101
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Abstract
Protein kinases (PKs) are prime targets for drug discovery in a variety of diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative pathologies. The characterisation of the kinome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has revealed profound divergences, at several levels, between PKs of the parasite and those of its host. Here, the authors review the major issues and recent advances regarding the development of Plasmodium-selective PK inhibitors, with emphasis on target identification and validation, and on structure-based design. The authors also discuss the possibility of interfering with: i) Plasmodium PKs regulating transmission to the mosquito vector; and ii) host PKs that may be required for parasite survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Doerig
- INSERM U609, Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK.
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102
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Tribouillard D, Gug F, Galons H, Bach S, Saupe SJ, Blondel M. Antiprion drugs as chemical tools to uncover mechanisms of prion propagation. Prion 2007; 1:48-52. [PMID: 19164923 DOI: 10.4161/pri.1.1.4053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of drugs active against prions either in vitro, in cellular systems or in vivo in animal models have been isolated in various screening assays. In this minireview, we would like to suggest, that in addition to their direct interest as potential therapeutic agents, these molecules could be used as original research tools to understand prion propagation. The use of antiprion compounds as tool to understand fundamentals of prion propagation relies on reverse screening approaches. These global genetic and/or biochemical approaches aim to identify the intracellular target(s) and mechanism of action of the drugs. Once those are known, the biological activity of the compounds can be optimized on a rational basis, their potential side effects understood and minimized. In vitro enzyme-based screening assays can then be designed to allow discovery of new, more potent and selective molecules. Here we describe the main comprehensive biochemical and genetical approaches to realize reverse screening approaches based on antiprion drugs. We will finish by discussing the interest of using drug inactivation of specific targets as a substitute to genetic inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Déborah Tribouillard
- INSERM U613, CHU de Brest, Faculté de Médecine de l'Université de Bretagne Occidentale, 46 rue Félix Le Dantec, Brest, France
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103
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Guiffant D, Tribouillard D, Gug F, Galons H, Meijer L, Blondel M, Bach S. Identification of intracellular targets of small molecular weight chemical compounds using affinity chromatography. Biotechnol J 2007; 2:68-75. [PMID: 17225251 DOI: 10.1002/biot.200600223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Efforts to characterize small molecular weight chemical inhibitors of pharmacological interest tend to identify molecules with high efficiency and selectivity, to meet the two criteria required for the clinical development of a drug: efficacy and harmlessness. Drug candidates are expected to inhibit efficiently the target they have been optimized against (for example, a particular type of protein kinase). These hits are also designed to not interfere (or as little as possible) with the activity of other cellular enzymes/proteins to reduce undesired side effects. Here we discuss the use of immobilized drugs as affinity chromatography matrices to purify and identify their bona fide intracellular targets. This method not only allows the systematic investigation of the selectivity of pharmacological compounds but also the anticipation of their putative adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Guiffant
- CNRS, Molecules and Therapeutic Targets Laboratory, Station Biologique, Roscoff, France
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104
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Viht K, Schweinsberg S, Lust M, Vaasa A, Raidaru G, Lavogina D, Uri A, Herberg FW. Surface-plasmon-resonance-based biosensor with immobilized bisubstrate analog inhibitor for the determination of affinities of ATP- and protein-competitive ligands of cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Anal Biochem 2006; 362:268-77. [PMID: 17274940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2006.12.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Revised: 12/19/2006] [Accepted: 12/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between adenosine-oligoarginine conjugates (ARC), bisubstrate analog inhibitors of protein kinases, and catalytic subunits of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAPK Calpha) were characterized with surface-plasmon-resonance-based biosensors. ARC-704 bound to the immobilized kinase with subnanomolar affinity. The immobilization of ARC-704 to the chip surface via streptavidin-biotin complex yielded a high-affinity surface (K(D)=16nM). The bisubstrate character of ARC-704 was demonstrated with various ligands targeted to ATP-binding pocket (ATP and inhibitors H89 and H1152P) and protein-substrate-binding domain of Calpha (RIIalpha and GST-PKIalpha) in competition assays. The experiments performed on surfaces with different immobilization levels of ARC-704 produced similar results. The closeness of the obtained affinities of the tested compounds to the inhibitory potencies and affinities of the compounds measured with other methods demonstrates the applicability of the chip with the immobilized biligand inhibitor for the characterization of both ATP- and substrate protein-competitive ligands of basophilic protein kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaido Viht
- Institute of Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Tartu, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
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105
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Krystof V, Cankar P, Frysová I, Slouka J, Kontopidis G, Dzubák P, Hajdúch M, Srovnal J, de Azevedo WF, Orság M, Paprskárová M, Rolcík J, Látr A, Fischer PM, Strnad M. 4-arylazo-3,5-diamino-1H-pyrazole CDK inhibitors: SAR study, crystal structure in complex with CDK2, selectivity, and cellular effects. J Med Chem 2006; 49:6500-9. [PMID: 17064068 DOI: 10.1021/jm0605740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In a routine screening of our small-molecule compound collection we recently identified 4-arylazo-3,5-diamino-1H-pyrazoles as a novel group of ATP antagonists with moderate potency against CDK2-cyclin E. A preliminary SAR study based on 35 analogues suggests ways in which the pharmacophore could be further optimized, for example, via substitutions in the 4-aryl ring. Enzyme kinetics studies with the lead compound and X-ray crystallography of an inhibitor-CDK2 complex demonstrated that its mode of inhibition is competitive. Functional kinase assays confirmed the selectivity toward CDKs, with a preference for CDK9-cyclin T1. The most potent inhibitor, 4-[(3,5-diamino-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)diazenyl]phenol 31b (CAN508), reduced the frequency of S-phase cells of the cancer cell line HT-29 in antiproliferation assays. Further observed cellular effects included decreased phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein and the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II, inhibition of mRNA synthesis, and induction of the tumor suppressor protein p53, all of which are consistent with inhibition of CDK9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimír Krystof
