The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding

Investigating the Relation of Intelligence and Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with and without Intellectual Disabilities

Despite their separate research traditions, intelligence and executive functioning (EF) are both theoretically and empirically closely related to each other. Based on a subsample of 8- to 20-year-olds of the standardization and validation sample (N = 1540) of an internationally available instrument assessing both cognitive abilities, this study aimed at investigating a comprehensive structural model of intelligence and EF tasks and at gaining insight into whether this comprehensive model is applicable across sexes and age groups as well as to a subsample of participants with (borderline) intellectual disabilities (IQ ≤ 85, n = 255). The results of our exploratory factor analysis indicated one common EF factor that could be sufficiently integrated into the intelligence model within our confirmatory factor analyses. The results suggest that the EF factor can be added into the model as a sixth broad ability. The comprehensive model largely showed measurement invariance across sexes and age groups but did not converge within the subsample of participants with (borderline) intellectual disabilities. The results and implications are discussed in light of the current literature.

Can Stimulus Valence Modulate Task-Switching Ability? A Pilot Study on Primary School Children

Executive functions and emotional processes follow a time-dependent development that reflects the brain’s anatomo-functional maturation. Though the assessment of these cognitive functions is largely examined, in children the role of emotions in the mental set-shifting is still rarely investigated. The aim of this study was to assess how attention shifting can be modulated by the valence of emotional stimuli. To this end, sixty-two primary school children were tested with a new emotional task-switching paradigm obtained by manipulating the emotional valence and physical features of the stimulus pool. Thus, two tasks were alternatively presented: the Valence task and the Color task. Based on executive performance results, we found a lengthening of response times and a lower accuracy in the emotionally connoted task (Valence task), compared to the neutral task (Color task). The data demonstrate that the processing of emotional stimuli modulates the task-switching performance during development. These findings could help in the implementation of teaching strategies that can promote the development of executive functions and, therefore, functionally improve the overall academic performance of children. Finally, a better understanding of the developmental trajectories of executive functions can help neuropsychologists both in the early diagnosis and treatment of potential executive alterations.

Randomized controlled trial of cognitive remediation therapy in adolescent inpatients with anorexia nervosa: Neuropsychological outcomes

OBJECTIVE

Neuropsychological dysfunction exists in anorexia nervosa (AN). Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT), mainly evaluated in adults with AN, targets these impairments.

METHODS

Adolescent inpatients (age = 11-17 years) with AN were randomized to 5 weeks of either 10 sessions of individually delivered CRT or non-specific cognitive-training (NSCT). Co-primary outcomes included cognitive domain 'flexibility' [composite score of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WSCT) and Trail Making Test (TMT-4)] and 'central coherence' [composite score of Central Coherence Index (CCI) and Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT)] at end of treatment (FU1). Secondary outcomes included individual test scores and self-reported everyday-life flexibility at FU1 and at 6-months post-treatment (FU2). Independent sample t-tests, Pearson chi-square-tests and mixed models for repeated measures (MMRM) analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

In 56 females (age = 15.1 ± 1.5 years), CRT was not superior to NSCT at FU1 regarding 'flexibility' (p = 0.768) or 'central coherence' (p = 0.354), nor at FU2 (p = 0.507; p = 0.624) (effect sizes = 0.02-0.26). Both groups improved over time in central coherence (CCI p = 0.001; GEFT p < 0.001), self-reported flexibility (p = 0.002) and WCST (p = 0.18), but not TMT-4 (p = 0.286). NSCT was superior to CRT regarding self-reported planning/organisation ability at FU1 (p < 0.001) and FU2 (p = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

CRT was not superior to NSCT in adolescent inpatients with AN. More randomized controlled studies are needed.

Available Virtual Reality-Based Tools for Executive Functions: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Executive dysfunctions constitute a significant public health problem: their high impact on everyday life makes it a priority to identify early strategies for evaluating and rehabilitating these disorders in a real-life context. The ecological limitation of traditional neuropsychological tests and several difficulties in administering tests or training in real-life scenarios have paved the way to use Virtual Reality-based tools to evaluate and rehabilitate Executive Functions (EFs) in real-life.

Objective

This work aims to conduct a systematic review to provide a detailed description of the VR-based tools currently developed for the evaluation and rehabilitation of EFs.

Methods

We systematically searched for original manuscripts regarding VR tools and EFs by looking for titles and abstracts in the PubMed, Scopus, PsycInfo, and Web of Science databases up to November 2021 that contained the following keywords “Virtual Reality” AND “Executive function^*.”

Results and Conclusion

We analyzed 301 articles, of which 100 were included. Our work shows that available VR-based tools appear promising solutions for an ecological assessment and treatment of EFs in healthy subjects and several clinical populations.

Executive deficits in schizophrenia: mediation by processing speed and its relationships with aging

BACKGROUND

Executive deficits are a core characteristic of schizophrenia. Yet, the origin of these impairments remains unclear as they may be caused by processing slowing. This issue is of particular interest for aging insofar as cognitive aging is also associated with a decline in executive functioning and a slowing of processing speed. As schizophrenia patients' life expectancy increases, a better understanding of the origin of older patients' cognitive deficits becomes essential so that healthcare can be adapted to suit them. This study aims to determine whether processing speed mediates how schizophrenia affects executive functions and whether these relationships are moderated by age.

METHODS

Sixty-two schizophrenia patients (27 women) and 62 healthy comparison subjects matched for age (range: 18-76 years), gender and education performed neurocognitive tests to evaluate their executive functions (shifting, updating, inhibition and access) and processing speed.

RESULTS

Processing speed mediated the effect of schizophrenia on the four specific executive functions, and age moderated this mediation for shifting, updating and access, but in different ways. Age moderated the effect of processing speed on shifting, the direct effect of schizophrenia on access, and both the effect of processing speed and the direct effect of schizophrenia on updating.

CONCLUSIONS

This research highlights the need to evaluate processing speed routinely during therapeutic follow-up, as it is easy and simple to assess and appears to be at the heart of the cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Finally, processing speed abilities yield information about the evolution of cognition with aging in schizophrenia.

Differential Cognitive Functioning and Benefit From Surgery in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting and Carotid Endarterectomy

Background

Stenosing atherosclerosis in both coronary and carotid arteries can adversely affect cognition. Also their surgical treatments, coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) and carotid endarterectomy (CEA), are associated with cognitive changes, but the mechanisms of cognitive decline or improvement may not be the same. This study was designed to compare the cognitive profile and outcome in patients undergoing surgical treatment for coronary or carotid disease.

Methods

A total of 100 CABG patients and 44 CEA patients were recruited in two previously reported studies. They were subjected to a comprehensive neuropsychological examination prior to surgery and in the acute (3-8 days) and stable (3 months) phase after operation. A group of 17 matched healthy controls were assessed with similar intervals. We used linear mixed models to compare cognitive trajectories within six functional domains between the CABG, CEA and control groups. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) and improvement (POCI) were determined with the reliable change index method in comparison with healthy controls.

Results

Before surgery, the CEA patients performed worse than CABG patients or healthy controls in the domains of executive functioning and processing speed. The CABG patients exhibited postoperative cognitive dysfunction more often than the CEA patients in most cognitive domains in the acute phase but had regained their performance in the stable phase. The CEA patients showed more marked postoperative improvement in executive functioning than the CABG group in the acute phase, but the difference did not reach significance in the stable phase.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that anterior cerebral dysfunction in CEA patients impairs preoperative cognition more severely than global brain dysfunction in CABG patients. However, CEA may have more beneficial effects on cognition than CABG, specifically in executive functions mainly operated by the prefrontal lobes. In addition, the results underline that POCD is a heterogeneous condition and dependent on type of revascularization surgery.

Capturing Subtle Neurocognitive Differences in Children with and without Tourette Syndrome through a Fine-Grained Analysis of Design Fluency Profiles

BACKGROUND

Tourette syndrome (TS) can be accompanied by neurocognitive impairment. Only a few studies have focused on executive function assessment in TS using design fluency, providing preliminary results. This study aimed to characterize the detailed design fluency profile of children with TS compared with neurotypical children, while addressing the central concern of frequent comorbidities in studies on TS by considering tic severity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and diagnosis.

