born to HIV-infected mothers do not become infected, raising the possibility that immune factors in milk inhibit mucosal transmission of HIV. HIV Envelope (Env)-specific antibodies are present in the milk of HIV-infected mothers, but little is known about their virus-specific functions. In this study, HIV Env-specific antibody binding, autologous and heterologous virus neutralization, and antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC) responses were measured in the milk and plasma of 41 HIV-infected lactating women. Although IgA is the predominant antibody isotype in milk, HIV Env-specific IgG responses were higher in magnitude than HIV Env-specific IgA responses in milk. The concentrations of anti-HIV gp120 IgG in milk and plasma were directly correlated (r = 0.75; P < 0.0001), yet the response in milk was 2 logarithm units lower than in plasma. Similarly, heterologous virus neutralization (r = 0.39; P = 0.010) and ADCC activity (r = 0.64; P < 0.0001) in milk were directly correlated with that in the systemic compartment but were 2 log units lower in magnitude. Autologous neutralization was rarely detected in milk. Milk heterologous virus neutralization titers correlated with HIV gp120 Env-binding IgG responses but not with IgA responses (r = 0.71 and P < 0.0001, and r = 0.17 and P = 0.30). Moreover, IgGs purified from milk and plasma had equal neutralizing potencies against a tier 1 virus (r = 0.65; P < 0.0001), whereas only 1 out of 35 tested non-IgG milk fractions had detectable neutralization. These results suggest that plasma-derived IgG antibodies mediate the majority of the low-level HIV neutralization and ADCC activity in breast milk.
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Epithelial cell secretions from the human female reproductive tract inhibit sexually transmitted pathogens and Candida albicans but not Lactobacillus. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:335-42. [PMID: 21048705 PMCID: PMC3094926 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2010.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Female reproductive tract (FRT) epithelial cells protect against potential pathogens and sexually transmitted infections. The purpose of this study was to determine if epithelial cells from the upper FRT secrete antimicrobials that inhibit reproductive tract pathogens that threaten women's health. Apical secretions from primary cultures of Fallopian tube, uterine, cervical, and ectocervical epithelial cells were incubated with Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Candida albicans (yeast and hyphal forms), human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), and Lactobacillus crispatus before being tested for their ability to grow and/or infect target cells. Epithelial cell secretions from the upper FRT inhibit N. gonorrhoeae and both forms of Candida, as well as reduce HIV-1 (R5) infection of target cells. In contrast, none had an inhibitory effect on L. crispatus. An analysis of cytokines and chemokines in uterine secretions revealed several molecules that could account for pathogen inhibition. These findings provide definitive evidence for the critical role of epithelial cells in protecting the FRT from infections, without comprising the beneficial presence of L. crispatus, which is part of the normal vaginal microflora of humans.
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Mahanonda R, Sa-Ard-Iam N, Rerkyen P, Champaiboon C, Vanavit N, Pichyangkul S. Innate antiviral immunity of periodontal tissue. Periodontol 2000 2011; 56:143-53. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.2010.00378.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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67
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Schwaab M, Gurr A, Neumann A, Dazert S, Minovi A. Human antimicrobial proteins in ear wax. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 30:997-1004. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1185-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 01/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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68
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Kaushic C. HIV-1 Infection in the Female Reproductive Tract: Role of Interactions between HIV-1 and Genital Epithelial Cells. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 65:253-60. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00965.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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69
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Gillet E, Meys JF, Verstraelen H, Bosire C, De Sutter P, Temmerman M, Broeck DV. Bacterial vaginosis is associated with uterine cervical human papillomavirus infection: a meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2011; 11:10. [PMID: 21223574 PMCID: PMC3023697 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-11-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bacterial vaginosis (BV), an alteration of vaginal flora involving a decrease in Lactobacilli and predominance of anaerobic bacteria, is among the most common cause of vaginal complaints for women of childbearing age. It is well known that BV has an influence in acquisition of certain genital infections. However, association between BV and cervical human papillomavirus (HPV) infection has been inconsistent among studies. The objective of this meta-analysis of published studies is to clarify and summarize published literature on the extent to which BV is associated with cervical HPV infection. Methods Medline and Web of Science were systematically searched for eligible publications until December 2009. Articles were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. After testing heterogeneity of studies, meta-analysis was performed using random effect model. Results Twelve eligible studies were selected to review the association between BV and HPV, including a total of 6,372 women. The pooled prevalence of BV was 32%. The overall estimated odds ratio (OR) showed a positive association between BV and cervical HPV infection (OR, 1.43; 95% confidence interval, 1.11-1.84). Conclusion This meta-analysis of available literature resulted in a positive association between BV and uterine cervical HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evy Gillet
- International Centre for Reproductive Health (ICRH), Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Herold BC, Mesquita PM, Madan RP, Keller MJ. Female genital tract secretions and semen impact the development of microbicides for the prevention of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 65:325-33. [PMID: 21143689 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmacologic strategies for the prevention of HIV include vaccines, post-exposure prophylaxis with antiretroviral therapy, and topical microbicides. Vaginal microbicides have the potential to augment innate defenses in the genital tract but may also disrupt endogenous protection and increase HIV acquisition risk, as observed in clinical trials of nonoxynol-9. The initially disappointing results of microbicide clinical trials stimulated the development of more sensitive and comprehensive pre-clinical safety studies, which include dual-chamber culture systems to model the epithelial barrier and post-coital studies to evaluate the effects of semen and sexual intercourse on microbicide efficacy. This review discusses the key factors that contribute to a healthy female genital tract environment, the impact of semen on mucosal defense, and how our understanding of these mediators informs the development of effective vaginal microbicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betsy C Herold
- Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10467, USA.