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Slechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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106
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Moulin E, Barluenga S, Totzke F, Winssinger N. Diversity-Oriented Synthesis of Pochonins and Biological Evaluation against a Panel of Kinases. Chemistry 2006; 12:8819-34. [PMID: 16953513 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200600553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Pochonins A-F were recently characterized as six new members of the naturally occurring family of 14-membered resorcylic acid lactones. As there are a high number of ATPase and kinase inhibitors among natural resorcylic lactones, a library based on the pochonin scaffold, with five points of diversity, was prepared which includes diversity beyond that of the natural analogues. The library was synthesized by using solid-supported reagents amenable to automation. Testing the library for its inhibition against a panel of 24 kinases at 10 microM afforded a >14 % hit rate. These results demonstrate the potential of the resorcylides towards the inhibition of therapeutically relevant kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Moulin
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Institut de Science et Ingénierie Supramoléculaires, Université Louis Pasteur-CNRS, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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107
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Integration and mining of malaria molecular, functional and pharmacological data: how far are we from a chemogenomic knowledge space? Malar J 2006; 5:110. [PMID: 17112376 PMCID: PMC1665468 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-5-110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2006] [Accepted: 11/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The organization and mining of malaria genomic and post-genomic data is important to significantly increase the knowledge of the biology of its causative agents, and is motivated, on a longer term, by the necessity to predict and characterize new biological targets and new drugs. Biological targets are sought in a biological space designed from the genomic data from Plasmodium falciparum, but using also the millions of genomic data from other species. Drug candidates are sought in a chemical space containing the millions of small molecules stored in public and private chemolibraries. Data management should, therefore, be as reliable and versatile as possible. In this context, five aspects of the organization and mining of malaria genomic and post-genomic data were examined: 1) the comparison of protein sequences including compositionally atypical malaria sequences, 2) the high throughput reconstruction of molecular phylogenies, 3) the representation of biological processes, particularly metabolic pathways, 4) the versatile methods to integrate genomic data, biological representations and functional profiling obtained from X-omic experiments after drug treatments and 5) the determination and prediction of protein structures and their molecular docking with drug candidate structures. Recent progress towards a grid-enabled chemogenomic knowledge space is discussed.
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108
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Dirnberger D, Unsin G, Schlenker S, Reichel C. A small-molecule-protein interaction system with split-ubiquitin as sensor. Chembiochem 2006; 7:936-42. [PMID: 16680785 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200500544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The identification of receptors for small molecules is of great pharmaceutical importance for drug-discovery research. Several systems for the identification of protein-small-molecule interactions have been developed in the past. These were modifications of the classical yeast two-hybrid system, relying on a transcriptional read-out following nuclear translocation of the complex. Here we present a novel three-hybrid technology based on the split-ubiquitin system for the analysis of protein-small-molecule interactions independently of a nuclear translocation of the complex. The performance of the system is compared to a method based on the classical yeast two-hybrid system by using a chemical inducer of dimerization (CID) comprised of methotrexate linked to dexamethasone. Steric issues are addressed by varying the linker length of the compounds, as well as by comparing the orientation of fusion proteins. The system is further extended to the analysis of a small-molecule inhibitor of human PCTAIRE protein kinase 3, which is related to cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), an important class of pharmaceutical targets.
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109
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Luesch H. Towards high-throughput characterization of small molecule mechanisms of action. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2006; 2:609-20. [PMID: 17216042 DOI: 10.1039/b609384a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Drug discovery is hampered by the lack of general strategies to characterize the mechanisms of action and intracellular targets of bioactive small molecules. Genomics and proteomics promise to aid in this process. Genome-wide approaches in yeast have proven useful to infer the targets and target pathways of small molecules. These approaches are being systematically transferred into mammalian cell culture systems in order to interrogate more complex pathways in a more relevant setting. Advances in proteomics and in vivo genetic screening in multicellular model organism systems are also becoming increasingly powerful and amenable to high-throughput. Current methodologies and technologies are discussed, including how these global approaches complement affinity-based target identification strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Luesch
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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110
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Galons H, Bettayeb K, Meijer L. (R)-Roscovitine (CYC202, Seliciclib). ENZYME INHIBITORS SERIES 2006. [DOI: 10.1201/9781420005400.ch9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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111
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Samanta S, Debnath B, Basu A, Gayen S, Srikanth K, Jha T. Exploring QSAR on 3-aminopyrazoles as antitumor agents for their inhibitory activity of CDK2/cyclin A. Eur J Med Chem 2006; 41:1190-5. [PMID: 16806589 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2006.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 05/03/2006] [Accepted: 05/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Chemical inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases have great therapeutic potential against various proliferative and neurodegenerative disorders. The pharmacophoric requirement of 3-aminopyrazole, inhibitors of CDK2/cyclin A as antitumor agents was explored. QSAR study was performed using ETSA index, RTSA index, indicator parameters and atomic charges to consider quantitatively the effect of the structural variation on the antitumor activity of 3-aminopyrazole. Result showed that atom number 5 is important for the activity. It plays some electronic roles in the interaction of these compounds with enzymes as well as assumed to be involved through the dispersive/van der Waals interactions with enzyme. Presence of meta substitutions on the phenyl ring indicate the detrimental effects towards the activity. The presence of substituted biphenyl/2-thenyl phenyl at R1 are favorable towards the activity. QSAR study also indicates that with increasing the electronegativity of oxygen at position 8, the activity increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Samanta