METHODS

Sixty-one children aged between 6 and 15 years participated and were divided into a TS group (n = 28 (with ADHD n = 15)) and a control group (n = 33). Our objective was addressed by examining a wide range of measures of the Five-Point-Test, presumably sensitive to frontostriatal dysfunction. The total number of designs, repetitions, repetition ratio, unique designs, and numerical, spatial, and total strategies were examined for the total duration of the test (global measures) and at five equal time intervals (process measures).

RESULTS

The TS group produced significantly fewer numerical strategies. Groups did not differ in other global or process measures. ADHD did not affect performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with TS do not inherently show general executive dysfunction but may present with subtle neurocognitive characteristics here revealed by comprehensive design fluency profiles.

Is emotion regulation impacted by executive functions? An experimental study

The ability to exert influence on our emotions plays a significant role in the attainment of our goals. To have control over when and how we experience emotions is thought to be impacted by higher cognitive processes such as executive functions. However, there is inadequate research to support this notion. Hence, we examined the relationship between executive functions - updating, shifting, and inhibition - and emotion regulation strategies - cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. We predicted that updating would positively relate to cognitive reappraisal, while inhibition would positively relate to expressive suppression. Shifting would positively relate to both cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Participants completed updating, shifting, and inhibition tasks. Then, they used expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal strategies in response to unpleasant pictures, accompanied by a physiological recording. Faster updating was associated with a larger heart rate deceleration during reappraisal. Inhibition was associated with more frequent use of suppression. Overall, the results confirm the idea that a higher level of executive functions is partially related to the effective application of emotion regulation strategies. The content of executive function tasks does not affect the association between executive functions and emotion regulation. These findings are important for psychotherapy, as training executive functions could partially help in the treatment of mood-related disorders.

Words Versus Pictures: Bilingual Performance on Verbal and Pictorial Measures of Executive Functions

PURPOSE

This study examined bilinguals' performance on functional executive function map tasks such as the Zoo Map from the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome and the extent to which working memory, set-shifting, and inhibition measures predicted bilinguals' performance on these tasks. Additionally, we explored the utility of pictorial map tasks as a measure of complex executive function in bilinguals. We hypothesized that bilinguals would perform better on the pictorial map tasks due to the reduced language processing demand.

METHOD

The analyses included 131 bilingual young adults who completed a comprehensive language history questionnaire, an English proficiency test, a battery of working memory and executive function tasks, and verbal and pictorial map tasks.

RESULTS

Contrary to predictions, bilinguals' performance on the verbal maps did not differ significantly from that on the pictorial maps. Two multiple regression models significantly predicted performance on the verbal and pictorial maps, accounting for 7%-25% of the variance in the map scores. Working memory and interference control were the most prominent predictors within these models.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, bilinguals' performance on the verbal maps did not differ significantly from that on the pictorial maps. Additionally, English proficiency did not correlate with the participants' verbal map scores. These results suggest that executive function map tasks (e.g., the Zoo Map) are a useful clinical tool for assessing executive function in bilinguals. The findings of this study are discussed in light of the current literature on executive functions in bilinguals.

Neurocognitive Profiles of Caucasian Moyamoya Disease Patients in Greece: A Case Series

The impact of Moyamoya Disease (MMD) on cognition inadult Caucasian patients has not yet been thoroughly investigated. The current study is the first to present detailed neuropsychological data on a series of Greek patients with MMD. A group of eight patients was assessed with an extensive neuropsychological battery, including measures of episodic memory, working memory, executive functions, language, and social cognition. The results indicated that MMD may be characterized by a trichotomous neurocognitive profile, characterized by prominent impairment in working memory, executive functions, and social cognition. Overall, we stress the need for a thorough cognitive evaluation of MMD patients and further highlight the potential importance of social cognition in this particular disease. Possible associations between the three impaired cognitive domains in our group are also discussed.

Characteristics of frontal activity relevant to cognitive function in bipolar depression: an fNIRS study

Memory shortness, verbal influence, and disturbed attention are a few of the cognitive dysfunctions reported by individuals of bipolar disorder in depression phase (BD-D). As neuroimaging modalities can investigate such responses, therefore neuroimaging methods can be used to assist the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (BD). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neural imaging method that is proved to be prominent in the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders. It is the desired method because of its feasible setup, high resolution in time, and its partial resistance to head movements. This study aims to investigate the brain activity in subjects of BD-D during cognitive tasks compared to the healthy controls. A decreased activation level is expected in individuals of BD-D as compared to the healthy controls. This study aims to find new methods and experimental paradigms to assist in the diagnosis of bipolar depression. Participants of BD-D and healthy controls (HC) performed four cognitive tasks including verbal fluency task (VFT), symbol working memory task (symbol check), attention task (spotter) and multiple cognitive task (code break). fNIRS was used to measure levels of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) representing the brain activity. The generalized linear model (GLM) method was used to estimate the hemodynamic response related to the task. The wavelet transform coherence (WTC) method was used to calculate the intra-hemispheric functional connectivity. We also analyzed the correlation between hemodynamic response and scores of psychiatric disorders. Results showed decreased levels of HbO in BD-D groups compared to the HC, indicating lower activity, during the tasks except for spotter. The difference between BD-D and HC was significant during VFT, symbol check and code break. Group difference during symbol working memory was significant both in brain activity and connectivity. Meanwhile, the individual brain activity during working memory is more related to the illness degree. Lower activity in BD-D reflects unspecific dysfunctions. Compared with other cognitive tasks, the single-trial symbol-check task may be more suitable to help the diagnosis of bipolar depression.

Executive Functions in Aging: An Experimental and Computational Study of the Wisconsin Card Sorting and Brixton Spatial Anticipation Tests

In order to explore the effect of normal aging on executive function, we tested 25 younger adults and 25 neurologically healthy older adults on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and the Brixton Spatial Anticipation Test (BRXT), two classic tests of executive function. We found that older participants were more likely than younger participants to err on both tasks, but the additional errors of older participants tended to be related to task set maintenance and rule inference rather than perseveration. We further found that the tendency to perseverate (across all participants) on the WCST was related to the tendency to produce stimulus or response perseverations on the BRXT, rather than any tendency to perseverate on BRXT rule application. Finally, on both tasks, older participants were also slower, particularly on trials following an error, than younger participants. To explore the neurocomputational basis for the observed behaviours we then extended an existing model of schema-modulated action selection on the WCST to the BRXT. We argue on the basis of the model that the performance of older participants on both tasks reflects a slower update of schema thresholds within the basal ganglia, coupled with a decrease in sensitivity to feedback.

The Contribution of Bilingualism to Cognitive Functioning and Regional Brain Volume in Normal and Abnormal Aging

We examined the association between bilingualism, executive function (EF), and brain volume in older monolinguals and bilinguals who spoke English, Spanish, or both, and were cognitively normal (CN) or diagnosed with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) or dementia. Gray matter volume (GMV) was higher in language and EF brain regions among bilinguals, but no differences were found in memory regions. Neuropsychological performance did not vary across language groups over time; however, bilinguals exhibited reduced Stroop interference and lower scores on Digit Span Backwards and category fluency. Higher scores on Digit Span Backwards were associated with a younger age of English acquisition, and a greater degree of balanced bilingualism was associated with lower scores in category fluency. The initial age of cognitive decline did not differ between language groups. The influence of bilingualism appears to be reflected in increased GMV in language and EF regions, and to a lesser degree, in EF.