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71
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McCormick TS, Weinberg A. Epithelial cell-derived antimicrobial peptides are multifunctional agents that bridge innate and adaptive immunity. Periodontol 2000 2010; 54:195-206. [PMID: 20712640 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.2010.00373.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Abstract
HIV-1 is mainly a sexually transmitted infection, and epithelial surfaces covering genital mucosa are the primary site of HIV-1 transmission. Although male circumcision was reported to reduce male acquisition of HIV-1 by 60%, the initial mechanisms of HIV-1 transmission in the male genitals remain elusive. We established two novel models of the adult human foreskin epithelium that allowed for polarized infection via the mucosal pole with either HIV-1-infected cells that are present in all secretions vectorizing HIV-1 or cell-free HIV-1. Efficient HIV-1 transmission occurs following 1 hr of polarized exposure of the inner, but not outer, foreskin to mononuclear cells highly infected with HIV-1, but not to cell-free virus. HIV-1-infected cells form viral synapses with apical foreskin keratinocytes, leading to polarized budding of HIV-1, which is rapidly internalized by Langerhans cells (LCs) in the inner foreskin. In turn, LCs form conjugates with T-cells, thereby transferring HIV-1. Seminal plasma from HIV-negative men mixed with cervico-vaginal secretions from HIV-positive women, which mimics the in-vivo mixture of these genital fluids during woman-to-man HIV-1 sexual transmission, decreases HIV-1 infection at the foreskin. Our results rationalize at the cellular level the apparent protective outcome of circumcision against HIV-1 acquisition by men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan Ganor
- Mucosal Entry of HIV-1 and Mucosal Immunity, Cell Biology and Host Pathogen Interactions Department, Cochin Institute, Université Paris Descartes, CNRS-UMR 8104, 22 rue Méchain, Paris, France
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73
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HIV is inactivated after transepithelial migration via adult oral epithelial cells but not fetal epithelial cells. Virology 2010; 409:211-22. [PMID: 21056450 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 10/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Oral transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in adult populations is rare. However, HIV spread across fetal/neonatal oropharyngeal epithelia could be important in mother-to-child transmission. Analysis of HIV transmission across polarized adult and fetal oral epithelial cells revealed that HIV transmigrates through both adult and fetal cells. However, only virions that passed through the fetal cells - and not those that passed through the adult cells - remained infectious. Analysis of expression of anti-HIV innate proteins beta-defensins 2 and 3, and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in adult, fetal, and infant oral epithelia showed that their expression is predominantly in the adult oral epithelium. Retention of HIV infectivity after transmigration correlated inversely with the expression of these innate proteins. Inactivation of innate proteins in adult oral keratinocytes restored HIV infectivity. These data suggest that high-level innate protein expression may contribute to the resistance of the adult oral epithelium to HIV transmission.
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74
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Lung protease/anti-protease network and modulation of mucus production and surfactant activity. Biochimie 2010; 92:1608-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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75
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Sallenave JM. Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and elafin/trappin-2: versatile mucosal antimicrobials and regulators of immunity. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 42:635-43. [PMID: 20395631 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2010-0095rt] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Elafin and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) are pleiotropic molecules chiefly synthesized at the mucosal surface that have a fundamental role in the surveillance against microbial infections. Their initial discovery as anti-proteases present in the inflammatory milieu in chronic pathologies such as those of the lung suggested that they may play a role in keeping in check extracellular proteases released during the excessive activation of innate immune cells such as neutrophils. This soon proved to be a simplistic explanation, as other functions were also soon ascribed to these molecules (antimicrobial, modulation of innate and adaptive immunity, regulation of tissue repair). Data emanating from patients with chronic pathologies (in the lung and elsewhere) have shown that SLPI and elafin are often inactivated in inflammatory secretions, either through the action of host or microbial products, justifying attempts at antiprotease supplementation in clinical protocols. Although these have been sparse, proof of principle has been demonstrated, and future challenges will undoubtedly rest with improvements in methods of delivery in the context of tissue inflammation and in careful selection of patients more likely to benefit from SLPI/elafin augmentation.