- Division of Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, P.O. Box 17020, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
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112
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Donald RGK, Zhong T, Wiersma H, Nare B, Yao D, Lee A, Allocco J, Liberator PA. Anticoccidial kinase inhibitors: Identification of protein kinase targets secondary to cGMP-dependent protein kinase. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2006; 149:86-98. [PMID: 16765465 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2006.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Revised: 05/01/2006] [Accepted: 05/04/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Trisubstituted pyrrole inhibitors of the essential coccidian parasite cGMP dependent protein kinase (PKG) block parasite invasion and show in vivo efficacy against Eimeria in chickens and Toxoplasma in mice. An imidazopyridine inhibitor of PKG activity with greater potency in both parasite invasion assays and in vivo activity has recently been identified. Susceptibility experiments with a Toxoplasma knock-out strain expressing a complementing compound-refractory PKG allele ('T761Q-KO'), suggest a role for additional secondary protein kinase targets. Using extracts from this engineered T. gondii strain and a radiolabeled imidazopyridine ligand, a single peak of binding activity associated with calmodulin-like domain protein kinase (CDPK1) has been identified. Like PKG, CDPK1 has been implicated in host cell invasion and exhibits sub-nanomolar sensitivity to the compound. Amino acid sequence comparisons of coccidian CDPKs and a mutational analysis reveal that the binding of the ligand to PKG and CDPK1 (but not other CDPK isoforms) is mediated by similar contacts in a catalytic site hydrophobic binding pocket, and can be blocked by analogous amino acid substitutions. Transgenic strains over-expressing a biochemically active but compound-refractory CDPK1 mutant ('G128Q') fail to show reduced susceptibility to the compound in vivo, suggesting that selective inhibition of this enzyme is not responsible for the enhanced anti-parasitic potency of the imidazopyridine analog. An alternative secondary target candidate, the alpha-isoform of casein kinase 1 (CK1alpha), shows sensitivity to the compound in the low nanomolar range. These results provide an example of the utility of the Toxoplasma model system for investigating the mechanism of action of novel anticoccidial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G K Donald
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Merck & Co., P.O. Box 2000, R80Y-260 Rahway, NJ 07065-0900, USA
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113
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Price PM, Yu F, Kaldis P, Aleem E, Nowak G, Safirstein RL, Megyesi J. Dependence of cisplatin-induced cell death in vitro and in vivo on cyclin-dependent kinase 2. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17:2434-42. [PMID: 16914540 PMCID: PMC1698291 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2006020162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin is one of the most effective chemotherapeutics, but its usefulness is limited by its toxicity to normal tissues, including cells of the kidney proximal tubule. The purpose of these studies was to determine the mechanism of cisplatin cytotoxicity. It was shown in vivo that cisplatin administration induces upregulation of the gene for the p21 cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) inhibitor in kidney cells. This protein is a positive effector on the fate of cisplatin-exposed renal tubule cells in vivo and in vitro; adenoviral transduction of p21 completely protected proximal tubule cells from cisplatin toxicity. Herein is reported that cdk2 inhibitory drugs protect kidney cells in vivo and in vitro, that transduction of kidney cells in vitro with dominant-negative cdk2 also protected, and that cdk2 knockout cells were resistant to cisplatin. The cdk2 knockout cells regained cisplatin sensitivity after transduction with wild-type cdk2. It is concluded that cisplatin cytotoxicity depends on cdk2 activation and that the mechanism of p21 protection is by direct inhibition of cdk2. This demonstrated the involvement of a protein that previously was associated with cell-cycle progression with pathways of apoptosis. It also was demonstrated that this pathway of cisplatin-induced cell death can be interceded in vivo to prevent nephrotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Price
- Department of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, VA Medical Center-Research Section, 4300 West 7th Street, Room GC 147, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
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114
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Allocco JJ, Donald R, Zhong T, Lee A, Tang YS, Hendrickson RC, Liberator P, Nare B. Inhibitors of casein kinase 1 block the growth of Leishmania major promastigotes in vitro. Int J Parasitol 2006; 36:1249-59. [PMID: 16890941 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2006] [Revised: 06/05/2006] [Accepted: 06/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Casein kinase 1 (CK1) is a family of multifunctional Ser/Thr protein kinases that are ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of, and role for, CK1 in protozoan parasites such as Leishmania, Plasmodium and Trypanosoma. The value of protein kinases as potential drug targets in protozoa is evidenced by the successful exploitation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (PKG) with selective tri-substituted pyrrole and imidazopyridine inhibitors. These compounds exhibit in vivo efficacy against Eimeria tenella in chickens and Toxoplasma gondii in mice. We now report that both of these protein kinase inhibitor classes inhibit the growth of Leishmania major promastigotes and Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms in vitro. Genome informatics predicts that neither of these trypanosomatids codes for a PKG orthologue. Biochemical studies have led to the unexpected discovery that an isoform of CK1 represents the primary target of the pyrrole and imidazopyridine kinase inhibitors in these organisms. CK1 from extracts of L. major promastigotes co-fractionated with [(3)H]imidazopyridine binding activity. Further purification of CK1 activity from L. major and characterization via liquid chromatography coupled tandem mass spectrometry identified CK1 isoform 2 as the specific parasite protein inhibited by imidazopyridines. L. major CK1 isoform 2 expressed as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli displayed biochemical and inhibition characteristics similar to those of the purified native enzyme. The results described here warrant further evaluation of the activity of these kinase inhibitors against mammalian stage Leishmania parasites in vitro and in animal models of infection, as well as studies to genetically validate CK1 as a therapeutic target in trypanosomatid parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Allocco
- Department of Infectious Disease Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck and Co., Inc., P.O. Box 2000 Rahway, NJ 07065-0900, USA.