Validity of the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C) in children and adolescents with pediatric acquired brain injury

The Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C) was developed to address the need for a standardized ecologically valid test of executive function (EF) in the pediatric population. Our study aimed to investigate the discriminant, concurrent, and ecological validity of BADS-C in a sample with pediatric acquired brain injury (pABI). Seventy-four participants with pABI aged 10-17 years were included to a pre-registered randomized controlled trial, and baseline assessment was used for the current study. Controls consisted of 60 participants aged 10-17 years. Participants with pABI were assessed with neuropsychological tests and questionnaires of EF, and measurements of general intellectual ability (IQ). Results showed that all BADS-C subtests discriminated between participants with pABI and controls, except for the Playing Cards Test. Concurrent and ecological validity was demonstrated through associations between BADS-C total score, Key Search Test, and Zoo Map Test 1, and neuropsychological tests and teacher questionnaire ratings of EF. Key Search Test and Zoo Map Test 1 predicted teacher ratings of EF, beyond IQ and other neuropsychological test of EF. These findings provide support for BADS-C as a valid clinical assessment tool that can detect everyday executive dysfunction in the pABI population, and guide rehabilitation and treatment decisions.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Insomnia, and Sleepiness Symptoms among a Community Adult Sample: The Mediating Effect of Executive Behavioral Regulation and Metacognition Abilities

OBJECTIVE

Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a dysexecutive syndrome reflected in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral areas. Independently of a formal diagnosis of ADHD, higher ADHD symptoms are associated with higher levels of insomnia and sleepiness symptoms in adult population-based samples. Insomnia and sleepiness are sleep disorders that are both associated with deficits in several aspects of executive functions which in turn are likely to mimic a range of ADHD symptoms. Our objective was to explore the interrelationships between ADHD, insomnia, and sleepiness symptoms and executive functioning in community-dwelling adults.

METHOD

A total of 442 participants (18-89 years, 56% females) underwent a semistructured clinical interview and completed questionnaires for insomnia, sleepiness, and everyday behaviors in which executive functions are implicated. Mediation Models were applied.

RESULTS

Insomnia and sleepiness symptoms did not play a mediating role between ADHD symptoms and executive functioning. Conversely, our results highlighted a mediating effect of daytime insomnia consequences and sleepiness on ADHD symptoms via behavioral regulation executive symptoms (respectively, β = -0.32, p < .001, 95% CI [-0.46, -0.20]; β = 0.09, p < .05, 95% CI [0.02, 0.16]) and metacognitive executive symptoms (respectively, β = -0.30, p < .001, 95% CI [-0.44, -0.18]; β = 0.12, p < .01, 95% CI [0.04, 0.22]).

CONCLUSIONS

Daytime insomnia consequences and sleepiness symptoms could lead to ADHD-like symptoms through their associated executive symptoms expressed in daily life. When faced with symptoms suggestive of ADHD in adults, insomnia and sleepiness should be systematically screened with standardized instruments.

Executive function in individuals who are compliant and non-compliant with the conditions of a community-based sentence

Executive function encompasses multiple processes (e.g. regulating emotions, managing behaviours, problem-solving) essential in daily living. A growing body of neuropsychological research shows a relationship between executive dysfunction and criminal behaviour. However, is executive functioning relevant to sentence management? We examined relationships between self-reported executive functioning and community supervision sentence compliance. Sixty-four individuals serving community-based supervision sentences completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version, and their compliance data for six months were collected from probation officer notes. The sample's mean scores were significantly higher (i.e. poorer executive functioning) than those for the normative sample. Those who complied with sentence conditions had higher mean scores than those who were non-compliant. Subsequent exploratory analyses showed that those with poorer executive functioning received more probation officer support to comply with sentence conditions. Attention to responsivity issues like executive function problems may help avoid entrapping people in the criminal justice system.

Cognitive Control Challenge Task Across the Lifespan

Meeting everyday challenges and responding in a goal-directed manner requires both the ability to maintain the current task set in face of distractors-stable cognitive control, and the ability to flexibly generate or switch to a new task set when environmental requirements change-flexible cognitive control. While studies show that the development varies across individual component processes supporting cognitive control, little is known about changes in complex stable and flexible cognitive control across the lifespan. In the present study, we used the newly developed Cognitive Control Challenge Task (C3T) to examine the development of complex stable and flexible cognitive control across the lifespan and to gain insight into their interdependence. A total of 340 participants (229 women, age range 8-84 years) from two samples participated in the study, in which they were asked to complete the C3T along with a series of standard tests of individual components of cognitive control. The results showed that the development of both stable and flexible complex cognitive control follows the expected inverted U-curve. In contrast, the indeces of task set formation and task set switching cost increase linearly across the lifespan, suggesting that stable and flexible complex cognitive control are subserved by separable cognitive systems with different developmental trajectories. Correlations with standard cognitive tests indicate that complex cognitive control captured by the C3T engages a broad range of cognitive abilities, such as working memory and planning, and reflects global processing speed, jointly suggesting that the C3T is an effective test of complex cognitive control that has both research and diagnostic potential.

Assessment of Executive Function in Everyday Life-Psychometric Properties of the Norwegian Adaptation of the Children's Cooking Task

Background: There are few standardized measures available to assess executive function (EF) in a naturalistic setting for children. The Children's Cooking Task (CCT) is a complex test that has been specifically developed to assess EF in a standardized open-ended environment (cooking). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the internal consistency, inter-rater reliability, sensitivity and specificity, and also convergent and divergent validity of the Norwegian version of CCT among children with pediatric Acquired Brain Injury (pABI) and healthy controls (HCs). Methods: The present study has a cross-sectional design, based on baseline data derived from a multicenter RCT. Seventy-five children with pABI from two university hospitals with parent-reported executive dysfunction and minimum of 12 months since injury/completed cancer therapy, as well as 59 HCs aged 10-17 years, were assessed with CCT using total errors as the main outcome measure. The pABI group completed tests assessing EF (i.e., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and planning) on the impairment level within the ICF framework (performance-based neuropsychological tests and the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children), and on the participation level (questionnaires). In addition, they completed tests of intellectual ability, processing speed, attention, learning, and memory. Finally, overall functional outcome (pediatric Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended) was evaluated for the children with pABI. Results: Acceptable internal consistency and good inter-rater reliability were found for the CCT. Children with pABI performed significantly worse on the CCT than the HCs. The CCT identified group membership, but the sensitivity and specificity were overall classified as poor. Convergent validity was demonstrated by associations between the CCT and performance-based tests assessing inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory, as well as teacher-reported executive dysfunction (questionnaires). Divergent validity was supported by the lack of association with performance-based measures of learning and memory, attention, and verbal intellectual ability. However, there was a moderate association between the CCT and performance-based tests of processing speed. Lastly, better performance on the CCT was associated with a better functional outcome. Conclusion: Our study with a relatively large sample of children with pABI and HC's demonstrated good psychometric properties of the CCT. CCT performance was associated with the overall level of disability and function, suggesting that CCT is related to the level of activity in everyday life and participation in society. Hence, our study suggests that the CCT has the potential to advance the assessment of EF by providing a valid analysis of real-world performance. Nevertheless, further research is needed on larger samples, focusing on predictors of task performance, and evaluating the ability of CCT to detect improvement in EF over time. The patterns of error and problem-solving strategies evaluated by the CCT could be used to inform neuropsychological rehabilitation treatmentand represent a more valid outcome measure of rehabilitation interventions.

The Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) and its sub-scales: validation and updated normative data in an Italian population sample

BACKGROUND

Deficits of executive functioning (EF) are frequently found in neurological disorders. The Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) is one of the most widespread and psychometrically robust EF screeners in clinical settings. However, in Italy, FAB norms date back to 15 years ago; moreover, its validity against "EF-loaded" global cognitive screeners (e.g., the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA) has yet to be tested. This study thus aimed at (a) providing updated normative data for the Italian FAB and (b) assessing its convergent validity with the MoCA.

METHODS

Four-hundred and seventy-five healthy Italian native speakers (306 females, 169 males; mean age: 61.08 ± 15.1; mean education: 11.67 ± 4.57) were administered by the MoCA and the FAB. FAB items were divided into three subscales: FAB-1 (linguistically mediated EF), FAB-2 (planning), and FAB-3 (inhibition). Regression-based norms were derived (equivalent scores) for all FAB measures.

RESULTS

Age and education were predictive of all FAB measures, whereas no gender differences were detected. The FAB and its sub-scales were related to MoCA measures-the strongest associations being found with MoCA total and MoCA-EF scores. FAB sub-scales were both internally related and associated with FAB total scores.