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76
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Wira CR, Fahey JV, Ghosh M, Patel MV, Hickey DK, Ochiel DO. Sex hormone regulation of innate immunity in the female reproductive tract: the role of epithelial cells in balancing reproductive potential with protection against sexually transmitted pathogens. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 63:544-65. [PMID: 20367623 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00842.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune system in the female reproductive tract (FRT) does not mount an attack against HIV or other sexually transmitted infections (STI) with a single endogenously produced microbicide or with a single arm of the immune system. Instead, the body deploys dozens of innate antimicrobials to the secretions of the female reproductive tract. Working together, these antimicrobials along with mucosal antibodies attack many different viral, bacterial and fungal targets. Within the FRT, the unique challenges of protection against sexually transmitted pathogens coupled with the need to sustain the development of an allogeneic fetus have evolved in such a way that sex hormones precisely regulate immune function to accomplish both tasks. The studies presented in this review demonstrate that estradiol and progesterone secreted during the menstrual cycle act both directly and indirectly on epithelial cells and other immune cells in the reproductive tract to modify immune function in a way that is unique to specific sites throughout the FRT. As presented in this review, studies from our laboratory and others demonstrate that the innate immune response is under hormonal control, varies with the stage of the menstrual cycle, and as such is suppressed at mid-cycle to optimize conditions for successful fertilization and pregnancy. In doing so, a window of STI vulnerability is created during which potential pathogens including HIV enter the reproductive tract to infect host targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Wira
- Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School, One Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
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77
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Kaushic C, Ferreira VH, Kafka JK, Nazli A. HIV infection in the female genital tract: discrete influence of the local mucosal microenvironment. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 63:566-75. [PMID: 20384619 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00843.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Women acquire HIV infections predominantly at the genital mucosa through heterosexual transmission. Therefore, the immune milieu at female genital surfaces is a critical determinant of HIV susceptibility. In this review, we recapitulate the evidence suggesting that several distinctive innate immune mechanisms in the female genital tract (FGT) serve to significantly deter or facilitate HIV-1 infection. Epithelial cells lining the FGT play a key role in forming a primary barrier to HIV entry. These cells express Toll-like receptors and other receptors that recognize and respond directly to pathogens, including HIV-1. In addition, innate biological factors produced by epithelial and other cells in the FGT have anti-HIV activity. Female sex hormones, co-infection with other pathogens and components in semen may also exacerbate or down-modulate HIV transmission. A combination of innate and adaptive immune factors and their interactions with the local microenvironment determine the outcome of HIV transmission. Improving our understanding of the female genital microenvironment will be useful in developing treatments that augment and sustain protective immune responses in the genital mucosa, such as microbicides and vaccines, and will provide greater insight into viral pathogenesis in the FGT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charu Kaushic
- Center For Gene Therapeutics, Michael G. DeGroote Institute of Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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Mitchell C, Balkus J, Agnew K, Lawler R, Hitti J. Changes in the vaginal microenvironment with metronidazole treatment for bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010; 18:1817-24. [PMID: 19951217 DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2009.1378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is associated with preterm delivery, but there is little evidence that treatment improves pregnancy outcomes. We examined whether oral or vaginal metronidazole treatment for BV in early pregnancy was more effective in restoring the normal vaginal environment. METHODS This was a randomized controlled trial comparing oral and intravaginal metronidazole for treatment of BV in early pregnancy (<20 weeks). Vaginal samples collected at baseline and 4 weeks after treatment were evaluated using gram stain, culture, colorimetric detection of sialidase, and immunoassay for measurement of proinflammatory cytokines interleukins-1beta, -6, -8 (IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8) and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI). We compared the effect of treatment between groups (using chi-square and t test) and within individuals (McNemar's test). RESULTS Of 126 subjects, 108 (86%) completed follow-up (55 oral, 53 intravaginal). Of the study population, 34% achieved therapeutic cure, and this was not different between treatment groups. BV-associated bacteria were significantly reduced in both groups, but few subjects regained colonization with protective lactobacilli. Among women who achieved therapeutic cure, the level of IL-1beta dropped significantly (p < 0.001) and SLPI increased (p = 0.003). More women in the vaginal treatment group had undetectable sialidase after treatment (p = 0.013). CONCLUSIONS Treatment with oral or intravaginal metronidazole in early pregnancy reduced colonization with BV-associated bacteria but was not effective in achieving therapeutic cure or in restoring healthy vaginal lactobacilli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Mitchell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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79
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Abstract
Breastfeeding remains a common practice in parts of the world where the burden of HIV is highest and the fewest alternative feeding options exist. The impossible dilemma faced by HIV-positive mothers is whether to breastfeed their infants in keeping with cultural norms but in doing so risk transmitting the virus through breast milk, or to pursue formula feeding, which comes with its own set of risks, including a higher rate of infant mortality from diarrheal illnesses, while reducing transmission of HIV. Treatment of mothers and/or their infants with antiretroviral drugs is a strategy that has been employed for several decades to reduce HIV transmission through pregnancy and delivery, but the effect of these agents when taken during breastfeeding is a newer field of study. In this article we evaluate the latest clinical research, from trials that encourage exclusive breastfeeding to trials of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for either the mother or infant, in an attempt to prevent transmission of HIV through breast milk. Additionally, we discuss research that is in progress, with results anticipated in the next few years that will further shape clinical guidelines and practice. Exclusive breastfeeding is much safer than mixed feeding (the supplementation of breastfeeding with other foods), and should be encouraged even in settings where ART for either the mother or infant is not readily available. The research published regarding maternal treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) during pregnancy and the breastfeeding period has all been non-randomized with relatively little statistical power, but suggests maternal HAART can drastically reduce the risk of transmission of HIV. Infant prophylaxis has been intensively studied in several trials and has been shown to be as effective as maternal treatment with antiretrovirals, reducing the transmission rate after 6 weeks to as low as 1.2%. Research that is in progress will provide us with more answers about the relative contribution of maternal treatment and infant prophylaxis in preventing transmission, and the results of such research may be expected as early as this year through 2013. There is hope that perinatal HIV transmission may be greatly reduced in breastfeeding populations worldwide through a combination of behavioral interventions that encourage exclusive breastfeeding and pharmacologic interventions with antiretrovirals for mothers and/or their infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie Slater
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia.