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115
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Legraverend M, Grierson DS. The purines: potent and versatile small molecule inhibitors and modulators of key biological targets. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14:3987-4006. [PMID: 16503144 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Revised: 12/29/2005] [Accepted: 12/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this review is to highlight the wide range of biological activities displayed by purines, with particular emphasis on new purine-based agents which find potential application as chemical-biology tools and/or therapeutic agents. The expanding interest in the biological properties of polyfunctionalized purine derivatives issues, in large part, from the development of rapid high-throughput screening essays for new protein targets, and the corresponding development of efficient synthetic methodology adapted to the construction of highly diverse purine libraries. Purine-based compounds have found new applications as inducers of interferon and lineage-committed cell dedifferentiation, agonists and antagonists of adenosine receptors, ligands of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors, and as inhibitors of HSP90, Src kinase, p38alpha MAP kinase, sulfotransferases, phosphodiesterases, and Cdks. The scope of application of purines in biology is most certainly far from being exhausted. Testing purine derivatives against the multitude of biological targets for which small molecule probes have not yet been found should thus be a natural reflex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Legraverend
- UMR 176 CNRS-Institut Curie, Laboratoire de Pharmacochimie, Bât. 110, Centre Universitaire, 91405 Orsay, France.
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116
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Abstract
The lethal species of malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, continues to exact a huge toll of mortality and morbidity, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Completion of the genome sequence of this organism and advances in proteomics and mass spectrometry have opened up unprecedented opportunities for understanding the complex biology of this parasite and how it responds to drug challenge and other interventions. This review describes recent progress that has been made in applying proteomics technology to this important pathogen and provides a look forward to likely future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F G Sims
- University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Jackson's Mill, PO Box 88, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK.
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117
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Caligiuri M, Becker F, Murthi K, Kaplan F, Dedier S, Kaufmann C, Machl A, Zybarth G, Richard J, Bockovich N, Kluge A, Kley N. A proteome-wide CDK/CRK-specific kinase inhibitor promotes tumor cell death in the absence of cell cycle progression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:1103-15. [PMID: 16242653 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2005] [Revised: 08/05/2005] [Accepted: 08/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The identification of molecular determinants of tumor cell survival is an important objective in cancer research. Here, we describe a small-molecule kinase inhibitor (RGB-286147), which, besides inhibiting tumor cell cycle progression, exhibits potent cytotoxic activity toward noncycling tumor cells, but not nontransformed quiescent fibroblasts. Extensive yeast three-hybrid (Y3H)-based proteome/kinome scanning with chemical dimerizers revealed CDK1/2/3/5/7/9 and the less well-characterized CDK-related kinases (CRKs) p42/CCRK, PCTK1/3, and PFTK1 as its predominant targets. Thus, RGB-286147 is a proteome-wide CDK/CRK-specific kinase inhibitor whose further study could yield new insight into molecular determinants of tumor cell survival. Our results also suggest that the [1, 3, 6]-tri-substituted-pyrazolo[3,4-d]-pyrimidine-4-one kinase inhibitor scaffold is a promising template for the rational design of kinase inhibitors with potential applications to disease indications other than cancer, such as neurodegeneration, cardiac hypertrophic growth, and AIDS.
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118
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Agbottah E, Zhang N, Dadgar S, Pumfery A, Wade JD, Zeng C, Kashanchi F. Inhibition of HIV-1 virus replication using small soluble Tat peptides. Virology 2005; 345:373-89. [PMID: 16289656 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.09.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2005] [Revised: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 09/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Although the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has led to a significant reduction in AIDS-related morbidity and mortality, unfortunately, many patients discontinue their initial HAART regimen, resulting in development of viral resistance. During HIV infection, the viral activator Tat is needed for viral progeny formation, and the basic and core domains of Tat are the most conserved parts of the protein. Here, we show that a Tat 41/44 peptide from the core domain can inhibit HIV-1 gene expression and replication. The peptides are not toxic to cells and target the Cdk2/Cyclin E complex, inhibiting the phosphorylation of serine 5 of RNAPII. Using the Cdk2 X-ray crystallography structure, we found that the low-energy wild-type peptides could bind to the ATP binding pocket, whereas the mutant peptide bound to the Cdk2 interface. Finally, we show that these peptides do not allow loading of the catalytic domain of the cdk/cyclin complex onto the HIV-1 promoter in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Agbottah
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The George Washington University School of Medicine, Washington DC 20037, USA.
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119
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Breitenlechner CB, Kairies NA, Honold K, Scheiblich S, Koll H, Greiter E, Koch S, Schäfer W, Huber R, Engh RA. Crystal structures of active SRC kinase domain complexes. J Mol Biol 2005; 353:222-31. [PMID: 16168436 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2005.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2005] [Revised: 08/08/2005] [Accepted: 08/10/2005] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
c-Src was the first proto-oncoprotein to be identified, and has become the focus of many drug discovery programs. Src structures of a major inactive form have shown how the protein kinase is rigidified by several interdomain interactions; active configurations of Src are generated by release from this "assembled" or "bundled" form. Despite the importance of Src as a drug target, there is relatively little structural information available regarding the presumably more flexible active forms. Here we report three crystal structures of a dimeric active c-Src kinase domain, in an apo and two ligand complexed forms, with resolutions ranging from 2.9A to 1.95A. The structures show how the kinase domain, in the absence of the rigidifying interdomain interactions of the inactivation state, adopts a more open and flexible conformation. The ATP site inhibitor CGP77675 binds to the protein kinase with canonical hinge hydrogen bonds and also to the c-Src specific threonine 340. In contrast to purvalanol B binding in CDK2, purvalanol A binds in c-Src with a conformational change in a more open ATP pocket.
