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Hill JL, Hammudi MB, Tien M. The Arabidopsis cellulose synthase complex: a proposed hexamer of CESA trimers in an equimolar stoichiometry. THE PLANT CELL 2014; 26:4834-42. [PMID: 25490917 PMCID: PMC4311198 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.114.131193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose is the most abundant renewable polymer on Earth and a major component of the plant cell wall. In vascular plants, cellulose synthesis is catalyzed by a large, plasma membrane-localized cellulose synthase complex (CSC), visualized as a hexameric rosette structure. Three unique cellulose synthase (CESA) isoforms are required for CSC assembly and function. However, elucidation of either the number or stoichiometry of CESAs within the CSC has remained elusive. In this study, we show a 1:1:1 stoichiometry between the three Arabidopsis thaliana secondary cell wall isozymes: CESA4, CESA7, and CESA8. This ratio was determined utilizing a simple but elegant method of quantitative immunoblotting using isoform-specific antibodies and (35)S-labeled protein standards for each CESA. Additionally, the observed equimolar stoichiometry was found to be fixed along the axis of the stem, which represents a developmental gradient. Our results complement recent spectroscopic analyses pointing toward an 18-chain cellulose microfibril. Taken together, we propose that the CSC is composed of a hexamer of catalytically active CESA trimers, with each CESA in equimolar amounts. This finding is a crucial advance in understanding how CESAs integrate to form higher order complexes, which is a key determinate of cellulose microfibril and cell wall properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph L Hill
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Mustafa B Hammudi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Ming Tien
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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Cosgrove DJ. Re-constructing our models of cellulose and primary cell wall assembly. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 22:122-131. [PMID: 25460077 PMCID: PMC4293254 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The cellulose microfibril has more subtlety than is commonly recognized. Details of its structure may influence how matrix polysaccharides interact with its distinctive hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces to form a strong yet extensible structure. Recent advances in this field include the first structures of bacterial and plant cellulose synthases and revised estimates of microfibril structure, reduced from 36 to 18 chains. New results also indicate that cellulose interactions with xyloglucan are more limited than commonly believed, whereas pectin–cellulose interactions are more prevalent. Computational results indicate that xyloglucan binds tightest to the hydrophobic surface of cellulose microfibrils. Wall extensibility may be controlled at limited regions (‘biomechanical hotspots’) where cellulose–cellulose contacts are made, potentially mediated by trace amounts of xyloglucan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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Chen Y, Deffenbaugh NC, Anderson CT, Hancock WO. Molecular counting by photobleaching in protein complexes with many subunits: best practices and application to the cellulose synthesis complex. Mol Biol Cell 2014; 25:3630-42. [PMID: 25232006 PMCID: PMC4230622 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e14-06-1146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The constituents of large, multisubunit protein complexes dictate their functions in cells, but determining their precise molecular makeup in vivo is challenging. One example of such a complex is the cellulose synthesis complex (CSC), which in plants synthesizes cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. In growing plant cells, CSCs exist in the plasma membrane as six-lobed rosettes that contain at least three different cellulose synthase (CESA) isoforms, but the number and stoichiometry of CESAs in each CSC are unknown. To begin to address this question, we performed quantitative photobleaching of GFP-tagged AtCESA3-containing particles in living Arabidopsis thaliana cells using variable-angle epifluorescence microscopy and developed a set of information-based step detection procedures to estimate the number of GFP molecules in each particle. The step detection algorithms account for changes in signal variance due to changing numbers of fluorophores, and the subsequent analysis avoids common problems associated with fitting multiple Gaussian functions to binned histogram data. The analysis indicates that at least 10 GFP-AtCESA3 molecules can exist in each particle. These procedures can be applied to photobleaching data for any protein complex with large numbers of fluorescently tagged subunits, providing a new analytical tool with which to probe complex composition and stoichiometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalei Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802 Interdisciplinary Graduate Degree Program in Cell and Developmental Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Nathan C Deffenbaugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Degree Program in Cell and Developmental Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802 Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - William O Hancock
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802 Interdisciplinary Graduate Degree Program in Cell and Developmental Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, University Park, PA 16802
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Carbohydrate-binding modules of fungal cellulases: occurrence in nature, function, and relevance in industrial biomass conversion. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2014; 88:103-65. [PMID: 24767427 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800260-5.00004-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
In this review, the present knowledge on the occurrence of cellulases, with a special emphasis on the presence of carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) in various fungal strains, has been summarized. The importance of efficient fungal cellulases is growing due to their potential uses in biorefinery processes where lignocellulosic biomasses are converted to platform sugars and further to biofuels and chemicals. Most secreted cellulases studied in detail have a bimodular structure containing an active core domain attached to a CBM. CBMs are traditionally been considered as essential parts in cellulases, especially in cellobiohydrolases. However, presently available genome data indicate that many cellulases lack the binding domains in cellulose-degrading organisms. Recent data also demonstrate that CBMs are not necessary for the action of cellulases and they solely increase the concentration of enzymes on the substrate surfaces. On the other hand, in practical industrial processes where high substrate concentrations with low amounts of water are employed, the enzymes have been shown to act equally efficiently with and without CBM. Furthermore, available kinetic data show that enzymes without CBMs can desorb more readily from the often lignaceous substrates, that is, they are not stuck on the substrates and are thus available for new actions. In this review, the available data on the natural habitats of different wood-degrading organisms (with emphasis on the amount of water present during wood degradation) and occurrence of cellulose-binding domains in their genome have been assessed in order to identify evolutionary advantages for the development of CBM-less cellulases in nature.