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Arakeri G. Autologous saliva transfusion: treatment for HIV? Med Hypotheses 2010; 74:772-6. [PMID: 20060653 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The HIV-1 pandemic is a complex mix of diverse epidemics within and between countries and regions of the world, and is undoubtedly the defining public-health crisis of our time. Any therapeutic or prophylactic measure which holds promise or provides clues of eliminating or inhibiting the infection is worthy of investigation. As our body's own saliva is suspiciously escaping from the infection and providing clues regarding the resistance/inhibition of HIV; in this paper, a treatment approach is suggested with the rationale of in vitro effective antiviral action of autogenous saliva may also have a better therapeutic potential by its intravenous administration along with dextran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gururaj Arakeri
- Department of Oral Maxillofacial and Reconstructive Surgery, Sri Sai College of Dental Surgery, Vikarabad and Craniofacial Unit, FMS Dental Hospital, Andhra Pradesh, India.
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81
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82
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The phospholipid scramblases 1 and 4 are cellular receptors for the secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and interact with CD4 at the plasma membrane. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5006. [PMID: 19333378 PMCID: PMC2659420 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2009] [Accepted: 02/22/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) is secreted by epithelial cells in all the mucosal fluids such as saliva, cervical mucus, as well in the seminal liquid. At the physiological concentrations found in saliva, SLPI has a specific antiviral activity against HIV-1 that is related to the perturbation of the virus entry process at a stage posterior to the interaction of the viral surface glycoprotein with the CD4 receptor. Here, we confirm that recombinant SLPI is able to inhibit HIV-1 infection of primary T lymphocytes, and show that SLPI can also inhibit the transfer of HIV-1 virions from primary monocyte-derived dendritic cells to autologous T lymphocytes. At the molecular level, we show that SLPI is a ligand for the phospholipid scramblase 1 (PLSCR1) and PLSCR4, membrane proteins that are involved in the regulation of the movements of phospholipids between the inner and outer leaflets of the plasma membrane. Interestingly, we reveal that PLSCR1 and PLSCR4 also interact directly with the CD4 receptor at the cell surface of T lymphocytes. We find that the same region of the cytoplasmic domain of PLSCR1 is involved in the binding to CD4 and SLPI. Since SLPI was able to disrupt the association between PLSCR1 and CD4, our data suggest that SLPI inhibits HIV-1 infection by modulating the interaction of the CD4 receptor with PLSCRs. These interactions may constitute new targets for antiviral intervention.
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83
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84
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Harder J, Gläser R, Schröder JM. Human antimicrobial proteins effectors of innate immunity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 13:317-38. [PMID: 18182460 DOI: 10.1177/0968051907088275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We live in a world populated by an enormous number of micro-organisms. This necessitates the existence of highly effective mechanisms to control microbial growth. Through many research efforts, a chemical defense system based on the production of antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) has been identified. AMPs are endogenous, small proteins exhibiting antimicrobial activity against a wide variety of micro-organisms. The wide distribution of these molecules in the plant and animal kingdom reflects their biological significance. Various human AMPs show a potent effect on pathogenic micro-organisms including antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Thus, there is great interest in understanding the role of AMPs within innate immunity and evaluating their use and/or specific induction to fend off infections. In this review, we provide an overview of the characteristics of human AMPs and discuss examples where AMPs may be involved in the pathogenesis of infectious and inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Harder
- Clinical Research Unit, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany.
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85
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Burgener A, Boutilier J, Wachihi C, Kimani J, Carpenter M, Westmacott G, Cheng K, Ball TB, Plummer F. Identification of differentially expressed proteins in the cervical mucosa of HIV-1-resistant sex workers. J Proteome Res 2008; 7:4446-54. [PMID: 18707157 DOI: 10.1021/pr800406r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Novel tools are necessary to understand mechanisms of altered susceptibility to HIV-1 infection in women of the Pumwani Sex Worker cohort, Kenya. In this cohort, more than 140 of the 2000 participants have been characterized to be relatively resistant to HIV-1 infection. Given that sexual transmission of HIV-1 occurs through mucosal surfaces such as that in the cervicovaginal environment, our hypothesis is that innate immune factors in the genital tract may play a role in HIV-1 infection resistance. Understanding this mechanism may help develop microbicides and/or vaccines against HIV-1. A quantitative proteomics technique (2D-DIGE: two-dimensional difference in-gel electrophoresis) was used to examine cervical mucosa of HIV-1 resistant women ( n = 10) for biomarkers of HIV-1 resistance. Over 15 proteins were found to be differentially expressed between HIV-1-resistant women and control groups ( n = 29), some which show a greater than 8-fold change. HIV-1-resistant women overexpressed several antiproteases, including those from the serpin B family, and also cystatin A, a known anti-HIV-1 factor. Immunoblotting for a selection of the identified proteins confirmed the DIGE volume differences. Validation of these results on a larger sample of individuals will provide further evidence these biomarkers are associated with HIV-1 resistance and could help aid in the development of effective microbicides against HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Burgener
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2.