DISCUSSION

The FAB proved to have convergent validity with both global cognitive and EF measures in healthy individuals. The present study provides updated normative data for the FAB and its sub-scales in an Italian population sample, and thus supports an adaptive usage of this EF screener.

Age as a moderator of the relationship between planning and temporal information processing

Planning is a fundamental mental ability related to executive functions. It allows to select, order and execute subgoals to achieve a goal. Studies have indicated that these processes are characterised by a specific temporal dynamics reflected in temporal information processing (TIP) in some tens of millisecond domain. Both planning and TIP decline with age but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. The novel value of the present study was to examine these mechanisms in young (n = 110) and elderly (n = 91) participants in Tower of London task, considering two structural properties of problems: search depth related to static maintenance in working memory, and goal ambiguity reflecting dynamic cognitive flexibility. Results revealed that TIP predicted planning accuracy both directly and indirectly (via preplanning) but only in young participants in problems characterised by high goal ambiguity. Better planning is related to longer preplanning and more efficient TIP. This result demonstrates for the first time age-related differences in the contribution of TIP to planning. In young participants TIP contributed to dynamic cognitive flexibility, but not to static maintenance processes. In elderly such relation was not observed probably because the deficient planning might depend on working memory maintenance rather than on cognitive flexibility.

The Specificity of Cognitive-Motor Dual-Task Interference on Balance in Young and Older Adults

Standing upright on stable and unstable surfaces requires postural control. Postural control declines as humans age, presenting greater risk of fall-related injury and other negative health outcomes. Secondary cognitive tasks can further impact balance, which highlights the importance of coordination between cognitive and motor processes. Past research indicates that this coordination relies on executive function (EF; the ability to control, maintain, and flexibly direct attention to achieve goals), which coincidentally declines as humans age. This suggests that secondary cognitive tasks requiring EF may exert a greater influence on balance compared to non-EF secondary tasks, and this interaction could be exaggerated among older adults. In the current study, we had younger and older adults complete two Surface Stability conditions (standing upright on stable vs. unstable surfaces) under varying Cognitive Load; participants completed EF (Shifting, Inhibiting, Updating) and non-EF (Processing Speed) secondary cognitive tasks on tablets, as well as a single task control scenario with no secondary cognitive task. Our primary balance measure of interest was sway area, which was measured with an array of wearable inertial measurement unit sensors. Replicating prior work, we found a main effect of Surface Stability with less sway on stable surfaces compared to unstable surfaces, and we found an interaction between Age and Surface Stability with older adults exhibiting significantly greater sway selectively on unstable surfaces compared to younger adults. New findings revealed a main effect of Cognitive Load on sway, with the single task condition having significantly less sway than two of the EF conditions (Updating and Shifting) and the non-EF condition (Processing Speed). We also found an interaction of Cognitive Load and Surface Stability on postural control, where Surface Stability impacted sway the most for the single task and two of the executive function conditions (Inhibition and Shifting). Interestingly, Age did not interact with Cognitive Load, suggesting that both age groups were equally impacted by secondary cognitive tasks, regardless the presence or type of secondary cognitive task. Taken together, these patterns suggest that cognitive demands vary in their impact on posture control across stable vs. unstable surfaces, and that EF involvement may not be the driving mechanism explaining cognitive-motor dual-task interference on balance.

Why might negative mood help or hinder inhibitory performance? An exploration of thinking styles using a Navon induction

Theories of affective influences on cognition posit that negative mood may increase cognitive load, causing a decrement in task performance (Seibert & Ellis, [1991]. Irrelevant thoughts, emotional mood states, and cognitive task performance. Memory & Cognition, 19(5), 507-513), or cause a shift to more analytic thinking, which benefits tasks requiring attention to detail (Schwarz & Clore, [1983]. Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3), 513-523). We previously reported that individuals who are higher in the trait of emotional reactivity performed better on an inhibitory task with increasing negative mood whereas low-reactive individuals showed the converse pattern (Gabel & McAuley, [2018]. Does mood help or hinder executive functions? Reactivity may be the key. Personality and Individual Differences, 128, 94-99; [2020]. React to act: Negative mood, response inhibition, and the moderating role of emotional reactivity. Motivation and Emotion, 44(6), 862-869). Because high-reactive individuals are more accustomed to negative affect (Nock et al., [2008]. The emotion reactivity scale: Development, evaluation, and relation to self-injurious thoughts and behaviors. Behavior Therapy, 39(2), 107-116), we speculated that negative mood engendered analytic thinking but without a task-incongruent increase in cognitive load - thereby facilitating performance. Here, we induced a heuristic or analytic approach to information processing prior to performance of an inhibitory task and expected different results pending the thinking style induced. In the heuristic condition, increasing negative mood was associated with better performance for high-reactive participants but not their low-reactive counterparts. In the analytic condition, increasing negative mood was associated with better performance irrespective of emotional reactivity. Our results are consistent with the notion that negative mood engenders analytic thinking which may benefit response inhibition provided it does not increase task-incongruent cognitive load.

Cognitive deficits in children with autism spectrum disorders: Toward an integrative approach combining social and non-social cognition

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with neurocognitive impairment, including executive dysfunctioning and social cognition (SC) deficits. Cognitive remediation (CR) is a behavioral training-based intervention aiming to improve cognitive processes. Its first use in psychiatry interested patients with schizophrenia, in whom promising results have been shown. Integrated CR programs targeting both social and non-social cognition have demonstrated to be effective in improving both cognitive domains and functional outcomes. CR studies in children and adolescents with ASD are still new, those regarding CR approaches combining social and executive functioning remediation are scares. One study examining the efficacy of cognitive enhancement therapy (CET) for improving cognitive abilities in ADS adults, showed significant differential increases in neurocognitive function and large social-cognitive improvements. Therefore, taking into account the overlap between ASD and schizophrenia, and considering the close link between executive functions (EF) and SC, we suggest that integrative approach in ASD could result in better outcomes. The present perspective aimed to highlight cognitive remediation (CR) programs contributions in ASD (especially in children and adolescents), and to discuss the value of combining social and non-social programs.

The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function

Concepts of cognitive control (CC) and executive function (EF) are defined in terms of their relationships with goal-directed behavior versus habits and controlled versus automatic processing, and related to the functions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and related regions and networks. A psychometric approach shows unity and diversity in CC constructs, with 3 components in the most commonly studied constructs: general or common CC and components specific to mental set shifting and working memory updating. These constructs are considered against the cellular and systems neurobiology of PFC and what is known of its functional neuroanatomical or network organization based on lesioning, neurochemical, and neuroimaging approaches across species. CC is also considered in the context of motivation, as "cool" and "hot" forms. Its Common CC component is shown to be distinct from general intelligence (g) and closely related to response inhibition. Impairments in CC are considered as possible causes of psychiatric symptoms and consequences of disorders. The relationships of CC with the general factor of psychopathology (p) and dimensional constructs such as impulsivity in large scale developmental and adult populations are considered, as well as implications for genetic studies and RDoC approaches to psychiatric classification.

The neurobiology of childhood trauma, from early physical pain onwards: as relevant as ever in today's fractured world

Background: The situation in the world today, encompassing multiple armed conflicts, notably in Ukraine, the Coronavirus pandemic and the effects of climate change, increases the likelihood of childhood exposure to physical injury and pain. Other effects of these worldwide hardships include poverty, malnutrition and starvation, also bringing with them other forms of trauma, including emotional harm, neglect and deliberate maltreatment. Objective: To review the neurobiology of the systems in the developing brain that are most affected by physical and emotional trauma and neglect. Method: The review begins with those that mature first, such as the somatosensory system, progressing to structures that have a more protracted development, including those involved in cognition and emotional regulation. Explored next are developing stress response systems, especially the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and its central regulator, corticotropin-releasing hormone. Also examined are reward and anti-reward systems and genetic versus environmental influences. The behavioural consequences of interpersonal childhood trauma, focusing on self-harm and suicide, are also surveyed briefly. Finally, pointers to effective treatment are proffered. Results: The low-threshold nature of circuitry in the developing brain and lack of inhibitory connections therein result in heightened excitability, making the consequences of both physical and emotional trauma more intense. Sensitive and critical periods in the development of structures such as the amygdala render the nervous system more vulnerable to insults occurring at those points, increasing the likelihood of psychiatric disorders, culminating in self-harm and even suicide. Conclusion: In view of the greater excitability of the developing nervous system, and its vulnerability to physical and psychological injuries, the review ends with an exhortation to consider the long-term consequences of childhood trauma, often underestimated or missed altogether when faced with adults suffering mental health problems.