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Mir BA, Mewalal R, Mizrachi E, Myburg AA, Cowan DA. Recombinant hyperthermophilic enzyme expression in plants: a novel approach for lignocellulose digestion. Trends Biotechnol 2014; 32:281-9. [PMID: 24732021 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Plant biomass, as an abundant renewable carbon source, is a promising alternative to fossil fuels. However, the enzymes most commonly used for depolymerization of lignocellulosic biomass are expensive, and the development of cost-effective alternative conversion technologies would be desirable. One possible option is the heterologous expression of genes encoding lignocellulose-digesting enzymes in plant tissues. To overcome simultaneously issues of toxicity and incompatibility with high-temperature steam explosion processes, the use of heterologous genes encoding hyperthermophilic enzymes may be an attractive alternative. This approach could reduce the need for exogenous enzyme additions prior to fermentation, reducing the cost of the complete processing operation. This review highlights recent advances and future prospects for using hyperthermophilic enzymes in the biofuels industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal Ahmad Mir
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Genomics, Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Ritesh Mewalal
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Eshchar Mizrachi
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Don A Cowan
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Genomics, Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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Li X, Xia T, Huang J, Guo K, Liu X, Chen T, Xu W, Wang X, Feng S, Peng L. Distinct biochemical activities and heat shock responses of two UDP-glucose sterol glucosyltransferases in cotton. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 219-220:1-8. [PMID: 24576758 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2013.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
UDP-glucose sterol glucosyltransferase (SGT) are enzymes typically involved in the production of sterol glycosides (SG) in various organisms. However, the biological functions of SGTs in plants remain largely unknown. In the present study, we identified two full-length GhSGT genes in cotton and examined their distinct biochemical properties. Using UDP-[U-(14)C]-glucose and β-sitosterol or total crude membrane sterols as substrates, GhSGT1 and GhSGT2 recombinant proteins were detected with different enzymatic activities for SG production. The addition of Triton (X-100) strongly inhibited the activity of GhSGT1 but caused an eightfold increase in the activity of GhSGT2. The two GhSGTs showed distinct enzyme activities after the addition of NaCl, MgCl2, and ZnCl2, indicating that the two GhSGTs exhibited distinct biochemical properties under various conditions. Furthermore, after heat shock treatment, GhSGT1 showed rapidly enhanced gene expression in vivo and low enzyme activity in vitro, whereas GhSGT2 maintained extremely low gene expression levels and relatively high enzyme activity. Notably, the GhSGT2 gene was highly expressed in cotton fibers, and the biochemical properties of GhSGT2 were similar to those of GhCESA in favor for MgCl2 and non-reduction reaction condition. It suggested that GhSGT2 may have important functions in cellulose biosynthesis in cotton fibers, which must be tested in the transgenic plants in the future. Hence, the obtained data provided insights into the biological functions of two different GhSGTs in cotton and in other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianliang Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Bioengineering, Jingchu University of Technology, Jingmen 448000, China
| | - Tao Xia
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Jiangfeng Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Kai Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xu Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tingting Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Wen Xu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xuezhe Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shengqiu Feng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liangcai Peng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement and National Centre of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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57
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Bashline L, Lei L, Li S, Gu Y. Cell wall, cytoskeleton, and cell expansion in higher plants. MOLECULAR PLANT 2014; 7:586-600. [PMID: 24557922 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssu018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
To accommodate two seemingly contradictory biological roles in plant physiology, providing both the rigid structural support of plant cells and the adjustable elasticity needed for cell expansion, the composition of the plant cell wall has evolved to become an intricate network of cellulosic, hemicellulosic, and pectic polysaccharides and protein. Due to its complexity, many aspects of the cell wall influence plant cell expansion, and many new and insightful observations and technologies are forthcoming. The biosynthesis of cell wall polymers and the roles of the variety of proteins involved in polysaccharide synthesis continue to be characterized. The interactions within the cell wall polymer network and the modification of these interactions provide insight into how the plant cell wall provides its dual function. The complex cell wall architecture is controlled and organized in part by the dynamic intracellular cytoskeleton and by diverse trafficking pathways of the cell wall polymers and cell wall-related machinery. Meanwhile, the cell wall is continually influenced by hormonal and integrity sensing stimuli that are perceived by the cell. These many processes cooperate to construct, maintain, and manipulate the intricate plant cell wall--an essential structure for the sustaining of the plant stature, growth, and life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Logan Bashline
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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58
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Sorek N, Yeats TH, Szemenyei H, Youngs H, Somerville CR. The Implications of Lignocellulosic Biomass Chemical Composition for the Production of Advanced Biofuels. Bioscience 2014. [DOI: 10.1093/biosci/bit037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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59
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Nanofibrillated Cellulose (NFC): A High-Value Co-Product that Improves the Economics of Cellulosic Ethanol Production. ENERGIES 2014. [DOI: 10.3390/en7020607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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60
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Lei L, Li S, Bashline L, Gu Y. Dissecting the molecular mechanism underlying the intimate relationship between cellulose microfibrils and cortical microtubules. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:90. [PMID: 24659994 PMCID: PMC3952479 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
A central question in plant cell development is how the cell wall determines directional cell expansion and therefore the final shape of the cell. As the major load-bearing component of the cell wall, cellulose microfibrils are laid down transversely to the axis of elongation, thus forming a spring-like structure that reinforces the cell laterally and while favoring longitudinal expansion in most growing cells. Mounting evidence suggests that cortical microtubules organize the deposition of cellulose microfibrils, but the precise molecular mechanisms linking microtubules to cellulose organization have remained unclear until the recent discovery of cellulose synthase interactive protein 1 , a linker protein between the cortical microtubules and the cellulose biosynthesizing machinery. In this review, we will focus on the intimate relationship between cellulose microfibrils and cortical microtubules, in particular, we will discuss microtubule arrangement and cell wall architecture, the linkage between cellulose synthase complexes and microtubules, and the feedback mechanisms between cell wall and microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ying Gu
- *Correspondence: Ying Gu, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA e-mail:
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61
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62
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Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides: Structure and Biosynthesis. POLYSACCHARIDES 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03751-6_73-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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63
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Miart F, Desprez T, Biot E, Morin H, Belcram K, Höfte H, Gonneau M, Vernhettes S. Spatio-temporal analysis of cellulose synthesis during cell plate formation in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 77:71-84. [PMID: 24147885 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
During cytokinesis a new crosswall is rapidly laid down. This process involves the formation at the cell equator of a tubulo-vesicular membrane network (TVN). This TVN evolves into a tubular network (TN) and a planar fenestrated sheet, which extends at its periphery before fusing to the mother cell wall. The role of cell wall polymers in cell plate assembly is poorly understood. We used specific stains and GFP-labelled cellulose synthases (CESAs) to show that cellulose, as well as three distinct CESAs, accumulated in the cell plate already at the TVN stage. This early presence suggests that cellulose is extruded into the tubular membrane structures of the TVN. Co-localisation studies using GFP-CESAs suggest the delivery of cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs) to the cell plate via phragmoplast-associated vesicles. In the more mature TN part of the cell plate, we observed delivery of GFP-CESA from doughnut-shaped organelles, presumably Golgi bodies. During the conversion of the TN into a planar fenestrated sheet, the GFP-CESA density diminished, whereas GFP-CESA levels remained high in the TVN zone at the periphery of the expanding cell plate. We observed retrieval of GFP-CESA in clathrin-containing structures from the central zone of the cell plate and from the plasma membrane of the mother cell, which may contribute to the recycling of CESAs to the peripheral growth zone of the cell plate. These observations, together with mutant phenotypes of cellulose-deficient mutants and pharmacological experiments, suggest a key role for cellulose synthesis already at early stages of cell plate assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Miart
- INRA, UMR1318, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Saclay Plant Sciences, AgroParisTech, RD10, F-78000, Versailles, France
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64
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Abstract
Plant stature and development are governed by cell proliferation and directed cell growth. These parameters are determined largely by cell wall characteristics. Cellulose microfibrils, composed of hydrogen-bonded β-1,4 glucans, are key components for anisotropic growth in plants. Cellulose is synthesized by plasma membrane-localized cellulose synthase complexes. In higher plants, these complexes are assembled into hexameric rosettes in intracellular compartments and secreted to the plasma membrane. Here, the complexes typically track along cortical microtubules, which may guide cellulose synthesis, until the complexes are inactivated and/or internalized. Determining the regulatory aspects that control the behavior of cellulose synthase complexes is vital to understanding directed cell and plant growth and to tailoring cell wall content for industrial products, including paper, textiles, and fuel. In this review, we summarize and discuss cellulose synthesis and regulatory aspects of the cellulose synthase complex, focusing on Arabidopsis thaliana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E McFarlane
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada;
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65
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BcsA and BcsB form the catalytically active core of bacterial cellulose synthase sufficient for in vitro cellulose synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:17856-61. [PMID: 24127606 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1314063110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose is a linear extracellular polysaccharide. It is synthesized by membrane-embedded glycosyltransferases that processively polymerize UDP-activated glucose. Polymer synthesis is coupled to membrane translocation through a channel formed by the cellulose synthase. Although eukaryotic cellulose synthases function in macromolecular complexes containing several different enzyme isoforms, prokaryotic synthases associate with additional subunits to bridge the periplasm and the outer membrane. In bacteria, cellulose synthesis and translocation is catalyzed by the inner membrane-associated bacterial cellulose synthase (Bcs)A and BcsB subunits. Similar to alginate and poly-β-1,6 N-acetylglucosamine, bacterial cellulose is implicated in the formation of sessile bacterial communities, termed biofilms, and its synthesis is likewise stimulated by cyclic-di-GMP. Biochemical studies of exopolysaccharide synthesis are hampered by difficulties in purifying and reconstituting functional enzymes. We demonstrate robust in vitro cellulose synthesis reconstituted from purified BcsA and BcsB proteins from Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Although BcsA is the catalytically active subunit, the membrane-anchored BcsB subunit is essential for catalysis. The purified BcsA-B complex produces cellulose chains of a degree of polymerization in the range 200-300. Catalytic activity critically depends on the presence of the allosteric activator cyclic-di-GMP, but is independent of lipid-linked reactants. Our data reveal feedback inhibition of cellulose synthase by UDP but not by the accumulating cellulose polymer and highlight the strict substrate specificity of cellulose synthase for UDP-glucose. A truncation analysis of BcsB localizes the region required for activity of BcsA within its C-terminal membrane-associated domain. The reconstituted reaction provides a foundation for the synthesis of biofilm exopolysaccharides, as well as its activation by cyclic-di-GMP.