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86
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Herpes simplex virus downregulates secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor: a novel immune evasion mechanism. J Virol 2008; 82:9337-44. [PMID: 18667508 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00603-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), an anti-inflammatory mediator of mucosal immunity, inhibits human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) in cell culture. Epidemiological studies demonstrate that higher concentrations of SLPI in mucosal secretions are associated with a reduced risk of HIV transmission. The current studies were designed to test the hypothesis that HSV triggers a loss of SLPI to evade innate immunity and that this response may contribute to the increased risk of HIV infection in the setting of HSV infection. Exposure of human cervical epithelial cells to HSV-1 or HSV-2, but not HIV or vesicular stomatitis virus, triggered a significant and sustained reduction in SLPI levels. The reduction persisted when cells were infected in the presence of acyclovir but not following infection with UV-inactivated virus, indicating that viral gene expression, but not replication, is required. Reverse transcriptase PCR studies demonstrated that the loss of SLPI is mediated by downregulation of gene expression. SLPI downregulation was associated with activation of NF-kappaB signaling pathways and upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines, consistent with the known inhibitor effects of SLPI on NF-kappaB pathways. The downregulation mapped to viral early-gene expression, as variants impaired in expression of the ICP4 or ICP0 immediate-early gene failed to downregulate SLPI or activate NF-kappaB. Together, these results identify a novel role for HSV immediate-early-gene expression in regulating mucosal immune responses.
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87
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Rocha LA, Vargas PA, Silva LFF, Leon JE, Santos AB, Hiemstra PS, Mauad T. Expression of secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor in the submandibular glands of AIDS patients. Oral Dis 2008; 14:82-8. [PMID: 18173453 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2006.01358.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Secretory leukocyte proteinase inhibitor (SLPI) is an endogenous proteinase inhibitor present in mucosal secretions. It also displays antimicrobial activity including anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity. This protease inhibitor is also expressed in submandibular glands (SMG), but there are few data on its expression in AIDS patients with infectious conditions. METHODS We analyzed the expression of SLPI using immunohistochemistry in submandibular gland samples of 36 AIDS patients [10 with normal histology, 10 with chronic nonspecific sialadenitis, eight with mycobacteriosis, and eight with cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection] and 10 HIV-negative controls. The proteinase inhibitor was quantified using image analysis and expressed as % of positively stained area. RESULTS There was a higher expression of SLPI in AIDS patients with CMV infection (% of stained area, mean+/-SD: 37.37+/-14.45) when compared with all other groups (P=0.009). There were no significant differences between control subjects (22.70+/-9.42%) and AIDS patients without histologic alterations (18.10+/-7.58%), with chronic nonspecific sialadenitis (17.13+/-5.36%), or mycobacterial infection (21.09+/-4.66%). CONCLUSION Cytomegalovirus infection increases SLPI expression in the SMG of AIDS patients. Our results reveal new insights into the pathogenic association between HIV and CMV in AIDS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Rocha
- Department of Oral Pathology, Faculty of Odontology of Piracicaba- University of Campinas, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
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Denny P, Hagen FK, Hardt M, Liao L, Yan W, Arellanno M, Bassilian S, Bedi GS, Boontheung P, Cociorva D, Delahunty CM, Denny T, Dunsmore J, Faull KF, Gilligan J, Gonzalez-Begne M, Halgand F, Hall SC, Han X, Henson B, Hewel J, Hu S, Jeffrey S, Jiang J, Loo JA, Ogorzalek Loo RR, Malamud D, Melvin JE, Miroshnychenko O, Navazesh M, Niles R, Park SK, Prakobphol A, Ramachandran P, Richert M, Robinson S, Sondej M, Souda P, Sullivan MA, Takashima J, Than S, Wang J, Whitelegge JP, Witkowska HE, Wolinsky L, Xie Y, Xu T, Yu W, Ytterberg J, Wong DT, Yates JR, Fisher SJ. The proteomes of human parotid and submandibular/sublingual gland salivas collected as the ductal secretions. J Proteome Res 2008; 7:1994-2006. [PMID: 18361515 DOI: 10.1021/pr700764j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Saliva is a body fluid with important functions in oral and general health. A consortium of three research groups catalogued the proteins in human saliva collected as the ductal secretions: 1166 identifications--914 in parotid and 917 in submandibular/sublingual saliva--were made. The results showed that a high proportion of proteins that are found in plasma and/or tears are also present in saliva along with unique components. The proteins identified are involved in numerous molecular processes ranging from structural functions to enzymatic/catalytic activities. As expected, the majority mapped to the extracellular and secretory compartments. An immunoblot approach was used to validate the presence in saliva of a subset of the proteins identified by mass spectrometric approaches. These experiments focused on novel constituents and proteins for which the peptide evidence was relatively weak. Ultimately, information derived from the work reported here and related published studies can be used to translate blood-based clinical laboratory tests into a format that utilizes saliva. Additionally, a catalogue of the salivary proteome of healthy individuals allows future analyses of salivary samples from individuals with oral and systemic diseases, with the goal of identifying biomarkers with diagnostic and/or prognostic value for these conditions; another possibility is the discovery of therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Denny
- School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
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Rebbapragada A, Kaul R. More than their sum in your parts: the mechanisms that underpin the mutually advantageous relationship between HIV and sexually transmitted infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2007.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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90
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Abstract