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120
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Pillonel C. Evaluation of phenylaminopyrimidines as antifungal protein kinase inhibitors. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2005; 61:1069-76. [PMID: 15952247 DOI: 10.1002/ps.1080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The effects of diverse phenylaminopyrimidines (PAP), namely PAP-pyridines (type A), PAP-pyrazoles (type B) and PAP-thiazoles (type C), on Neurospora crassa Shear & Dodge has been investigated. The results revealed that type A strongly inhibit the in vitro growth of N crassa, whereas types B and C are much less active. A significant correlation was observed between the Neurospora growth inhibition and the intrinsic activity of type A compounds on the cyclin-dependent protein kinase p34(CDC2) of starfish, suggesting that the target of phenylaminopyrimidines in fungi is a cyclin-dependent protein kinase (CDK). The phenylaminopyrimidine-binding CDKs Phoss (major band) and CDC2 (minor band) involved in phosphorus uptake, glycogen synthesis and the cell cycle were identified from N crassa by affinity chromatography on phenylaminopyrimidine-sepharose. Comparative experiments with different protein kinases revealed the importance of the side chain of phenylaminopyrimidines for their target selectivity. A type B compound was found to selectively inhibit the MAP-kinase OS-2 involved in the osmoregulatory pathway of Neurospora.
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121
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Doerig C, Billker O, Pratt D, Endicott J. Protein kinases as targets for antimalarial intervention: Kinomics, structure-based design, transmission-blockade, and targeting host cell enzymes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1754:132-50. [PMID: 16271522 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2005] [Revised: 08/20/2005] [Accepted: 08/25/2005] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The surge of interest in protein kinases as targets for chemotherapeutic intervention in a number of diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders has stimulated research aimed at determining whether enzymes of this class might also be considered as targets in the context of diseases caused by parasitic protists. Here, we present an overview of recent developments in this field, concentrating (i) on the benefits gained from the availability of genomic databases for a number of parasitic protozoa, (ii) on the emerging field of structure-aided design of inhibitors targeting protein kinases of parasitic protists, (iii) on the concept known as transmission-blockade, whereby kinases implicated in the development of the parasite in their arthropod vector might be targeted to interfere with disease transmission, and (iv) on the possibility of controlling parasitic diseases through the inhibition of host cell protein kinases that are required for the establishment of infection by the parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Doerig
- INSERM U609, Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 Glasgow University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, UK.
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122
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Abstract
An increasing number of kinase inhibitor candidates are entering clinical development, representing an important change in the pharmaceutical industry; notably, the development of small-molecule kinase inhibitors for signal transduction therapies. Today, kinase inhibitors garner substantial attention in cancer research. Over the last few years, three distinct small-molecule kinase inhibitors reached the market for treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia, gastrointestinal stromal tumours, and non-small cell lung cancers. These three drugs, imatinib, gefitinib and erlotinib, act on a distinct subset of dysregulated, and often cancer-relevant kinases. Imatinib, gefitinib and erlotinib are considered the front-runners of targeted kinase inhibitor drugs. The entire research field gains tremendous insights through the ongoing research and clinical trials with these three drugs and with fast following first-generation kinase inhibitors, many of which are in different phases of clinical development. In addition, novel chemogenomic and chemoproteomic technologies are emanating from the current kinase research area, focussing efforts on the generation of spectrum-selective inhibitors for anticancer therapies as opposed to the monospecific inhibitors for the remaining therapeutic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert M Klebl
- GPC Biotech AG, Max-Lebsche-Platz 32, D-81377 Munich, Germany.
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123
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Daub H. Characterisation of kinase-selective inhibitors by chemical proteomics. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1754:183-90. [PMID: 16198161 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2005] [Revised: 07/21/2005] [Accepted: 07/22/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Low-molecular-weight inhibitors of protein kinases are extensively used as research tools in signal transduction analysis and constitute a rapidly growing class of therapeutics for targeted intervention in human diseases. To determine how kinase-selective drugs interfere with cellular physiology on the molecular level, experimental strategies relying on the affinity capture of cellular targets in combination with protein identification by mass spectrometry have been established for a variety of kinase inhibitors. Importantly, these chemical proteomic methods permit the direct analysis of kinase inhibitor selectivity in biological systems and have led to new insights into the cellular modes of action of kinase-selective small molecule antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Daub
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18A, 82152 Martinried, Germany.