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Hao H, Chen T, Fan L, Li R, Wang X. 2, 6-Dichlorobenzonitrile causes multiple effects on pollen tube growth beyond altering cellulose synthesis in Pinus bungeana Zucc. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76660. [PMID: 24146903 PMCID: PMC3795706 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellulose is an important component of cell wall, yet its location and function in pollen tubes remain speculative. In this paper, we studied the role of cellulose synthesis in pollen tube elongation in Pinus bungeana Zucc. by using the specific inhibitor, 2, 6-dichlorobenzonitrile (DCB). In the presence of DCB, the growth rate and morphology of pollen tubes were distinctly changed. The organization of cytoskeleton and vesicle trafficking were also disturbed. Ultrastructure of pollen tubes treated with DCB was characterized by the loose tube wall and damaged organelles. DCB treatment induced distinct changes in tube wall components. Fluorescence labeling results showed that callose, and acidic pectin accumulated in the tip regions, whereas there was less cellulose when treated with DCB. These results were confirmed by FTIR microspectroscopic analysis. In summary, our findings showed that inhibition of cellulose synthesis by DCB affected the organization of cytoskeleton and vesicle trafficking in pollen tubes, and induced changes in the tube wall chemical composition in a dose-dependent manner. These results confirm that cellulose is involved in the establishment of growth direction of pollen tubes, and plays important role in the cell wall construction during pollen tube development despite its lower quantity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaiqing Hao
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lusheng Fan
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruili Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaohua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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67
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Sensitivity-enhanced solid-state NMR detection of expansin's target in plant cell walls. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:16444-9. [PMID: 24065828 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316290110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Structure determination of protein binding to noncrystalline macromolecular assemblies such as plant cell walls (CWs) poses a significant structural biology challenge. CWs are loosened during growth by expansin proteins, which weaken the noncovalent network formed by cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins, but the CW target of expansins has remained elusive because of the minute amount of the protein required for activity and the complex nature of the CW. Using solid-state NMR spectroscopy, combined with sensitivity-enhancing dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) and differential isotopic labeling of expansin and polysaccharides, we have now determined the functional binding target of expansin in the Arabidopsis thaliana CW. By transferring the electron polarization of a biradical dopant to the nuclei, DNP allowed selective detection of (13)C spin diffusion from trace concentrations of (13)C, (15)N-labeled expansin in the CW to nearby polysaccharides. From the spin diffusion data of wild-type and mutant expansins, we conclude that to loosen the CW, expansin binds highly specific cellulose domains enriched in xyloglucan, whereas more abundant binding to pectins is unrelated to activity. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate short (13)C-(13)C distances of 4-6 Å between a hydrophobic surface of the cellulose microfibril and an aromatic motif on the expansin surface, consistent with the observed NMR signals. DNP-enhanced 2D (13)C correlation spectra further reveal that the expansin-bound cellulose has altered conformation and is enriched in xyloglucan, thus providing unique insight into the mechanism of CW loosening. DNP-enhanced NMR provides a powerful, generalizable approach for investigating protein binding to complex macromolecular targets.
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Franková L, Fry SC. Biochemistry and physiological roles of enzymes that 'cut and paste' plant cell-wall polysaccharides. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2013; 64:3519-50. [PMID: 23956409 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell-wall matrix is equipped with more than 20 glycosylhydrolase activities, including both glycosidases and glycanases (exo- and endo-hydrolases, respectively), which between them are in principle capable of hydrolysing most of the major glycosidic bonds in wall polysaccharides. Some of these enzymes also participate in the 'cutting and pasting' (transglycosylation) of sugar residues-enzyme activities known as transglycosidases and transglycanases. Their action and biological functions differ from those of the UDP-dependent glycosyltransferases (polysaccharide synthases) that catalyse irreversible glycosyl transfer. Based on the nature of the substrates, two types of reaction can be distinguished: homo-transglycosylation (occurring between chemically similar polymers) and hetero-transglycosylation (between chemically different polymers). This review focuses on plant cell-wall-localized glycosylhydrolases and the transglycosylase activities exhibited by some of these enzymes and considers the physiological need for wall polysaccharide modification in vivo. It describes the mechanism of transglycosylase action and the classification and phylogenetic variation of the enzymes. It discusses the modulation of their expression in plants at the transcriptional and translational levels, and methods for their detection. It also critically evaluates the evidence that the enzyme proteins under consideration exhibit their predicted activity in vitro and their predicted action in vivo. Finally, this review suggests that wall-localized glycosylhydrolases with transglycosidase and transglycanase abilities are widespread in plants and play important roles in the mechanism and control of plant cell expansion, differentiation, maturation, and wall repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Franková
- Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, UK
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Gu F, Nielsen E. Targeting and regulation of cell wall synthesis during tip growth in plants. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 55:835-46. [PMID: 23758901 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Root hairs and pollen tubes are formed through tip growth, a process requiring synthesis of new cell wall material and the precise targeting and integration of these components to a selected apical plasma membrane domain in the growing tips of these cells. Presence of a tip-focused calcium gradient, control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, and formation and targeting of secretory vesicles are essential to tip growth. Similar to cells undergoing diffuse growth, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectins are also deposited in the growing apices of tip-growing cells. However, differences in the manner in which these cell wall components are targeted and inserted in the expanding portion of tip-growing cells is reflected by the identification of elements of the plant cell wall synthesis machinery which have been shown to play unique roles in tip-growing cells. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the tip growth process, with a particular focus on the subcellular targeting of newly synthesized cell wall components, and their roles in this form of plant cell expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangwei Gu
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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Strabala TJ, Macmillan CP. The Arabidopsis wood model-the case for the inflorescence stem. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 210:193-205. [PMID: 23849126 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Arabidopsis thaliana has successfully served as a model to discover genes and proteins that have roles in a wide range of plant traits, including wood-related traits, such as lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose biosynthesis, secondary growth regulation, and secondary cell wall synthesis. Both the radially thickened hypocotyl and the inflorescence stem (flower stalk) have been studied. In this review, we address lingering doubts regarding the utility of Arabidopsis as a model for wood development by highlighting studies that provide new biochemical and biophysical evidence that extend support for the Arabidopsis inflorescence stem as a model for wood development beyond what is currently thought. We describe different aspects of Arabidopsis that make it a highly versatile tool for the study of wood development. One would likely utilise the radially thickened hypocotyl because of its more fully developed vascular cambium for traits related specifically to secondary (i.e. cambial) growth. It is more productive to utilise the inflorescence stem for wood-like biophysical traits. Accession variation has been underexploited as a powerful method to discover genes governing wood-like traits. We discuss recent findings that survey the accession variation in Arabidopsis for biochemical and biophysical properties of various wood traits, such as microfibril angle, tensile strength and cellulose/hemicellulose content. Furthermore we discuss how larger-scale studies of this nature using plants grown in long days (as opposed to the current short-day paradigm) could accelerate gene discovery and our understanding of cell wall and wood development. We highlight some relatively unexplored areas of research relating to the secondary cell wall composition, architecture and biophysical properties of the inflorescence stem, and how these traits are relevant to wood formation. The Arabidopsis inflorescence stem has other characteristics, expressed genes and traits held in common with woody species that have not been widely characterised or discussed to date. We discuss how this conservation may indicate the more general potential for "true" woodiness in herbaceous species, in the context of so-called secondary woodiness.