Breastfeeding, particularly for the first 6 months of life, is unquestionably the ideal way to feed most infants. However, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pandemic has caused debate and confusion about the best way for HIV-positive mothers to feed their children. This review provides recent key findings and opinions around making breastfeeding safer for HIV-positive women, and argues for preservation of breastfeeding, as opposed to complete avoidance of breastfeeding for all HIV-positive women.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Coovadia
- Centre for HIV/AIDS Networking, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
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91
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Moutsopoulos NM, Nares S, Nikitakis N, Rangel Z, Wen J, Munson P, Sauk J, Wahl SM. Tonsil epithelial factors may influence oropharyngeal human immunodeficiency virus transmission. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 171:571-9. [PMID: 17620369 PMCID: PMC1934526 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.061006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tonsil epithelium has been implicated in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis, but its role in oral transmission remains controversial. To study characteristics of this tissue, which may influence susceptibility or resistance to HIV, we performed microarray analysis of the tonsil epithelium. Our data revealed that genes related to immune functions such as antibody production and antigen processing were increasingly expressed in tonsil compared with the epithelium of another oropharyngeal site, the gingival epithelium. Importantly, tonsil epithelium highly expressed genes associated with HIV entrapment and/or transmission, including the HIV co-receptor CXCR4 and the potential HIV-binding molecules FcRgammaIII, complement receptor 2, and various complement components. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed the increased presence of CXCR4 in the tonsil epithelium compared with multiple oral epithelial sites, particularly in basal and parabasal layers. This increased expression of molecules involved in viral recognition, binding, and entry may favor virus-epithelium interactions in an environment with reduced innate antiviral mechanisms. Specifically, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, an innate molecule with anti-HIV activity, was minimal in the tonsil epithelium, in contrast to oral mucosa. Collectively, our data suggest that increased expression of molecules associated with HIV binding and entry coupled with decreased innate antiviral factors may render the tonsil a potential site for oral transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niki M Moutsopoulos
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda 20892, USA
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Lehman DA, Farquhar C. Biological mechanisms of vertical human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) transmission. Rev Med Virol 2007; 17:381-403. [PMID: 17542053 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the absence of interventions, 30-45% of exposed infants acquire human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) through mother-to-child transmission. It remains unclear why some infants become infected while others do not, despite significant exposure to HIV-1 in utero, during delivery and while breastfeeding. Here we discuss the correlates of vertical transmission with an emphasis on factors that increase maternal HIV-1 levels, either systemically or locally in genital secretions and breast milk. Immune responses may influence maternal viral load, and data suggest that maternal neutralising antibodies reduce infection rates. In addition, infants may be capable of mounting HIV-specific cellular immune responses. We propose that both humoral and cellular responses are necessary to reduce infection because cell-free as well as cell-associated virus appears to play a role in vertical transmission. These distinct forms of the virus may be targeted most effectively by different components of the immune system. We also discuss the use of antiretrovirals to reduce transmission, focusing on the mechanisms of action of regimens currently used in developing country settings. We conclude that prevention relies not only on reducing maternal HIV-1 levels within blood, genital tract and breast milk, but also on pre- and/or post-exposure prophylaxis to the infant. However, HIV-1 has the capacity to mutate under drug pressure and rapidly acquires mutations conferring antiretroviral resistance. This review concludes with data on persistence of low-level resistance after delivery as well as recent guidelines for maternal and infant regimens designed to limit resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dara A Lehman
- Department of Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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93
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Kazmi SH, Naglik JR, Sweet SP, Evans RW, O'Shea S, Banatvala JE, Challacombe SJ. Comparison of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific inhibitory activities in saliva and other human mucosal fluids. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2006; 13:1111-8. [PMID: 16928883 PMCID: PMC1595323 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.00426-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Several human mucosal fluids are known to possess an innate ability to inhibit human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection and replication in vitro. This study compared the HIV-1 inhibitory activities of several mucosal fluids, whole, submandibular/sublingual (sm/sl), and parotid saliva, breast milk, colostrum, seminal plasma, and cervicovaginal secretions, from HIV-1-seronegative donors by using a 3-day microtiter infection assay. A wide range of HIV-1 inhibitory activity was exhibited in all mucosal fluids tested, with some donors exhibiting high levels of activity while others showed significantly lower levels. Colostrum, whole milk, and whole saliva possessed the highest levels of anti-HIV-1 activity, seminal fluid, cervicovaginal secretions, and sm/sl exhibited moderate levels, and parotid saliva consistently demonstrated the lowest levels of HIV-1 inhibition. Fast protein liquid chromatography gel filtration studies revealed the presence of at least three distinct peaks of inhibitory activity against HIV-1 in saliva and breast milk. Incubation of unfractionated and fractionated whole saliva with antibodies raised against human lactoferrin (hLf), secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), and, to a lesser extent, MG2 (high-molecular-weight mucinous glycoprotein) reduced the HIV-1 inhibitory activity significantly. The results suggest that hLf and SLPI are two key components responsible for HIV-1 inhibitory activity in different mucosal secretions. The variation in HIV inhibitory activity between the fluids and between individuals suggests that there may be major differences in susceptibility to HIV infection depending both on the individual and on the mucosal fluid involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamim H Kazmi