Chronic stress and executive functioning: A specification-curve analysis

To investigate the association between chronic stress and executive functioning (EF), we assessed 514 young to middle-aged adults in three EF tasks (i.e., Number-Letter, 2-Back, Go/Nogo) that assessed shifting, updating, and inhibition. Chronic stress was assessed by various self-report measures and hair cortisol concentrations as indicators of subjective and objective chronic stress, respectively. In order to test the association between chronic stress and EF, we fit a structural equation model with a latent common EF factor predicted by subjective and objective chronic stress on Kaplan-Meier estimates of response times. Controlling for participants' sex, age household income and the delay between cognitive testing and hair sample collection, neither subjective nor objective chronic stress showed a meaningful association with common EF. Exploratory analyses suggested a moderation effect of income on the association between subjective chronic stress and common EF, with a smaller association for high-income participants. Additionally, we conducted a specification-curve analysis on the association between chronic stress and EF to assess the influence of different analysis choices on results in our dataset. This analysis confirmed the absence of a coherent association between chronic stress and EF by showing that the majority of analytical choices produced null effects and only a small number of analytical choices produced meaningful associations (negative or positive). Taken together, our findings suggest that common EF likely remains preserved under the influence of chronic stress. Our specification-curve analysis, however, also shows that chronic stress may also have either a positive or a negative effect on EF, depending on the choice of covariates and measures of chronic stress and EF. Consequently, more research on the role of these factors for the association between chronic stress and EF is needed to avoid the interpretation of non-replicable stress-EF associations caused by analytical choices or selection bias.

Psychometric properties and clinical utility of the executive function inventory for children and adolescents: a large multistage populational study including children with ADHD

Executive functions (EF) are a set of high order mental abilities that regulate cognition, emotions, and behavior. This study aims to report the construction and validation of a rating scale instrument for EF in children and adolescents aged from 5 to 18 years (EFICA), as well as to report the results of a comparison between children with ADHD and their peers without it. Thus, we conducted a population-based cross-sectional study relying on a sample composed of 3,284 typical children and adolescents accessed to study the psychometric properties of the parents' inventory (EFICA-P) and the teacher's inventory (EFICA-T) within a Structural Equation Modeling framework (SEM). Exploratory and confirmatory analyses were fitted, as well as the Cronbach's alpha and the McDonald's omega reliability indices. The known-groups method was carried out by independent Welch t-tests between untreated ADHD children and their peers. We concluded that the parents' inventory is composed of three dimensions (Cool Index 1, Cool Index 2, and Hot Index): χ² (1,649) = 4,607.852 p < .01, CFI = .965, TLI .963, RMSEA = .053, whereas the teachers´ inventory is composed of two dimensions (Cool Index and Hot Index): χ² (1,273) = 5,158.240, p < .01, CFI = .991, TLI = .991, RMSEA = .077. The internal consistency of both inventories was >.9. Significant differences between the ADHD groups were found in all domains accessed. These findings indicate that both inventories have a high degree of validity regarding their internal structures, as well as supporting their clinical utility.

Executive functions and their relationship with intellectual capacity and age in schoolchildren with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

There is certain empirical evidence of, on the one hand, a positive correlation between executive functions (EFs) and intelligence in people with intellectual disability (ID) and, on the other hand, a slower rate of development of EFs in these people relative to people without ID. This evidence is not, however, unequivocal, and further studies are required.

METHODS

We analysed the relationship between development of EFs and both age and intellectual capacity, in a sample of 106 students with either ID or borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) at a special education centre [63 boys and 43 girls, 11-18 years old, mean total intelligence quotient (TIQ) of 59.6]. We applied nine instruments to evaluate both neuropsychological development (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, planning, processing speed and verbal fluency) and behavioural development [teachers' perceptions of the EFs of their students by Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Second Edition (BRIEF-2) School]. ID and BIF groups were statistically compared in terms of mean performance measures in EF tests. We looked at the correlation between EFs and age, and correlations between EFs and intelligence: TIQ, fluid intelligence [measured by the perceptual reasoning (PR) sub-index of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)] and crystallised intelligence (measured by the verbal comprehension (VC) sub-index of WISC-IV). Regression models were built for variables with strong correlation.

RESULTS

In most of the tests used to evaluate EFs, the ID subgroup performed significantly worse than the subgroup with BIF. In general, teachers' thought that participants had 'medium-low' levels of EFs. TIQ, by WISC-IV scale, correlated significantly with scores in all tests for all EFs. The PR sub-index correlated significantly with 14 of the tests for EFs; 35% of the variation in PR can be explained by variation in performance in Picture Span (working memory) and Mazes (planning). The VC sub-index correlated weakly with seven of the EF tests. We found significant correlations in the ID group between age and scores in all tests of working memory and inhibitory control. Age - considering all participants - did not correlate with any of the variables of teachers' perception except for working memory, and this correlation was not strong.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study are consistent with descriptions of the typical population: (1) fluid intelligence is more related to EFs than crystallised intelligence is; and (2) working memory capacity is the EF most strongly related with general, fluid and crystallised forms of intelligence. The results suggest that as children and adolescents with ID/BIF get older, their capacities for working memory and inhibitory control increase; development of the other EFs studied was less evident. Teachers' perceptions of the EFs of children with ID or BIF were independent of intellectual capacity and age. More research is needed to delve further into the development of EFs in people with ID/BIF.

Executive Functions and Improvement of Thinking: An Intervention Program to Enhance Deductive Reasoning Abilities

Empirical and theoretical advances and application to society are moved at different speed. Application work is frequently developed later because it requires the integration of knowledge from different research areas. In the present paper, we integrate literature coming from diverse areas of research in order to design a deductive reasoning intervention, based on the involved executive functions. Executive functions include working memory (WM)’s online executive processes and other off-line functions such as task revising and planning. Deductive reasoning is a sequential thinking process driven by reasoners’ meta-deductive knowledge and goals that requires the construction and manipulation of representations. We present a new theoretical view about the relationship between executive function and higher-level thinking, a critical analysis of the possibilities and limitations of cognitive training, and a metacognitive training procedure on executive functions to improve deductive reasoning. This procedure integrates direct instruction on deduction and meta-deductive concepts (consistency, necessity) and strategies (search for counterexamples and exhaustivity), together with the simultaneous training of WM and executive functions involved: Focus and switch attention, update WM representations, inhibit and revise intuitive responses, and control the emotional stress yielded by tasks. Likewise, it includes direct training of some complex WM tasks that demands people to carry out similar cognitive assignment than deduction. Our training program would be included in the school curriculum and attempts not only to improve deductive reasoning in experimental tasks, but also to increase students’ ability to uncover fallacies in discourse, to automatize some basic logical skills, and to be able to use logical intuitions.