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71
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Liebminger E, Grass J, Altmann F, Mach L, Strasser R. Characterizing the link between glycosylation state and enzymatic activity of the endo-β1,4-glucanase KORRIGAN1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:22270-80. [PMID: 23782689 PMCID: PMC3829318 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.475558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Defects in N-glycosylation and N-glycan processing frequently cause alterations in plant cell wall architecture, including changes in the structure of cellulose, which is the most abundant plant polysaccharide. KORRIGAN1 (KOR1) is a glycoprotein enzyme with an essential function during cellulose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. KOR1 is a membrane-anchored endo-β1,4-glucanase and contains eight potential N-glycosylation sites in its extracellular domain. Here, we expressed A. thaliana KOR1 as a soluble, enzymatically active protein in insect cells and analyzed its N-glycosylation state. Structural analysis revealed that all eight potential N-glycosylation sites are utilized. Individual elimination of evolutionarily conserved N-glycosylation sites did not abolish proper KOR1 folding, but mutations of Asn-216, Asn-324, Asn-345, and Asn-567 resulted in considerably lower enzymatic activity. In contrast, production of wild-type KOR1 in the presence of the class I α-mannosidase inhibitor kifunensine, which abolished the conversion of KOR1 N-glycans into complex structures, did not affect the activity of the enzyme. To address N-glycosylation site occupancy and N-glycan composition of KOR1 under more natural conditions, we expressed a chimeric KOR1-Fc-GFP fusion protein in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana. Although Asn-108 and Asn-133 carried oligomannosidic N-linked oligosaccharides, the six other glycosylation sites were modified with complex N-glycans. Interestingly, the partially functional KOR1 G429R mutant encoded by the A. thaliana rsw2-1 allele displayed only oligomannosidic structures when expressed in N. benthamiana, indicating its retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. In summary, our data indicate that utilization of several N-glycosylation sites is important for KOR1 activity, whereas the structure of the attached N-glycans is not critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Liebminger
- From the Departments of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology and
| | - Josephine Grass
- Chemistry, BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Friedrich Altmann
- Chemistry, BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Mach
- From the Departments of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology and
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The impact of the water moulds Saprolegnia diclina and Saprolegnia parasitica on natural ecosystems and the aquaculture industry. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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73
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Vanholme B, Desmet T, Ronsse F, Rabaey K, Breusegem FV, Mey MD, Soetaert W, Boerjan W. Towards a carbon-negative sustainable bio-based economy. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:174. [PMID: 23761802 PMCID: PMC3669761 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The bio-based economy relies on sustainable, plant-derived resources for fuels, chemicals, materials, food and feed rather than on the evanescent usage of fossil resources. The cornerstone of this economy is the biorefinery, in which renewable resources are intelligently converted to a plethora of products, maximizing the valorization of the feedstocks. Innovation is a prerequisite to move a fossil-based economy toward sustainable alternatives, and the viability of the bio-based economy depends on the integration between plant (green) and industrial (white) biotechnology. Green biotechnology deals with primary production through the improvement of biomass crops, while white biotechnology deals with the conversion of biomass into products and energy. Waste streams are minimized during these processes or partly converted to biogas, which can be used to power the processing pipeline. The sustainability of this economy is guaranteed by a third technology pillar that uses thermochemical conversion to valorize waste streams and fix residual carbon as biochar in the soil, hence creating a carbon-negative cycle. These three different multidisciplinary pillars interact through the value chain of the bio-based economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bartel Vanholme
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for BiotechnologyGent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Centre of Expertise – Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Frederik Ronsse
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Korneel Rabaey
- Laboratory of Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
- Centre for Microbial Electrosynthesis, The University of QueenslandBrisbane, Australia
- Advanced Water Management Centre, The University of QueenslandBrisbane, Australia
| | - Frank Van Breusegem
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for BiotechnologyGent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Marjan De Mey
- Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Centre of Expertise – Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Wim Soetaert
- Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Centre of Expertise – Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
| | - Wout Boerjan
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for BiotechnologyGent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent UniversityGent, Belgium
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Jacques E, Buytaert J, Wells DM, Lewandowski M, Bennett MJ, Dirckx J, Verbelen JP, Vissenberg K. MicroFilament Analyzer, an image analysis tool for quantifying fibrillar orientation, reveals changes in microtubule organization during gravitropism. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 74:1045-58. [PMID: 23489480 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Revised: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Image acquisition is an important step in the study of cytoskeleton organization. As visual interpretations and manual measurements of digital images are prone to errors and require a great amount of time, a freely available software package named MicroFilament Analyzer (MFA) was developed. The goal was to provide a tool that facilitates high-throughput analysis to determine the orientation of filamentous structures on digital images in a more standardized, objective and repeatable way. Here, the rationale and applicability of the program is demonstrated by analyzing the microtubule patterns in epidermal cells of control and gravi-stimulated Arabidopsis thaliana roots. Differential expansion of cells on either side of the root results in downward bending of the root tip. As cell expansion depends on the properties of the cell wall, this may imply a differential orientation of cellulose microfibrils. As cellulose deposition is orchestrated by cortical microtubules, the microtubule patterns were analyzed. The MFA program detects the filamentous structures on the image and identifies the main orientation(s) within individual cells. This revealed four distinguishable microtubule patterns in root epidermal cells. The analysis indicated that gravitropic stimulation and developmental age are both significant factors that determine microtubule orientation. Moreover, the data show that an altered microtubule pattern does not precede differential expansion. Other possible applications are also illustrated, including field emission scanning electron micrographs of cellulose microfibrils in plant cell walls and images of fluorescent actin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eveline Jacques
- Department of Biology, Plant Growth and Development, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerpen, Belgium
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75
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Alonso-Simón A, Encina AE, Seyama T, Kondo T, García-Angulo P, Álvarez JM, Acebes JL, Hayashi T. Purification and characterization of a soluble β-1,4-glucan from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)-cultured cells dehabituated to dichlobenil. PLANTA 2013; 237:1475-1482. [PMID: 23455460 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-013-1861-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Bean cells habituated to grow in the presence of dichlobenil exhibited reduced cellulose and hemicellulose content and an increase in pectic polysaccharides. Furthermore, following the extraction of pectins and hemicelluloses, a large amount of neutral sugars was released. These sugars were found to be part of a soluble β-1,4-glucan in a preliminary characterization, as reported by Encina et al. (Physiol Plant 114:182-191, 2002). When habituated cells were subcultured in the absence of the herbicide (dehabituated cells), the release of neutral sugars after the extraction of pectins and hemicelluloses was maintained. In this study, we have isolated a soluble β-1,4-glucan from dehabituated cells by sonication of the wall residue (cellulose fraction) remaining after fractionation. Gel filtration chromatography revealed that its average molecular size was 14 kDa. Digestion of the sample with endocellulase revealed the presence of cellobiose, cellotriose, and cellotetraose. Methylation analysis showed that 4-linked glucose was the most abundant sugar residue, but 4,6-linked glucose, terminal arabinose and 4-linked galactose for xyloglucan, and arabinogalactan were also identified. NMR analysis showed that this 1,4-glucan may be composed of various kinds of substitutions along the glucan backbone together with acetyl groups linked to the OH group of sugar residues. Thus, despite its relatively high molecular mass, the β-glucan remains soluble because of its unique configuration. This is the first time that a glucan with such characteristics has been isolated and described. The discovery of new molecules, as this β-glucan with unique features, may help understand the composition and arrangement of the polymers within plant cell walls, contributing to a better understanding of this complex structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Alonso-Simón
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain
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Abstract
A 3D atomistic model of a plant cellulose synthase (CESA) has remained elusive despite over forty years of experimental effort. Here, we report a computationally predicted 3D structure of 506 amino acids of cotton CESA within the cytosolic region. Comparison of the predicted plant CESA structure with the solved structure of a bacterial cellulose-synthesizing protein validates the overall fold of the modeled glycosyltransferase (GT) domain. The coaligned plant and bacterial GT domains share a six-stranded β-sheet, five α-helices, and conserved motifs similar to those required for catalysis in other GT-2 glycosyltransferases. Extending beyond the cross-kingdom similarities related to cellulose polymerization, the predicted structure of cotton CESA reveals that plant-specific modules (plant-conserved region and class-specific region) fold into distinct subdomains on the periphery of the catalytic region. Computational results support the importance of the plant-conserved region and/or class-specific region in CESA oligomerization to form the multimeric cellulose-synthesis complexes that are characteristic of plants. Relatively high sequence conservation between plant CESAs allowed mapping of known mutations and two previously undescribed mutations that perturb cellulose synthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana to their analogous positions in the modeled structure. Most of these mutation sites are near the predicted catalytic region, and the confluence of other mutation sites supports the existence of previously undefined functional nodes within the catalytic core of CESA. Overall, the predicted tertiary structure provides a platform for the biochemical engineering of plant CESAs.