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124
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Naula C, Parsons M, Mottram JC. Protein kinases as drug targets in trypanosomes and Leishmania. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1754:151-9. [PMID: 16198642 PMCID: PMC1452262 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Revised: 08/08/2005] [Accepted: 08/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinases represent promising drug targets for a number of human and animal diseases. The recent completion of the sequenced genomes of three human-infective trypanosomatid protozoa, Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi, has allowed the kinome for each parasite to be defined as 179, 156 and 171 eukaryotic protein kinases respectively, that is about one third of the human complement. The analysis revealed that the trypanosomatids lack members of the receptor-linked or cytosolic tyrosine kinase families, but have an abundance of STE and CMGC family protein kinases likely to be involved in regulating cell cycle control, differentiation and response to stress during their complex life-cycles. In this review, we examine the prospects for exploiting differences between parasite and mammalian protein kinases to develop novel anti-parasitic chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Naula
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, The Anderson College, 56 Dumbarton Road, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6NU, UK
| | - Marilyn Parsons
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Ave. N., Seattle, WA, 98109 USA
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195 USA
| | - Jeremy C. Mottram
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, The Anderson College, 56 Dumbarton Road, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6NU, UK
- *Corresponding author:
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125
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Abstract
Two genes are synthetic lethal if mutation of either alone is compatible with viability but mutation of both leads to death. So, targeting a gene that is synthetic lethal to a cancer-relevant mutation should kill only cancer cells and spare normal cells. Synthetic lethality therefore provides a conceptual framework for the development of cancer-specific cytotoxic agents. This paradigm has not been exploited in the past because there were no robust methods for systematically identifying synthetic lethal genes. This is changing as a result of the increased availability of chemical and genetic tools for perturbing gene function in somatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- William G Kaelin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 44 Binney Street, Mayer 457, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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126
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Luesch H, Wu TYH, Ren P, Gray NS, Schultz PG, Supek F. A genome-wide overexpression screen in yeast for small-molecule target identification. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 12:55-63. [PMID: 15664515 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2004] [Revised: 09/14/2004] [Accepted: 10/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We describe a multicopy gene suppression screen of drug sensitivity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that facilitates the identification of cellular targets of small molecules. An array of yeast transformants harboring a multicopy yeast genomic library was screened for resistance to growth inhibitors. Comparison of array growth patterns for several such inhibitors allowed the differentiation of general and molecule-specific genetic suppressors. Specific resistance to phenylaminopyrimidine (1), an inhibitor identified from a kinase-directed library, was associated with the overexpression of Pkc1 and a subset of downstream kinases. Components of two other pathways (pheromone response/filamentous growth and Pho85 kinase) that genetically interact with the PKC1 MAPK signaling cascade were also identified. Consistent with the suppression screen, inhibitor 1 bound to Pkc1 in yeast cell lysate and inhibited its activity in vitro. These results demonstrate the utility of this approach for the rapid deconvolution of small-molecule targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Luesch
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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127
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Donald RGK, Zhong T, Meijer L, Liberator PA. Characterization of two T. gondii CK1 isoforms. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 141:15-27. [PMID: 15811523 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2004] [Revised: 10/14/2004] [Accepted: 01/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous affinity chromatography experiments have described the unexpected binding of an isoform of casein kinase I (CK1) from Leishmania mexicana, Trypanosoma cruzi, Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii to an immobilized cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor (purvalanol B). In order to further evaluate CK1 as a potential anti-parasitic target, two T. gondii CK1 genes were cloned by PCR using primers derived from a putative CK1 gene fragment identified from a T. gondii EST database. The genes are predicted to encode a smaller polypeptide of 38 kDa (TgCK1alpha) and larger 49 kDa isoform bearing a C-terminal extension (TgCK1beta). Enzymatically active recombinant FLAG-epitope tagged TgCK1alpha and TgCK1beta enzymes were immuno-precipitated from transiently transfected T. gondii parasites. While TgCK1alpha expression was found to be cytosolic, TgCK1beta was expressed predominantly at the plasma membrane. Deletion mapping showed that the C-terminal domain of TgCK1beta confers this membrane-association. Recombinant TgCK1alpha and TgCK1beta isoforms were also expressed in E. coli and biochemically characterized. A 38kDa native CK1 activity was partially purified from T. gondii tachyzoites by ion-exchange and hydrophobic interaction chromatography with biochemical and serological properties closely resembling those of recombinant TgCK1alpha. In contrast, we were not able to identify a native CK1 activity corresponding to the larger TgCK1beta 49 kDa isoform in tachyzoite lysates. Purvalanol B and the related compound aminopurvalanol A selectively inhibit TgCK1alpha, confirming the existence of potentially exploitable structural differences between host and parasite CK1 enzymes. Since the more cell-permeable aminopurvalanol also inhibits parasite growth, these results provide further impetus to investigate inhibitors of CK1 as anti-parasitic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G K Donald
- Department of Human/Animal Infectious Disease Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., P.O. Box 2000, R80Y-260, Rahway, NJ 07065-0900, USA.