Subtyping youngsters with obesity: A theory-based cluster analysis

Psychological mechanisms play a crucial role in explaining weight gain. Aim of the present study was to identify subtypes in youngsters with obesity in line with these mechanisms. Defining homogeneous clusters within this heterogeneous group provides relevant information for personalized treatments. Data were collected in N = 572 participants (51% boys, aged 7-19) with extreme obesity (%BMI M = 187.8; SD = 30.9) recruited in an inpatient treatment centre. Based on psychological models of overweight/obesity, the Affect Regulation Model, the Reward Deficiency Model and The Dual Pathway Model, cluster variables were selected assessing emotional eating, reward reactivity and regulative capacities. Youngsters reported on emotional eating (DEBQ Emotional Eating) and reward sensitivity (BAS), while parents reported on children's regulative Executive Functions (BRIEF). Characteristics of the different clusters were examined concerning weight variables (pre and post treatment) and variables indexing problematic eating (DEBQ External Eating, Ch-EDE), affect regulation (FEEL-KJ) and depressive symptoms (CDI). Hierarchical cluster analyses supported the presence of three clusters, further evaluated by K-means cluster analyses. The cluster solutions differed according to age and sex (boys 7-13, boys 14-19, girls 7-13, girls 14-19). In all four age and gender subsamples, an "Emotional Eating" cluster displaying a vulnerable profile (high depression, maladaptive emotion regulation, problematic eating) and a "Reward Deficiency" cluster displaying a more resilient profile were detected. In girls 7-13, a "Weak Executive Functioning" indicative of insufficient self-regulative capacities, showed moderate to high emotional problems and problematic eating. In the other subgroups, the "Mean Level Functioning" cluster also showed elevated emotional problems and problematic eating. Given that different clusters can be identified, and given that these clusters have different profiles on emotional problems and problematic eating, subtyping youngsters with severe obesity is indicated, setting the stage for personalized treatments.

Eye movements in frontotemporal dementia: Abnormalities of fixation, saccades and anti-saccades

INTRODUCTION

Oculomotor function has not been systematically studied in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and yet may offer a simple target to monitor disease activity.

METHODS

We assessed fixation stability, smooth pursuit, pro-saccades, and anti-saccades using the Eyelink 1000-plus eye-tracker in 19 individuals with behavioral variant FTD (bvFTD) and 22 controls. Neuroanatomical correlates were assessed using a region of interest magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis.

RESULTS

Measures of fixation stability were impaired in the bvFTD group compared with controls. However, performance did not differ from controls in the pro-saccade tasks except in the vertical overlap condition. The bvFTD group performed worse in the anti-saccade task, which correlated strongly with executive function. Neural correlates included the orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortices and striatum for fixation stability, and the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortices and striatum for anti-saccades.

DISCUSSION

Overall, oculomotor function is abnormal in bvFTD, with performance likely related to impairment of inhibitory control and executive dysfunction.

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Comorbid Major Depressive Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) are leading causes of disability, and patients are frequently affected by both conditions. This comorbidity is known to confer worse outcomes and greater illness severity. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation method that has demonstrated antidepressant effects. However, the study of rTMS for patients with MDD and commonly associated comorbidities, such as AUD, has been largely overlooked, despite significant overlap in clinical presentation and neurobiological mechanisms. This narrative review aims to highlight the interrelated aspects of the literature on rTMS for MDD and rTMS for AUD. First, we summarize the available evidence on the effectiveness of rTMS for each condition, both most studied through stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Second, we describe common symptom constructs that can be modulated by rTMS, such as executive dysfunction, that are transdiagnostic across these disorders. Lastly, we describe promising approaches in the personalization and optimization of rTMS that may be applicable to both AUD and MDD. By bridging the gap between research efforts in MDD and AUD, rTMS is well positioned to be developed as a treatment for the many patients who have both conditions concurrently.

The Effect of an 8-Week Aerobic Dance Program on Executive Function in Children

In the current study, we examined the effect of an aerobic dance program as part of physical education (PE) classes on aspects of primary school children's executive functions (EFs) (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility). Participants were 41 children (21 boys and 20 girls; M age =10.30, SD = 0.50 years, M height = 134.09, SD= 3.9 cm; M weight = 35.61, SD = 7.85 kg) who were divided into an experimental group (EG) and a no-PE control group (CG). The EG followed an aerobic dance intervention as part of their PE program (45 minute sessions two days per week over eight weeks). Participants in both groups performed EF tests before and after the intervention period to evaluate their mental flexibility, inhibition, and working memory. A two-way mixed model repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect of the aerobic dance program on participants' cognitive flexibility (i.e., on Trails Making Tests _B-A times and committed errors) (p <0.001), and on Stroop measures of inhibition (corrected number of words and corrected errors) (p <0.001 and p <0.01, respectively), with post-hoc analyses showing an improved performance by the EG in working memory (digit recall score) from pre-test to post-test and in comparsion to the CG (p < 0.001). Thus, this 8-week aerobic dance program promoted EF development among primary school children.

Magnetoencephalography Brain Signatures Relate to Cognition and Cognitive Reserve in the Oldest-Old: The EMIF-AD 90 + Study

The oldest-old subjects represent the fastest growing segment of society and are at high risk for dementia with a prevalence of up to 40%. Lifestyle factors, such as lifelong participation in cognitive and leisure activities, may contribute to individual cognitive reserve and reduce the risk for cognitive impairments. However, the neural bases underlying cognitive functioning and cognitive reserve in this age range are still poorly understood. Here, we investigate spectral and functional connectivity features obtained from resting-state MEG recordings in a cohort of 35 cognitively normal (92.2 ± 1.8 years old, 19 women) and 11 cognitively impaired (90.9 ± 1.9 years old, 1 woman) oldest-old participants, in relation to cognitive traits and cognitive reserve. The latter was approximated with a self-reported scale on lifelong engagement in cognitively demanding activities. Cognitively impaired oldest-old participants had slower cortical rhythms in frontal, parietal and default mode network regions compared to the cognitively normal subjects. These alterations mainly concerned the theta and beta band and partially explained inter-subject variability of episodic memory scores. Moreover, a distinct spectral pattern characterized by higher relative power in the alpha band was specifically associated with higher cognitive reserve while taking into account the effect of age and education level. Finally, stronger functional connectivity in the alpha and beta band were weakly associated with better cognitive performances in the whole group of subjects, although functional connectivity effects were less prominent than the spectral ones. Our results shed new light on the neural underpinnings of cognitive functioning in the oldest-old population and indicate that cognitive performance and cognitive reserve may have distinct spectral electrophysiological substrates.

The effect of context on mind-wandering in younger and older adults

Older adults report less mind-wandering (MW) during tasks of sustained attention than younger adults. The control failure × current concerns account argues that this is due to age differences in how contexts cue personally relevant task-unrelated thoughts. For older adults, the university laboratory contains few reminders of their current concerns and unfinished goals. For younger adults, however, the university laboratory is more directly tied to their current concerns. Therefore, if the context for triggering current concerns is the critical difference between younger and older adults' reported MW frequencies, then testing the two groups in contexts that equate the salience of self-relevant cues (i.e., their homes) should result in an increase in older but not younger adults' MW rates. The present study directly compared rates of MW and involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) in the home versus in the lab for younger and older adults using a within-subjects manipulation of context. Inconsistent with the control failure × current concerns account, no significant reduction in the age-gap in MW was found. Suggesting a lack of cues rather than an abundance of cues elicits MW, participants in both age groups reported more MW in the lab than at home. The number of IAMs recalled did not differ across contexts but was lower in older than younger adults. These findings suggest that a cognitive rather than an environmental mechanism may be behind the reduction in spontaneous cognition in aging.

Factor structure of the BRIEF-P teacher version in a sample of Bosnian preschool children with intellectual disability

Executive functions (EF) play a key role in child's development as they are necessary prerequisites for everyday functioning and later academic success. Much research has been directed at examining whether EF are unidimensional or multidimensional construct. In this study, we tested two theoretically driven models and one mathematically driven EF model based on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions - Preschool Edition (BRIEF-P). The sample for this study consisted of 102 children with intellectual disability (77 boys, 25 girls), aged 40-71 months (mean age- 62.1 months, SD- 7.6 months). Early childhood special education teachers completed the BRIEF-P Teacher Version. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to assess the validity of different EF models. The original BRIEF-P, with a second-order, three-factor model and one-factor model were not a good fit to the data. Mathematically driven one-factor model, with the addition of correlated errors between the scales of working memory and shift, and working memory and plan/organize was a good model fit. The current study indicates that EF differentiation begins to emerge at preschool age in children with intellectual disabilities. Understanding EF structure in children with intellectual disability will help create better intervention programs for this population.