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Mollet JC, Leroux C, Dardelle F, Lehner A. Cell Wall Composition, Biosynthesis and Remodeling during Pollen Tube Growth. PLANTS 2013; 2:107-47. [PMID: 27137369 PMCID: PMC4844286 DOI: 10.3390/plants2010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The pollen tube is a fast tip-growing cell carrying the two sperm cells to the ovule allowing the double fertilization process and seed setting. To succeed in this process, the spatial and temporal controls of pollen tube growth within the female organ are critical. It requires a massive cell wall deposition to promote fast pollen tube elongation and a tight control of the cell wall remodeling to modify the mechanical properties. In addition, during its journey, the pollen tube interacts with the pistil, which plays key roles in pollen tube nutrition, guidance and in the rejection of the self-incompatible pollen. This review focuses on our current knowledge in the biochemistry and localization of the main cell wall polymers including pectin, hemicellulose, cellulose and callose from several pollen tube species. Moreover, based on transcriptomic data and functional genomic studies, the possible enzymes involved in the cell wall remodeling during pollen tube growth and their impact on the cell wall mechanics are also described. Finally, mutant analyses have permitted to gain insight in the function of several genes involved in the pollen tube cell wall biosynthesis and their roles in pollen tube growth are further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Claude Mollet
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, IRIB, Normandy University, University of Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint-Aignan, France.
| | - Christelle Leroux
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, IRIB, Normandy University, University of Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint-Aignan, France.
| | - Flavien Dardelle
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, IRIB, Normandy University, University of Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint-Aignan, France.
| | - Arnaud Lehner
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, IRIB, Normandy University, University of Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint-Aignan, France.
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Peng L, Zhang L, Cheng X, Fan LS, Hao HQ. Disruption of cellulose synthesis by 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile affects the structure of the cytoskeleton and cell wall construction in Arabidopsis. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2013; 15:405-14. [PMID: 22759307 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2012.00630.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls and is an important source of industrial raw material. Although cellulose biosynthesis is one of the most important biochemical processes in plant biology, the regulatory mechanisms of cellulose synthesis are still unclear. Here, we report that 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile (DCB), an inhibitor of cellulose synthesis, inhibits Arabidopsis root development in a dose- and time-dependent manner. When treated with DCB, the plant cell wall showed altered cellulose distribution and intensity, as shown by calcofluor white and S4B staining. Moreover, pectin deposition was reduced in the presence of DCB when immunostained with the monoclonal antibody JIM5, which was raised against pectin epitopes. This result was confirmed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. Confocal microscopy revealed that the organisation of the microtubule cytoskeleton was significantly disrupted in the presence of low concentrations of DCB, whereas the actin cytoskeleton only showed changes with the application of high DCB concentrations. In addition, the subcellular dynamics of Golgi bodies labelled with N-ST-YFP and TGN labelled with VHA-a1-GFP were both partially blocked by DCB. Transmission electron microscopy indicated that the cell wall structure was affected by DCB, as were the Golgi bodies. Scanning electron microscopy showed changes in the organisation of cellulose microfibrils. These results suggest that the inhibition of cellulose synthesis by DCB not only induced changes in the chemical composition of the root cell wall and cytoskeleton structure, but also changed the distribution of cellulose microfibrils, implying that cellulose plays an important role in root development in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Peng
- School of Life Science, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
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80
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Oikawa A, Lund CH, Sakuragi Y, Scheller HV. Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 18:49-58. [PMID: 22925628 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall mostly comprises complex glycans, which are synthesized by numerous enzymes located in the Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane. Protein-protein interactions have been shown to constitute an important organizing principle for glycan biosynthetic enzymes in mammals and yeast. Recent genetic and biochemical data also indicate that such interactions could be common in plant cell wall biosynthesis. In this review, we examine the new findings in protein-protein interactions among plant cell wall biosynthetic enzymes and discuss the possibilities for enzyme complexes in the Golgi apparatus. These new insights in the field may contribute to novel strategies for molecular engineering of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Oikawa
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Feedstocks Division, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
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Huang HH, Xu LL, Tong ZK, Lin EP, Liu QP, Cheng LJ, Zhu MY. De novo characterization of the Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) transcriptome and analysis of candidate genes involved in cellulose and lignin biosynthesis. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:648. [PMID: 23171398 PMCID: PMC3561127 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is an important timber species that accounts for 20-30% of the total commercial timber production in China. However, the available genomic information of Chinese fir is limited, and this severely encumbers functional genomic analysis and molecular breeding in Chinese fir. Recently, major advances in transcriptome sequencing have provided fast and cost-effective approaches to generate large expression datasets that have proven to be powerful tools to profile the transcriptomes of non-model organisms with undetermined genomes. RESULTS In this study, the transcriptomes of nine tissues from Chinese fir were analyzed using the Illumina HiSeq™ 2000 sequencing platform. Approximately 40 million paired-end reads were obtained, generating 3.62 gigabase pairs of sequencing data. These reads were assembled into 83,248 unique sequences (i.e. Unigenes) with an average length of 449 bp, amounting to 37.40 Mb. A total of 73,779 Unigenes were supported by more than 5 reads, 42,663 (57.83%) had homologs in the NCBI non-redundant and Swiss-Prot protein databases, corresponding to 27,224 unique protein entries. Of these Unigenes, 16,750 were assigned to Gene Ontology classes, and 14,877 were clustered into orthologous groups. A total of 21,689 (29.40%) were mapped to 119 pathways by BLAST comparison against the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. The majority of the genes encoding the enzymes in the biosynthetic pathways of cellulose and lignin were identified in the Unigene dataset by targeted searches of their annotations. And a number of candidate Chinese fir genes in the two metabolic pathways were discovered firstly. Eighteen genes related to cellulose and lignin biosynthesis were cloned for experimental validating of transcriptome data. Overall 49 Unigenes, covering different regions of these selected genes, were found by alignment. Their expression patterns in different tissues were analyzed by qRT-PCR to explore their putative functions. CONCLUSIONS A substantial fraction of transcript sequences was obtained from the deep sequencing of Chinese fir. The assembled Unigene dataset was used to discover candidate genes of cellulose and lignin biosynthesis. This transcriptome dataset will provide a comprehensive sequence resource for molecular genetics research of C. lanceolata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Hong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Nurturing Station for the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Li-Li Xu