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128
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Tang L, Li MH, Cao P, Wang F, Chang WR, Bach S, Reinhardt J, Ferandin Y, Galons H, Wan Y, Gray N, Meijer L, Jiang T, Liang DC. Crystal structure of pyridoxal kinase in complex with roscovitine and derivatives. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:31220-9. [PMID: 15985434 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m500805200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyridoxal kinase (PDXK) catalyzes the phosphorylation of pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and pyridoxine in the presence of ATP and Zn2+. This constitutes an essential step in the synthesis of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), the active form of vitamin B6, a cofactor for over 140 enzymes. (R)-Roscovitine (CYC202, Seliciclib) is a relatively selective inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), currently evaluated for the treatment of cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, renal diseases, and several viral infections. Affinity chromatography investigations have shown that (R)-roscovitine also interacts with PDXK. To understand this interaction, we determined the crystal structure of PDXK in complex with (R)-roscovitine, N6-methyl-(R)-roscovitine, and O6-(R)-roscovitine, the two latter derivatives being designed to bind to PDXK but not to CDKs. Structural analysis revealed that these three roscovitines bind similarly in the pyridoxal-binding site of PDXK rather than in the anticipated ATP-binding site. The pyridoxal pocket has thus an unexpected ability to accommodate molecules different from and larger than pyridoxal. This work provides detailed structural information on the interactions between PDXK and roscovitine and analogs. It could also aid in the design of roscovitine derivatives displaying strict selectivity for either PDXK or CDKs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Tang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China
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129
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Bach S, Knockaert M, Reinhardt J, Lozach O, Schmitt S, Baratte B, Koken M, Coburn SP, Tang L, Jiang T, Liang DC, Galons H, Dierick JF, Pinna LA, Meggio F, Totzke F, Schächtele C, Lerman AS, Carnero A, Wan Y, Gray N, Meijer L. Roscovitine targets, protein kinases and pyridoxal kinase. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:31208-19. [PMID: 15975926 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m500806200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
(R)-Roscovitine (CYC202) is often referred to as a "selective inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases." Besides its use as a biological tool in cell cycle, neuronal functions, and apoptosis studies, it is currently evaluated as a potential drug to treat cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, viral infections, and glomerulonephritis. We have investigated the selectivity of (R)-roscovitine using three different methods: 1) testing on a wide panel of purified kinases that, along with previously published data, now reaches 151 kinases; 2) identifying roscovitine-binding proteins from various tissue and cell types following their affinity chromatography purification on immobilized roscovitine; 3) investigating the effects of roscovitine on cells deprived of one of its targets, CDK2. Altogether, the results show that (R)-roscovitine is rather selective for CDKs, in fact most kinases are not affected. However, it binds an unexpected, non-protein kinase target, pyridoxal kinase, the enzyme responsible for phosphorylation and activation of vitamin B6. These results could help in interpreting the cellular actions of (R)-roscovitine but also in guiding the synthesis of more selective roscovitine analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Bach
- CNRS, Cell Cycle Group, UPS 2682 & UMR 2775, Station Biologique, BP 74, 29682 Roscoff cedex, Bretagne, France
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130
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Knight ZA, Shokat KM. Features of Selective Kinase Inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 12:621-37. [PMID: 15975507 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 498] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2005] [Revised: 04/12/2005] [Accepted: 04/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Small-molecule inhibitors of protein and lipid kinases have emerged as indispensable tools for studying signal transduction. Despite the widespread use of these reagents, there is little consensus about the biochemical criteria that define their potency and selectivity in cells. We discuss some of the features that determine the cellular activity of kinase inhibitors and propose a framework for interpreting inhibitor selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A Knight
- Program in Chemistry and Chemical Biology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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131
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Snyder JR, Hall A, Ni-Komatsu L, Khersonsky SM, Chang YT, Orlow SJ. Dissection of Melanogenesis with Small Molecules Identifies Prohibitin as a Regulator. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 12:477-84. [PMID: 15850985 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2004] [Revised: 01/08/2005] [Accepted: 02/16/2005] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive compounds can be used to selectively modulate gene function. We utilized a chemical genetic approach to dissect the mammalian pigmentation pathway and identify protein regulators. We screened a tagged library of 1170 small molecules in a cell-based assay and discovered a class of pigment-enhancing chemicals. From this class we characterized the small molecule melanogenin. Using melanogenin bound to an affinity matrix and amino acid sequencing, we identified the mitochondrial protein, prohibitin, as an intracellular binding target. Studies employing siRNA demonstrate that prohibitin is required for melanogenin to exert its propigmentary effects and reveal an unsuspected functional role for this protein in melanin induction. This represents a mechanism by which propigmentary signals are transduced and ultimately provides a potential target for the treatment of pigmentary disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane R Snyder
- The Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University, New York 10016, USA
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132
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Kung C, Kenski DM, Dickerson SH, Howson RW, Kuyper LF, Madhani HD, Shokat KM. Chemical genomic profiling to identify intracellular targets of a multiplex kinase inhibitor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:3587-92. [PMID: 15738404 PMCID: PMC552777 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0407170102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification of the kinase or kinases targeted by protein kinase inhibitors is a critical challenge in validating their use as therapeutic agents or molecular probes. Here, to address this problem, we describe a chemical genomics strategy that uses a direct comparison between microarray transcriptional signatures elicited by an inhibitor of unknown specificity and those elicited by highly specific pharmacological inhibition of engineered candidate kinase targets. By using this approach, we have identified two cyclin-dependent kinases, Cdk1 and Pho85, as the targets of the inhibitor GW400426 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We demonstrate that simultaneous inhibition of Cdk1 and Pho85, and not inhibition of either kinase alone, by GW400426 controls the expression of specific transcripts involved in polarized cell growth, thus revealing a cellular process that is uniquely sensitive to the multiplex inhibition of these two kinases. Our results suggest that the cellular responses induced by multiplex protein kinase inhibitors may be an emergent property that cannot be understood fully by considering only the sum of individual inhibitor-kinase interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Kung
- Computational, Analytical, and Structural Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, 5 Moore Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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133
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Abstract
The identification of the cellular targets of small-molecule protein kinase inhibitors is a significant hurdle to assessing their therapeutic potential for many diseases. Here we review several biochemical and genetics-based approaches to identifying inhibitor targets. We also describe a chemical-genomics approach to kinase-inhibitor target identification and validation that matches transcriptional signatures elicited by a drug of unknown specificity and those elicited by highly specific pharmacological inhibition of engineered candidate kinase targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Kung
- Chemistry and Chemical Biology Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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134
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Kley N. Chemical dimerizers and three-hybrid systems: scanning the proteome for targets of organic small molecules. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 11:599-608. [PMID: 15157871 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2003.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The integration of technological advances in areas as diverse as chemical biology, proteomics, genomics, automation, and bioinformatics has led to the emergence of novel screening paradigms for analyzing the molecular basis of drug action. This review summarizes recent advances in three-hybrid technologies and their application to the characterization of small molecule-protein interactions and proteome-wide identification of drug receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Kley
- GPC Biotech Inc., 610 Lincoln Street, Waltham, MA 02451 USA.