- Oral AIDS Research Unit, Department of Oral Medicine and Immunology, King's College London Dental Institute at Guy's, King's College, and St. Thomas' Hospitals, Floor 28, Guy's Tower, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
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94
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Moutsopoulos NM, Greenwell-Wild T, Wahl SM. Differential mucosal susceptibility in HIV-1 transmission and infection. Adv Dent Res 2006; 19:52-6. [PMID: 16672550 DOI: 10.1177/154407370601900111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
HIV infection occurs primarily through mucosal surfaces, indicating that protection at mucosal sites may be crucial in prevention and treatment. The host innate and adaptive immune elements provide a level of protection, which differs between mucosal compartments, and appears to be most successful in the oral environment, where transmission is rare. In addition to the distinct oral mucosal architecture and cellular constituents, oral fluids, unlike other mucosal secretions, are rarely a vehicle for HIV infection. Multiple soluble factors may contribute to this antiviral activity, including neutralizing antibodies, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), antiviral peptides such as defensins and cystatins, glycoproteins including thrombospondin and lactoferrin, and complement components. Understanding the antiviral activities of these and other potential resistance factors is becoming increasingly important in attempts to design treatments in the era of HAART resistance. In this regard, the mechanism of anti-HIV action of SLPI has recently been further elucidated by the discovery of its binding protein/receptor, which plays a key role in the infection of macrophages and may consequently be a novel therapeutic target. Continued elucidation of the unique features of mucosal HIV immunology is essential for understanding HIV pathogenesis and for developing effective vaccines and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Moutsopoulos
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Building 30, Rm. 320, 30 Convent Dr., MSC 4352, Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
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95
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Abstract
Mechanisms of resistance to HIV-1 infection in the human oral cavity are incompletely understood. While salivary components have been implicated in protection, there is growing evidence that human beta-defensins (hBDs), originating in oral epithelial cells, may be playing an important role in the prevention of HIV infection. New antiviral, chemotactic, and immunosurveillance properties are being attributed to hBDs, which are small cationic antimicrobial innate response molecules expressed in mucosal epithelium. Inducible hBDs are always expressed in normal oral epithelium, a property not shared by other mucosal barriers. Data reviewed in this paper demonstrate that: (1) HIV-1 X4 and R5 phenotypes induce hBD-2 and -3 mRNA in normal human oral epithelial cells; (2) hBD-2 and -3 inhibit HIV-1 infection by both viral strains, with greater activity against X4 viruses; and (3) this inhibition is due to a direct interaction with virions and through modulation of the CXCR4 co-receptor. These properties may be exploited as strategies for mucosal protection against HIV-1 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Weinberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, Case Western Reserve University (CWRU), 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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96
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Abstract
Elafin and SLPI (secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor) have multiple important roles both in normal homoeostasis and at sites of inflammation. These include antiprotease and antimicrobial activity as well as modulation of the response to LPS (lipopolysaccharide) stimulation. Elafin and SLPI are members of larger families of proteins secreted predominantly at mucosal sites, and have been shown to be modulated in multiple pathological conditions. We believe that elafin and SLPI are important molecules in the controlled functioning of the innate immune system, and may have further importance in the integration of this system with the adaptive immune response. Recent interest has focused on the influence of inflamed tissues on the recruitment and phenotypic modulation of cells of the adaptive immune system and, indeed, the local production of elafin and SLPI indicate that they are ideally placed in this regard. Functionally related proteins, such as the defensins and cathelicidins, have been shown to have direct effects upon dendritic cells with potential alteration of their phenotype towards type I or II immune responses. This review addresses the multiple functions of elafin and SLPI in the inflammatory response and discusses further their roles in the development of the adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Williams
- Rayne Laboratory, Respiratory Medicine Unit, MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
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97
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Koulinska IN, Villamor E, Chaplin B, Msamanga G, Fawzi W, Renjifo B, Essex M. Transmission of cell-free and cell-associated HIV-1 through breast-feeding. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006; 41:93-9. [PMID: 16340480 DOI: 10.1097/01.qai.0000179424.19413.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transmission through breast-feeding is an important cause of infant HIV-1 infections in developing countries; however, its mechanism remains largely unknown. We have explored the association between cell-free virus (CFV) and cell-associated virus (CAV) levels in breast milk (BM), as reflected by viral RNA and proviral DNA, respectively, and the risk of infant HIV-1 infection after 6 weeks postpartum. METHODS Sixty-one HIV-positive mothers who transmitted HIV-1 by BM were matched to 61 HIV-positive nontransmitting mothers based on their infant's age at sample collection. CFV and CAV were quantified in a single milk specimen per mother preceding the infant's first HIV-positive result. RESULTS After adjusting for maternal CD4 cell counts and disease stage, each 10-fold increase in CFV or CAV load was associated with an almost 3-fold increase in BM transmission. Whereas CAV load was predictive of transmission before and after 9 months postpartum, CFV was a significant predictor of transmission occurring only after 9 months. Phylogenetic analyses of the C2 to C5 env region showed that 85% of infants (11 of 13 infants) harboring viruses that clustered with CFV in their mother's milk were infected after 9 months postpartum. CONCLUSION A reduction in milk CAV and CFV loads might significantly decrease HIV-1 transmission by breast-feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene N Koulinska