- Nurturing Station for the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Zai-Kang Tong
- Nurturing Station for the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Er-Pei Lin
- Nurturing Station for the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Qing-Po Liu
- School of Agricultural and Food Science, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Long-Jun Cheng
- Nurturing Station for the State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Lin’an, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311300, P.R. China
| | - Mu-Yuan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, P.R. China
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Bringmann M, Landrein B, Schudoma C, Hamant O, Hauser MT, Persson S. Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule-cellulose synthase nexus unraveled. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 17:666-74. [PMID: 22784824 PMCID: PMC3492759 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Directed plant cell growth is governed by deposition and alterations of cell wall components under turgor pressure. A key regulatory element of anisotropic growth, and hence cell shape, is the directional deposition of cellulose microfibrils. The microfibrils are synthesized by plasma membrane-located cellulose synthase complexes that co-align with and move along cortical microtubules. That the parallel relation between cortical microtubules and extracellular microfibrils is causal has been named the alignment hypothesis. Three recent studies revealed that the previously identified pom2 mutant codes for a large cellulose synthases interacting (CSI1) protein which also binds cortical microtubules. This review summarizes these findings, provides structure-function models and discusses the inferred mechanisms in the context of plant growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bringmann
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Benoit Landrein
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
- Laboratoire Joliot Curie, CNRS, ENS Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 Allée, d’Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Christian Schudoma
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Olivier Hamant
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
- Laboratoire Joliot Curie, CNRS, ENS Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 Allée, d’Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Marie-Theres Hauser
- Institut of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Staffan Persson
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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83
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Guerriero G, Spadiut O, Kerschbamer C, Giorno F, Baric S, Ezcurra I. Analysis of cellulose synthase genes from domesticated apple identifies collinear genes WDR53 and CesA8A: partial co-expression, bicistronic mRNA, and alternative splicing of CESA8A. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:6045-56. [PMID: 23048131 PMCID: PMC4944836 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ers255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose synthase (CesA) genes constitute a complex multigene family with six major phylogenetic clades in angiosperms. The recently sequenced genome of domestic apple, Malus×domestica, was mined for CesA genes, by blasting full-length cellulose synthase protein (CESA) sequences annotated in the apple genome against protein databases from the plant models Arabidopsis thaliana and Populus trichocarpa. Thirteen genes belonging to the six angiosperm CesA clades and coding for proteins with conserved residues typical of processive glycosyltransferases from family 2 were detected. Based on their phylogenetic relationship to Arabidopsis CESAs, as well as expression patterns, a nomenclature is proposed to facilitate further studies. Examination of their genomic organization revealed that MdCesA8-A is closely linked and co-oriented with WDR53, a gene coding for a WD40 repeat protein. The WDR53 and CesA8 genes display conserved collinearity in dicots and are partially co-expressed in the apple xylem. Interestingly, the presence of a bicistronic WDR53-CesA8A transcript was detected in phytoplasma-infected phloem tissues of apple. The bicistronic transcript contains a spliced intergenic sequence that is predicted to fold into hairpin structures typical of internal ribosome entry sites, suggesting its potential cap-independent translation. Surprisingly, the CesA8A cistron is alternatively spliced and lacks the zinc-binding domain. The possible roles of WDR53 and the alternatively spliced CESA8 variant during cellulose biosynthesis in M.×domestica are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Laimburg 6, I-39040 Auer, Italy
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. or
| | - Oliver Spadiut
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Research Area Biochemical Engineering, Gumpendorfer Strasse 1A, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Kerschbamer
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Laimburg 6, I-39040 Auer, Italy
| | - Filomena Giorno
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Laimburg 6, I-39040 Auer, Italy
| | - Sanja Baric
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Laimburg 6, I-39040 Auer, Italy
| | - Inés Ezcurra
- KTH, School of Biotechnology, Albanova, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. or
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84
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Baskin TI, Gu Y. Making parallel lines meet: transferring information from microtubules to extracellular matrix. Cell Adh Migr 2012; 6:404-8. [PMID: 22902763 PMCID: PMC3496676 DOI: 10.4161/cam.21121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix is constructed beyond the plasma membrane, challenging mechanisms for its control by the cell. In plants, the cell wall is highly ordered, with cellulose microfibrils aligned coherently over a scale spanning hundreds of cells. To a considerable extent, deploying aligned microfibrils determines mechanical properties of the cell wall, including strength and compliance. Cellulose microfibrils have long been seen to be aligned in parallel with an array of microtubules in the cell cortex. How do these cortical microtubules affect the cellulose synthase complex? This question has stood for as many years as the parallelism between the elements has been observed, but now an answer is emerging. Here, we review recent work establishing that the link between microtubules and microfibrils is mediated by a protein named cellulose synthase-interacting protein 1 (CSI1). The protein binds both microtubules and components of the cellulose synthase complex. In the absence of CSI1, microfibrils are synthesized but their alignment becomes uncoupled from the microtubules, an effect that is phenocopied in the wild type by depolymerizing the microtubules. The characterization of CSI1 significantly enhances knowledge of how cellulose is aligned, a process that serves as a paradigmatic example of how cells dictate the construction of their extracellular environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias I Baskin
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts; Amherst, MA, USA.
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85
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Radiometric and spectrophotometric in vitro assays of glycosyltransferases involved in plant cell wall carbohydrate biosynthesis. Nat Protoc 2012; 7:1634-50. [PMID: 22899332 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2012.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Most of the glycosyltransferases (GTs) that catalyze the formation of plant cell wall carbohydrates remain to be biochemically characterized. This can be achieved only if specific assays are available for these enzymes. Here we present a protocol for in vitro assays of processive and nonprocessive membrane-bound GTs. The assays are either based on the use of radioactive nucleotide sugars (NDP sugars; e.g., UDP-[U-(14)C]glucose) and the quantification of the radiolabeled monosaccharides incorporated into soluble or insoluble carbohydrates, or on the coupling of the GT reaction with that of pyruvate kinase (PK) and the oxidation of NADH by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The radiometric assays are more suitable for exploratory work on poorly characterized enzymes, whereas the spectrophotometric assays require the availability of highly enriched GTs. Both assays can be performed within 1 d, depending on the number of fractions to be assayed or reaction mixtures to be tested.