Topographical functional correlates of interindividual differences in executive functions in young healthy twins

Executive functions (EF) are a set of higher-order cognitive abilities that enable goal-directed behavior by controlling lower-level operations. In the brain, those functions have been traditionally associated with activity in the Frontoparietal Network, but recent neuroimaging studies have challenged this view in favor of more widespread cortical involvement. In the present study, we aimed to explore whether the network that serves as critical hubs at rest, which we term network reliance, differentiate individuals as a function of their level of EF. Furthermore, we investigated whether such differences are driven by genetic as compared to environmental factors. For this purpose, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data and the behavioral testing of 453 twins from the Colorado Longitudinal Twins Study were analyzed. Separate indices of EF performance were obtained according to a bifactor unity/diversity model, distinguishing between three independent components representing: Common EF, Shifting-specific and Updating-specific abilities. Through an approach of step-wise in silico network lesioning of the individual functional connectome, we show that interindividual differences in EF are associated with different dependencies on neural networks at rest. Furthermore, these patterns show evidence of mild heritability. Such findings add knowledge to the understanding of brain states at rest and their connection with human behavior, and how they might be shaped by genetic influences.

Neurocognitive factorial structure of executive functions: Evidence from neurotypicals and frontotemporal dementia

The latent structure of executive functions (EFs) remains controversial. Confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) has provided support for both multidimensional (assumes EFs to be functionally separable but related components) and bifactor (proposes all components are nested within a common factor) models. However, these CFA models have never been compared in patient samples, nor regarding their neuroanatomical correlates. Here, we systematically contrast both approaches in neurotypicals and in a neurodegenerative lesion model (patients with the behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia, bvFTD), characterized by executive deficits associated with frontal neurodegeneration. First, CFA was used to test the models' fit in a sample of 341 neurotypicals and 29 bvFTD patients based on performance in an executive frontal screening battery which assesses working memory, motor inhibition, verbal inhibition, and abstraction capacity. Second, we compared EFs factor and observed scores between patients and matched controls. Finally, we used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to compare the grey matter correlates of factor and observed scores. CFA results showed that both models fit the data well. The multidimensional model, however, was more sensitive than the bifactor model and the observed scores to detect EFs impairments in bvFTD patients. VBM results for the multidimensional model revealed common and unique grey matter correlates for EFs components across prefrontal-insular, posterior, and temporal cortices. Regarding the bifactor model, only the common factor was associated with prefrontal-insular hubs. Observed scores presented scant, non-frontal grey matter associations. Converging behavioral and neuroanatomical evidence from healthy populations and a neurodegenerative model of EFs supports an underlying multidimensional structure.

Distinguishing Multiple Coding Levels in Theta Band Activity During Working Memory Gating Processes

Cognitive control and working memory (WM) processes are essential for goal-directed behaviour. Cognitive control and WM are probably based on overlapping neurophysiological mechanisms. For example, theta-band activity (TBA) plays an important role in both functions. For cognitive control processes, it is known that different aspects of information about stimulus content, motor processes and stimulus-response relationships are encoded simultaneously in the TBA. All this information is probably processed during WM gating processes and must be controlled during them. However, direct data for this are lacking. This question is investigated in this study by combining methods of EEG temporal signal decomposition, time-frequency decomposition and beamforming. We show that portions of stimulus-related information, motor response-related information and information related to the interaction between the stimulus and motor responses in the TBA are influenced in parallel and to a similar extent by WM gate opening and gate closing processes. Nevertheless, it is stimulus-related information in the theta signal in particular that modulates behavioural performance in WM-gating. The data suggest that the identified processes are implemented in specific neuroanatomical structures. In particular, the medial frontal cortex, temporal cortical regions and insular cortex are involved in these dynamics. The study shows that principles of information coding relevant to cognitive control processes are also crucial for understanding WM gating.

The effect of early handling on anxiety-like behaviors of rats exposed to valproic acid pre-and post-natally

INTRODUCTION

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex, behaviorally defined disorder of the immature brain as a result of genetic and environmental risk factors, such as prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA). This syndrome is known for its high prevalence. On the other hand, postnatal manipulations have been shown to affect brain development, cortical neuroscience, and pituitary-adrenal activity. In early handling (EH) procedure, pups are removed from their mother on a daily basis from birth to lactation, are physically touched, and exposed to the (a) new environment. In the present study, the effect of EH on anxiety-like behaviors in rats exposed pre- and post-natally to valproic acid was investigated.

METHODS

Pregnant Wistar rats were randomly separated into six groups which are prenatal saline, Prenatal VPA, Prenatal VPA + EH and postnatal saline, Postnatal VPA, Postnatal VPA + EH. VPA administration was performed either on ED12.5 (600 mg/kg, i.p.) or PD 2-4 (400 mg/kg, s.c.). In the groups receiving EH, pups underwent physical handling from PD 1 to 21. On postnatal day 21 all offspring were weaned and the behavioral tests were performed on 30 and 31 days of age. Elevated plus maze and open field tests were used to investigate anxiety-like behaviors.

RESULTS

The results revealed that intraperitoneal injection of valrpoic acid (600 mg.kg) during pregnancy significantly reduced OAT% in males (p < 0.01) and females in a non-significant manner (p > 0.05). In comparison, rearing counts of prenatal VPA groups significantly increased in female sex (p < 0.05) in the EPM test. Following postnatal VPA administration (400 mg/kg), decrease in the time spent in central zone occurred in female rats in the open filed (p < 0.05), as well as a significant increase in the number of grooming of the male sex (p < 0.05). Applying Early Handling to male and female Wistar rats receiving prenatal VPA significantly reversed the OAT% fall (p < 0.05). EH in postnatally VPA exposed animals significantly decreased the OAT% and OAE% criteria, while increasing the locomotor activity of the female sex (p < 0.05). Compared with the postnatal VPA group, no significant change was reported in the EPM performance of postnatal VPA + EH group in neither of sexes (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study suggest that injections of valproic acid during pregnancy lead to anxiety-like behaviors in male offspring, which EH can improve (attenuate) to some extent. VPA injections on the second to the fourth day of infancy did not have a profound effect on anxiety level. Further behavioral studies need to be performed using other devices to investigate anxiety-like behaviors and to determine the mechanisms involved in these behaviors.

Non-verbal intelligence outperforms selective attention in a visual short-term memory test

Short-term memory is a dynamic psychological process that operates within a network in which non-verbal intelligence and attentional domains are connected. However, no consensus has been reached about which process has the greatest effect on this memory ability, which was the main objective of the present study. A sample of 1448 Brazilian participants (mean age = 26.62 years, standard deviation = 9.97 years; 53.9% females) were collectively tested on pen-and-paper standardized and validated measures of selective (ROTAS-C), alternating (ROTAS-A), and divided (ROTAS-D) attention. They also performed the R1 Non-verbal Intelligence Test and a visual short-term memory test (Memória Visual de Curto Prazo [MEMORE] test). The statistical analyses consisted of a data mining procedure, in which exhaustive automatic selection screening was performed. The results were compared with Corrected Akaike Information Criteria. The linear model met the classic assumptions of ordinary least squares and only included main effects of selective attention (standardized β = 0.39) and non-verbal intelligence (standardized β = 0.37) as main predictors (F2,39 = 7.01, p < 0.01, adjusted R2 = 24%). The results are discussed within a cognitive psychology framework.

The central executive network and executive function in healthy and persons with schizophrenia groups: a meta-analysis of structural and functional MRI

This meta-analysis evaluated the extent to which executive function can be understood with structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Studies included structural in schizophrenia (k = 8; n = 241) and healthy controls (k = 12; n = 1660), and functional in schizophrenia (k = 4; n = 104) and healthy controls (k = 12; n = 712). Results revealed a positive association in the brain behavior relationship when pooled across schizophrenia and control samples for structural (pr = 0.27) and functional (pr = 0.29) modalities. Subgroup analyses revealed no significant difference for functional neuroimaging (pr = .43, 95%CI = -.08-.77, p = .088) but with structural neuroimaging (pr = .37, 95%CI = -.08-.69, p = .015) the association to executive functions is lower in the control group. Subgroup analyses also revealed no significant differences in the strength of the brain-behavior relationship in the schizophrenia group (pr = .59, 95%CI = .58-.61, p = .881) or the control group (pr = 0.19, 95%CI = 0.18-0.19, p = 0.920), suggesting concordance.