- Harvard School of Public Health AIDS Initiative, Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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98
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Rogan MP, Geraghty P, Greene CM, O'Neill SJ, Taggart CC, McElvaney NG. Antimicrobial proteins and polypeptides in pulmonary innate defence. Respir Res 2006; 7:29. [PMID: 16503962 PMCID: PMC1386663 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-7-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2005] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inspired air contains a myriad of potential pathogens, pollutants and inflammatory stimuli. In the normal lung, these pathogens are rarely problematic. This is because the epithelial lining fluid in the lung is rich in many innate immunity proteins and peptides that provide a powerful anti-microbial screen. These defensive proteins have anti-bacterial, anti- viral and in some cases, even anti-fungal properties. Their antimicrobial effects are as diverse as inhibition of biofilm formation and prevention of viral replication. The innate immunity proteins and peptides also play key immunomodulatory roles. They are involved in many key processes such as opsonisation facilitating phagocytosis of bacteria and viruses by macrophages and monocytes. They act as important mediators in inflammatory pathways and are capable of binding bacterial endotoxins and CPG motifs. They can also influence expression of adhesion molecules as well as acting as powerful anti-oxidants and anti-proteases. Exciting new antimicrobial and immunomodulatory functions are being elucidated for existing proteins that were previously thought to be of lesser importance. The potential therapeutic applications of these proteins and peptides in combating infection and preventing inflammation are the subject of ongoing research that holds much promise for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Rogan
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patrick Geraghty
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Catherine M Greene
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Shane J O'Neill
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Clifford C Taggart
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Noel G McElvaney
- Pulmonary Research Division, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
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99
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Venkataraman N, Cole AL, Svoboda P, Pohl J, Cole AM. Cationic polypeptides are required for anti-HIV-1 activity of human vaginal fluid. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 175:7560-7. [PMID: 16301665 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.11.7560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal surfaces of the vagina are the portals for heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 and therefore play a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of primary infection. In the search for direct biological evidence for the role of human vaginal fluid in innate host defense, we characterized the anti-HIV-1 function of cationic polypeptides within minimally manipulated vaginal fluid. In the current study we revealed that vaginal fluid confers intrinsic anti-HIV-1 properties against both X4 and R5 strains of HIV-1 and could protect against HIV-1 infection and reduce proviral genome integration in organotypic cultures of human cervicovaginal tissue. The majority of this activity was contained in the cationic polypeptide fraction, and the depletion of cationic polypeptides using a selective cation exchange resin ablated most of the intrinsic activity against HIV-1. By adding the cationic polypeptide fraction to depleted vaginal fluid, we were able to restore activity against HIV-1. Using a proteomic approach, we identified 18 cationic polypeptides within vaginal fluid, nearly all of which are either known antimicrobials or have other purported roles in host defense. Interestingly, physiologic concentrations of 13 of the cationic polypeptides were not active alone against HIV-1, yet in concert they partially restored the anti-HIV-1 activity of cation-depleted vaginal fluid. These results suggest that synergism between cationic polypeptides is complex, and full anti-HIV-1 activity probably involves the aggregate of the cationic peptides and proteins in vaginal fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitya Venkataraman
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Biomolecular Science Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2364, USA
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100
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Wira CR, Grant-Tschudy KS, Crane-Godreau MA. Epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract: a central role as sentinels of immune protection. Am J Reprod Immunol 2005; 53:65-76. [PMID: 15790340 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2004.00248.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The continued presence of bacterial and viral antigens in the lumen of the vagina coupled with the periodic presence of antigens in the lumen of the upper reproductive tract provide an ongoing challenge that can compromise female reproductive health and threaten life. Separating underlying tissues from luminal antigens, polarized epithelial cells of the cervix, uterus and Fallopian tubes have evolved to protect against potential pathogens. Once thought to function exclusively by providing a crucial barrier, mucosal epithelial cells are now known to function as sentinels that recognize antigens, respond in ways that lead to bacterial and viral killing, as well as signal to underlying immune cells when pathogenic challenge exceeds their protective capacity. Unique to epithelial cells of the female reproductive tract is the regulatory control of the female sex hormones. Acting both directly and indirectly through underlying stromal cells, estradiol and progesterone regulate epithelial cell innate and adaptive immune functions to protect against potential pathogens while providing an environment that supports an allogeneic fetus. In this article, we will outline how polarized epithelial cells function as the first line of defense against potential pathogens in the female reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Wira
- Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH, USA.
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