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86
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Progress in the biological synthesis of the plant cell wall: new ideas for improving biomass for bioenergy. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2012; 23:330-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2011.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2011] [Revised: 12/06/2011] [Accepted: 12/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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87
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Mizrachi E, Mansfield SD, Myburg AA. Cellulose factories: advancing bioenergy production from forest trees. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 194:54-62. [PMID: 22474687 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03971.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Fast-growing, short-rotation forest trees, such as Populus and Eucalyptus, produce large amounts of cellulose-rich biomass that could be utilized for bioenergy and biopolymer production. Major obstacles need to be overcome before the deployment of these genera as energy crops, including the effective removal of lignin and the subsequent liberation of carbohydrate constituents from wood cell walls. However, significant opportunities exist to both select for and engineer the structure and interaction of cell wall biopolymers, which could afford a means to improve processing and product development. The molecular underpinnings and regulation of cell wall carbohydrate biosynthesis are rapidly being elucidated, and are providing tools to strategically develop and guide the targeted modification required to adapt forest trees for the emerging bioeconomy. Much insight has already been gained from the perturbation of individual genes and pathways, but it is not known to what extent the natural variation in the sequence and expression of these same genes underlies the inherent variation in wood properties of field-grown trees. The integration of data from next-generation genomic technologies applied in natural and experimental populations will enable a systems genetics approach to study cell wall carbohydrate production in trees, and should advance the development of future woody bioenergy and biopolymer crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eshchar Mizrachi
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
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88
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Cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors: comparative effect on bean cell cultures. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:3685-3702. [PMID: 22489176 PMCID: PMC3317736 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13033685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Revised: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The variety of bioassays developed to evaluate different inhibition responses for cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors makes it difficult to compare the results obtained. This work aims (i) to test a single inhibitory assay for comparing active concentrations of a set of putative cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors and (ii) to characterize their effect on cell wall polysaccharides biosynthesis following a short-term exposure. For the first aim, dose-response curves for inhibition of dry-weight increase following a 30 days exposure of bean callus-cultured cells to these inhibitors were obtained. The compound concentration capable of inhibiting dry weight increase by 50% compared to control (I50) ranged from subnanomolar (CGA 325′615) to nanomolar (AE F150944, flupoxam, triazofenamide and oxaziclomefone) and micromolar (dichlobenil, quinclorac and compound 1) concentrations. In order to gain a better understanding of the effect of the putative inhibitors on cell wall polysaccharides biosynthesis, the [14C]glucose incorporation into cell wall fractions was determined after a 20 h exposure of cell suspensions to each inhibitor at their I50 value. All the inhibitors tested decreased glucose incorporation into cellulose with the exception of quinclorac, which increased it. In some herbicide treatments, reduction in the incorporation into cellulose was accompanied by an increase in the incorporation into other fractions. In order to appreciate the effect of the inhibitors on cell wall partitioning, a cluster and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on the relative contribution of [14C]glucose incorporation into the different cell wall fractions were performed, and three groups of compounds were identified. The first group included quinclorac, which increased glucose incorporation into cellulose; the second group consisted of compound 1, CGA 325′615, oxaziclomefone and AE F150944, which decreased the relative glucose incorporation into cellulose but increased it into tightly-bound cellulose fractions; and the third group, comprising flupoxam, triazofenamide and dichlobenil, decreased the relative glucose incorporation into cellulose and increased it into a pectin rich fraction.
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89
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Na CK, Song MK. Characteristics of Acid-hydrolysis and Ethanol Fermentation of Laminaria japonica. KOREAN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH 2012. [DOI: 10.9713/kcer.2012.50.1.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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90
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Schrick K, DeBolt S, Bulone V. Deciphering the molecular functions of sterols in cellulose biosynthesis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:84. [PMID: 22639668 PMCID: PMC3355633 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Sterols play vital roles in plant growth and development, as components of membranes and as precursors to steroid hormones. Analysis of Arabidopsis mutants indicates that sterol composition is crucial for cellulose biosynthesis. Sterols are widespread in the plasma membrane (PM), suggesting a possible link between sterols and the multimeric cellulose synthase complex. In one possible scenario, molecular interactions in sterol-rich PM microdomains or another form of sterol-dependent membrane scaffolding may be critical for maintaining the correct subcellular localization, structural integrity and/or activity of the cellulose synthase machinery. Another possible link may be through steryl glucosides, which could act as primers for the attachment of glucose monomers during the synthesis of β-(1 → 4) glucan chains that form the cellulose microfibrils. This mini-review examines genetic and biochemical data supporting the link between sterols and cellulose biosynthesis in cell wall formation and explores potential approaches to elucidate the mechanism of this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Schrick
- Division of Biology, Kansas State UniversityManhattan, KS, USA
- *Correspondence: Kathrin Schrick, Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Ackert Hall 116, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA. e-mail:
| | - Seth DeBolt
- Department of Horticulture, University of KentuckyLexington, KY, USA
| | - Vincent Bulone
- Division of Glycoscience, Royal Institute of Technology, School of Biotechnology, AlbaNova University CentreStockholm, Sweden
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91
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Bringmann M, Li E, Sampathkumar A, Kocabek T, Hauser MT, Persson S. POM-POM2/cellulose synthase interacting1 is essential for the functional association of cellulose synthase and microtubules in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2012; 24:163-77. [PMID: 22294619 PMCID: PMC3289571 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.111.093575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Revised: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In plants, regulation of cellulose synthesis is fundamental for morphogenesis and plant growth. Cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane, and the orientation of synthesis is guided by cortical microtubules; however, the guiding mechanism is currently unknown. We show that the conditional root elongation pom2 mutants are impaired in cell elongation, fertility, and microtubule-related functions. Map-based cloning of the POM-POM2 locus revealed that it is allelic to CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTING1 (CSI1). Fluorescently tagged POM2/CSI1s associated with both plasma membrane-located cellulose synthases (CESAs) and post-Golgi CESA-containing compartments. Interestingly, while CESA insertions coincided with cortical microtubules in the pom2/csi1 mutants, the microtubule-defined movement of the CESAs was significantly reduced in the mutant. We propose that POM2/CSI1 provides a scaffold between the CESAs and cortical microtubules that guide cellulose synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bringmann
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Eryang Li
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Tomas Kocabek
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marie-Theres Hauser
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Staffan Persson
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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92
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Harpaz-Saad S, McFarlane HE, Xu S, Divi UK, Forward B, Western TL, Kieber JJ. Cellulose synthesis via the FEI2 RLK/SOS5 pathway and cellulose synthase 5 is required for the structure of seed coat mucilage in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 68:941-53. [PMID: 21883548 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04760.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and many other plants are surrounded by a pectinaceous mucilage that aids in seed hydration and germination. Mucilage is synthesized during seed development within maternally derived seed coat mucilage secretory cells (MSCs), and is released to surround the seed upon imbibition. The FEI1/FEI2 receptor-like kinases and the SOS5 extracellular GPI-anchored protein were shown previously to act on a pathway that regulates the synthesis of cellulose in Arabidopsis roots. Here, we demonstrate that both FEI2 and SOS5 also play a role in the synthesis of seed mucilage. Disruption of FEI2 or SOS5 leads to a reduction in the rays of cellulose observed across the seed mucilage inner layer, which alters the structure of the mucilage in response to hydration. Mutations in CESA5, which disrupts an isoform of cellulose synthase involved in primary cell wall synthesis, result in a similar seed mucilage phenotype. The data indicate that CESA5-derived cellulose plays an important role in the synthesis and structure of seed coat mucilage and that the FEI2/SOS5 pathway plays a role in the regulation of cellulose synthesis in MSCs. Moreover, these results establish a novel structural role for cellulose in anchoring the pectic component of seed coat mucilage to the seed surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smadar Harpaz-Saad
- University of North Carolina, Biology Department, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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93