Saccadic Eye Movements in Elderly Depressed Patients With Suicidal Behaviors: An Exploratory Eye-Tracking Study

Suicidal behaviors (SBs) are often associated with impaired performance on neuropsychological executive functioning (EF) measures that encourage the development of more specific and reliable tools. Recent evidence could suggest that saccadic movement using eye tracking can provide reliable information on EF in depressive elderly. The aim of this study was to describe oculomotor performances in elderly depressed patients with SB. To achieve this aim, we compared saccadic eye movement (SEM) performances in elderly depressed patients (N = 24) with SB and with no SB in prosaccade (PS) and antisaccade (AS) tasks under the gap, step, and overlap conditions. All participants also underwent a complete neuropsychological battery. Performances were impaired in patients with SB who exhibited less corrected AS errors and longer time to correct them than patients with no SB. Moreover, both groups had a similar performance for PS latencies and correct AS. These preliminary results suggested higher cognitive inflexibility in suicidal patients compared to non-suicidal. This inflexibility may explain the difficulty of the depressed elderly in generating solutions to the resurgence of suicidal ideation (SI) to respond adequately to stressful environments. The assessment of eye movement parameters in depressed elderly patients may be a first step in identifying high-risk patients for suicide.

Specific age-correlated activation of top hierarchical motor control areas during gait-like plantar stimulation: An fMRI study

A better understanding of gait disorders that are associated with aging is crucial to prevent adverse outcomes. The functional study of gait remains a thorny issue due to technical constraints inherent to neuroimaging procedures, as most of them require to stay supine and motionless. Using an MRI‐compatible system of boots reproducing gait‐like plantar stimulation, we investigated the correlation between age and brain fMRI activation during simulated gait in healthy adults. Sixty‐seven right‐handed healthy volunteers aged between 20 and 77 years old (49.2 ± 18.0 years; 35 women) were recruited. Two paradigms were assessed consecutively: (a) gait‐like plantar stimulation and (b) chaotic and not gait‐related plantar stimulation. Resulting statistical parametric maps were analyzed with a multiple‐factor regression that included age and a threshold determined by Monte‐Carlo simulation to fulfill a family‐wise error rate correction of p < .05. In the first paradigm, there was an age‐correlated activation of the right pallidum, thalamus and putamen. The second paradigm showed an age‐correlated deactivation of both primary visual areas (V1). The subtraction between results of the first and second paradigms showed age‐correlated activation of the right presupplementary motor area (Brodmann Area [BA] 6) and right mid‐dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA9‐10). Our results show age‐correlated activity in areas that have been associated with the control of gait, highlighting the relevance of this simulation model for functional gait study. The specific progressive activation of top hierarchical control areas in simulated gait and advancing age corroborate a progressive loss of automation in healthy older adults.

Older age and online health information search behaviors: The mediating influence of executive functions

INTRODUCTION

Searching the internet for health-related information is a complex and dynamic goal-oriented process that ostensibly places demands on executive functions, which are higher-order cognitive abilities that can deteriorate with older age. This study examined the effects of older age on electronic health (eHealth) search behavior and the potential mediating influence of executive functions.

METHOD

Fifty younger adults (≤ 35 years) and 41 older adults (≥50 years) completed naturalistic eHealth search tasks involving fact-finding (Fact Search) and symptom determination (Symptom Search), a neurocognitive battery, and a series of self-report questionnaires.

RESULTS

Multiple regression models controlling for potentially confounding psychiatric symptoms, health conditions, literacy, and demographic variables revealed that older adults were slower and less accurate than younger adults on the eHealth Fact Search task, but not on the eHealth Symptom Search task. Executive functions mediated the relationship between age and Fact and Symptom Search accuracy, independent of basic processing speed and attention. Parallel mediation models showed that episodic memory was not an independent mediator of age and search accuracy for either eHealth task once speed/attention and executive functions were included.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults can experience difficulty searching the internet for some health-related information, which is at least partly attributable to executive dysfunction. Future studies are needed to determine the benefits of training in the organizational and strategic aspects of internet search for older adults and whether these findings are applicable to clinical populations with executive dysfunction.

A Longitudinal, Prospective Study to Evaluate the Effects of Treatment on the Inhibitory Control Function After Transsphenoidal Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

OBJECTIVES

Injured cognitive abilities have been reported in patients with pituitary adenoma. However, to date, few researchers have directly investigated the electrophysiological study of inhibitory control function of pituitary patients both pre- and postsurgery. Thus, this study aimed to identify the factors affecting the inhibitory control function of pituitary patients.

METHODS

Thirty presurgery pituitary patients were recruited and 26 patients of them completed the postsurgery follow-up. Thirty healthy people were recruited for control group. Visual Go/Nogo tasks were carried out by the patients and controls to assess the inhibitory control function before surgery and 6 months after the surgery, respectively. The function of inhibitory control was analyzed with the components of N2 and P3.

RESULTS

Across 3 groups, Nogo stimuli evoked larger frontal-central N2nogo and P3nogo than Go stimuli did. Furthermore, N2d of presurgery patients (-1.14 μV) and postsurgery patients(-0.61 μV) were significantly decreased compared with that of control group (-3.09 μV), F(2, 83) = 13.92, P < .01, whereas no difference was detected between pre- and postsurgery groups. There was no remarkable difference in the amplitude of P3d among the 3 groups, F(2, 83) = 0.19, P > .05. With regard to the amplitude of P3 for Go condition, The P3 amplitude of healthy group (4.38 μV) was larger than both pre- and postsurgery (1.00 μV and 3.01 μV). With regard to the amplitude of P3 for Nogo condition, The P3 amplitude of healthy group (5.25 μV) was larger than both pre- and postsurgery groups (2.35 μV and 4.18 μV).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicated that presurgery patients showed the dysfunction of inhibition, due to the nerve tissue damage or brain structure alteration caused by the presurgery physical pressure from tumor and abnormal hormone levels. Postsurgery patients showed a tendency toward recovery, but there was no obvious improvement in the inhibitory control function after successful treatments.

Diabetes-Specific Risk-Taking in Young Adulthood: A Closer Look

Risk-taking behaviors are not a new phenomenon for young adults (YAs) and are an important aspect of understanding decision-making for YAs with diabetes. This article builds on a previous model of diabetes-specific risk-taking by providing other examples of risky situations and behaviors that are specific to YAs with type 1 diabetes, reviewing models of risk-taking behavior, and discussing how these models might inform clinical care for YAs with diabetes.

Amyloid and anatomical correlates of executive functioning in middle-aged offspring of patients with late-onset Alzheimer's disease

A traditional hallmark of cognitive impairment associated with late-onset Alzheimer´s disease (LOAD) is episodic memory impairment. However, early alterations have been identified in brain regions associated with executive function in asymptomatic, middle-age offspring of patients with LOAD (O-LOAD) compared to those with no family history. We hypothesized that executive function among O-LOAD would correlate with structural and amyloid brain imaging differently from those without a family history of LOAD (control subjects, CS). Executive function, cortical thickness, and in-vivo Aβ deposits were quantified in 30 O-LOAD and 25 CS. Associations were observed among O-LOAD only. Cortical thickness in the left lateral orbitofrontal cortex was positively associated with Design Fluency. The Stroop Color and Word Test, correlated positively with right rostral mid-frontal cortex thickness. Trails Making Test-B was inversely related to left medial orbitofrontal thickness. Tower of London total time was positively associated with β-amyloid deposition in the right precuneus. These results support previous evidence that early executive dysfunction might reflect subtle, early changes in persons at risk of LOAD and suggests that executive function alterations deserve further exploration in the LOAD literature.