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Hussey SG, Mizrachi E, Spokevicius AV, Bossinger G, Berger DK, Myburg AA. SND2, a NAC transcription factor gene, regulates genes involved in secondary cell wall development in Arabidopsis fibres and increases fibre cell area in Eucalyptus. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 11:173. [PMID: 22133261 PMCID: PMC3289092 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-11-173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND NAC domain transcription factors initiate secondary cell wall biosynthesis in Arabidopsis fibres and vessels by activating numerous transcriptional regulators and biosynthetic genes. NAC family member SND2 is an indirect target of a principal regulator of fibre secondary cell wall formation, SND1. A previous study showed that overexpression of SND2 produced a fibre cell-specific increase in secondary cell wall thickness in Arabidopsis stems, and that the protein was able to transactivate the cellulose synthase8 (CesA8) promoter. However, the full repertoire of genes regulated by SND2 is unknown, and the effect of its overexpression on cell wall chemistry remains unexplored. RESULTS We overexpressed SND2 in Arabidopsis and analyzed homozygous lines with regards to stem chemistry, biomass and fibre secondary cell wall thickness. A line showing upregulation of CesA8 was selected for transcriptome-wide gene expression profiling. We found evidence for upregulation of biosynthetic genes associated with cellulose, xylan, mannan and lignin polymerization in this line, in agreement with significant co-expression of these genes with native SND2 transcripts according to public microarray repositories. Only minor alterations in cell wall chemistry were detected. Transcription factor MYB103, in addition to SND1, was upregulated in SND2-overexpressing plants, and we detected upregulation of genes encoding components of a signal transduction machinery recently proposed to initiate secondary cell wall formation. Several homozygous T4 and hemizygous T1 transgenic lines with pronounced SND2 overexpression levels revealed a negative impact on fibre wall deposition, which may be indirectly attributable to excessive overexpression rather than co-suppression. Conversely, overexpression of SND2 in Eucalyptus stems led to increased fibre cross-sectional cell area. CONCLUSIONS This study supports a function for SND2 in the regulation of cellulose and hemicellulose biosynthetic genes in addition of those involved in lignin polymerization and signalling. SND2 seems to occupy a subordinate but central tier in the secondary cell wall transcriptional network. Our results reveal phenotypic differences in the effect of SND2 overexpression between woody and herbaceous stems and emphasize the importance of expression thresholds in transcription factor studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Hussey
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Eshchar Mizrachi
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Antanas V Spokevicius
- Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3363, Australia
| | - Gerd Bossinger
- Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3363, Australia
| | - Dave K Berger
- Department of Plant Science, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
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94
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Liu CM. A bold step toward 2012: JIPB's 2011 Editorial Board Meeting report. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 53:916-919. [PMID: 22099164 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2011.01090.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
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95
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Challenges of the utilization of wood polymers: how can they be overcome? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 91:1525-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3350-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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96
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Ramírez V, García-Andrade J, Vera P. Enhanced disease resistance to Botrytis cinerea in myb46 Arabidopsis plants is associated to an early down-regulation of CesA genes. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:911-3. [PMID: 21617373 PMCID: PMC3218503 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.6.15354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2011] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The cell wall is a protective barrier of paramount importance for the survival of plant cells. Monitoring the integrity of cell wall allows plants to quickly activate defence pathways to minimize pathogen entry and reduce the spread of disease. Counterintuitively, however, pharmacological effects as well as genetic lesions that affect cellulose biosynthesis and content confer plants with enhanced resistance against necrotrophic fungi. This kind of pathogens target cellulose for degradation to facilitate penetration and to generate glucose units as a food source. Our results points towards the existence of a transcriptional reprogramming mechanism in genes encoding cellulose synthases (CesAs) that occurs very soon after Botrytis cinerea attack and that results in a temporarily shut down of some CesA genes. Interestingly, the observed coordinated down-regulation of CesA genes is more pronounced, and occurs earlier, in myb46 mutant plants. In the resistant myb46 plants, pathogen infection induces transient down-regulation of CesA genes that concurs with a selective transcriptional reprogramming in a set of genes encoding structural cell wall proteins and extracellular remodelling enzymes. Together with previous indications, our results favour the hypothesis that CesAs are part of a surveillance system of the cell wall integrity that senses the presence of a pathogen and transduces that signal into a rapid transcriptional reprogramming of the affected cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Ramírez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (IBMCP), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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97
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Nakashima K, Nishino A, Horikawa Y, Hirose E, Sugiyama J, Satoh N. The crystalline phase of cellulose changes under developmental control in a marine chordate. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:1623-31. [PMID: 20972815 PMCID: PMC11114516 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0556-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2010] [Revised: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The native form of cellulose is a fibrillar composite of two crystalline phases, the triclinic I(α) and monoclinic I(β) allomorphs. Allomorph ratios are species-specific, and this gives rise to natural structural variations in cellulose crystals. However, the mechanisms contributing to crystal formation remain unknown. We show that the two crystalline phases of cellulose are tailored to distinct structures during different developmental stages of the tunicate chordate Oikopleura dioica. Larval cellulose consisting of I(α) allomorph constitutes the body cuticle fin, whereas adult cellulose consisting of I(β) allomorph frames a mucous filter-feeding device, the "house." Both structures are secreted from the epidermis in accordance with the mutually exclusive expression patterns of two distinct putative cellulose synthase genes. We discuss a possible linkage between structural variations of the crystalline phases of cellulose and the underlying evolutionary genetics of cellulose biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Nakashima
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Promotion Corporation, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa 904-0412, Japan.
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98
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Abstract
Plant cell walls are complex structures composed of high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, proteins, and lignins. Among the wall polysaccharides, cellulose, a hydrogen-bonded β-1,4-linked glucan microfibril, is the main load-bearing wall component and a key precursor for industrial applications. Cellulose is synthesized by large multi-meric cellulose synthase (CesA) complexes, tracking along cortical microtubules at the plasma membrane. The only known components of these complexes are the cellulose synthase proteins. Recent studies have identified tentative interaction partners for the CesAs and shown that the migratory patterns of the CesA complexes depend on phosphorylation status. These advances may become good platforms for expanding our knowledge about cellulose synthesis in the near future. In addition, our current understanding of cellulose chain polymerization in the context of the CesA complex is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Endler
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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99
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Wang X, Liu X, Wang G. Two-stage hydrolysis of invasive algal feedstock for ethanol fermentation. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 53:246-52. [PMID: 21205190 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.01024.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The overall goal of this work was to develop a saccharification method for the production of third generation biofuel (i.e. bioethanol) using feedstock of the invasive marine macroalga Gracilaria salicornia. Under optimum conditions (120 °C and 2% sulfuric acid for 30 min), dilute acid hydrolysis of the homogenized invasive plants yielded a low concentration of glucose (4.1 mM or 4.3 g glucose/kg fresh algal biomass). However, two-stage hydrolysis of the homogenates (combination of dilute acid hydrolysis with enzymatic hydrolysis) produced 13.8 g of glucose from one kilogram of fresh algal feedstock. Batch fermentation analysis produced 79.1 g EtOH from one kilogram of dried invasive algal feedstock using the ethanologenic strain Escherichia coli KO11. Furthermore, ethanol production kinetics indicated that the invasive algal feedstock contained different types of sugar, including C(5) -sugar. This study represents the first report on third generation biofuel production from invasive macroalgae, suggesting that there is great potential for the production of renewable energy using marine invasive biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, HI 96822, USA
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100
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Cai G, Faleri C, Del Casino C, Emons AMC, Cresti M. Distribution of callose synthase, cellulose synthase, and sucrose synthase in tobacco pollen tube is controlled in dissimilar ways by actin filaments and microtubules. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 155:1169-90. [PMID: 21205616 PMCID: PMC3046577 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.171371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Callose and cellulose are fundamental components of the cell wall of pollen tubes and are probably synthesized by distinct enzymes, callose synthase and cellulose synthase, respectively. We examined the distribution of callose synthase and cellulose synthase in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) pollen tubes in relation to the dynamics of actin filaments, microtubules, and the endomembrane system using specific antibodies to highly conserved peptide sequences. The role of the cytoskeleton and membrane flow was investigated using specific inhibitors (latrunculin B, 2,3-butanedione monoxime, taxol, oryzalin, and brefeldin A). Both enzymes are associated with the plasma membrane, but cellulose synthase is present along the entire length of pollen tubes (with a higher concentration at the apex) while callose synthase is located in the apex and in distal regions. In longer pollen tubes, callose synthase accumulates consistently around callose plugs, indicating its involvement in plug synthesis. Actin filaments and endomembrane dynamics are critical for the distribution of callose synthase and cellulose synthase, showing that enzymes are transported through Golgi bodies and/or vesicles moving along actin filaments. Conversely, microtubules appear to be critical in the positioning of callose synthase in distal regions and around callose plugs. In contrast, cellulose synthases are only partially coaligned with cortical microtubules and unrelated to callose plugs. Callose synthase also comigrates with tubulin by Blue Native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Membrane sucrose synthase, which expectedly provides UDP-glucose to callose synthase and cellulose synthase, binds to actin filaments depending on sucrose concentration; its distribution is dependent on the actin cytoskeleton and the endomembrane system but not on microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giampiero Cai
- Dipartimento Scienze Ambientali G. Sarfatti, Università di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy.
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