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135
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Daub H, Godl K, Brehmer D, Klebl B, Müller G. Evaluation of kinase inhibitor selectivity by chemical proteomics. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2004; 2:215-24. [PMID: 15165517 DOI: 10.1089/154065804323056558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Small-molecule inhibitors of protein kinases constitute a novel class of drugs for therapeutic intervention in a variety of human diseases. Most of these agents target the relatively conserved ATP-binding site of protein kinases and have only been tested against a rather small subset of all human protein kinases. Therefore, the selectivity of protein kinase inhibitors has remained a widely underestimated, but highly important issue in drug development programs. In this review, we focus on the recent advancement of chemical proteomic methods to evaluate drug selectivity in an unbiased, comprehensive way. Efficient affinity purification procedures using immobilized kinase inhibitors combined with the sensitivity of mass spectrometry detection permit the mapping of drug targets on a proteome-wide scale. Data from this type of assessment can be used to set up tailor-made selectivity panels, which guide compound development in the context of the most relevant off-targets during lead optimization. In cases in which identified alternative targets are of validated clinical relevance, chemical proteomics provides the opportunity to repeatedly exploit a once established kinase inhibitor principle for additional target kinases and can thereby dramatically shorten the time toward highly selective, preclinical candidates. Moreover, the identification of alternative targets for preclinical or clinical drugs can provide new insights into their cellular modes of action, which might help to define those disease settings in which the most beneficial therapeutic effect is likely to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Daub
- Axxima Pharmaceuticals AG, München, Germany.
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136
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Abstract
Small molecule protein kinase inhibitors are widely employed as biological reagents and as leads in the design of drugs for a variety of diseases. One of the hardest challenges in kinase inhibitor design is achieving target selectivity. By utilizing X-ray structural information for four promiscuous inhibitors, we propose a five-point pharmacophore for kinase frequent hitters, demonstrate its ability to discriminate between frequent hitters and selective ligands, and suggest a strategy for selective inhibitor design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Aronov
- Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139-4242, USA.
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137
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Wissing J, Godl K, Brehmer D, Blencke S, Weber M, Habenberger P, Stein-Gerlach M, Missio A, Cotten M, Müller S, Daub H. Chemical proteomic analysis reveals alternative modes of action for pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine kinase inhibitors. Mol Cell Proteomics 2004; 3:1181-93. [PMID: 15475568 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m400124-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Small molecule inhibitors belonging to the pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine class of compounds were developed as antagonists of protein tyrosine kinases implicated in cancer progression. Derivatives from this compound class are effective against most of the imatinib mesylate-resistant BCR-ABL mutants isolated from advanced chronic myeloid leukemia patients. Here, we established an efficient proteomics method employing an immobilized pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine ligand as an affinity probe and identified more than 30 human protein kinases affected by this class of compounds. Remarkably, in vitro kinase assays revealed that the serine/threonine kinases Rip-like interacting caspase-like apoptosis-regulatory protein kinase (RICK) and p38alpha were among the most potently inhibited kinase targets. Thus, pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidines did not discriminate between tyrosine and serine/threonine kinases. Instead, we found that these inhibitors are quite selective for protein kinases possessing a conserved small amino acid residue such as threonine at a critical site of the ATP binding pocket. We further demonstrated inhibition of both p38 and RICK kinase activities in intact cells upon pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine inhibitor treatment. Moreover, the established functions of these two kinases as signal transducers of inflammatory responses could be correlated with a potent in vivo inhibition of cytokine production by a pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine compound. Thus, our data demonstrate the utility of proteomic methods employing immobilized kinase inhibitors for identifying new targets linked to previously unrecognized therapeutic applications.
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138
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Klebl BM. Chemical kinomics - a target gene family approach in chemical biology. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2004; 1:25-34. [PMID: 24981264 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2004.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, protein kinases have been regarded as non-druggable targets, instead they play a central role in physiological and pathophysiological processes. This changed when STI571, an inhibitor of the Bcr-Abl kinase, known as Gleevec, reached the market as the first designer drug. Ever since, kinase-directed research and development (R&D) expanded rapidly, leading to more than 45 clinically relevant kinase inhibitors. At a comparable pace the kinase-based technologies matured, cumulating in the development of sophisticated chemogenetic and chemoproteomic tools, which are referred to as chemical kinomics.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert M Klebl
- Axxima Pharmaceuticals AG, Max-Lebsche-Platz 32, 81377, Munich, Germany.
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139
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Szardenings K, Li B, Ma L, Wu M. Fishing for targets: novel approaches using small molecule baits. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2004; 1:9-15. [PMID: 24981262 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2004.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
New technologies for target identification have emerged in the past few years. Driven by the development of novel proteomic tools and advances in analytical techniques, three new approaches have been successfully applied to drug discovery efforts by determining targets and off-targets. Recent progress in labeling live cells with activity-based probes will further aide a deeper understanding of the interaction of small molecules with a complex biological system on a molecular level.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Szardenings
- ActivX Biosciences, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Bei Li
- ActivX Biosciences, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Lifu Ma
- ActivX Biosciences, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Min Wu
- ActivX Biosciences, 11025 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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140
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Grant KM, Dunion MH, Yardley V, Skaltsounis AL, Marko D, Eisenbrand G, Croft SL, Meijer L, Mottram JC. Inhibitors of Leishmania mexicana CRK3 cyclin-dependent kinase: chemical library screen and antileishmanial activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:3033-42. [PMID: 15273118 PMCID: PMC478496 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.8.3033-3042.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2004] [Accepted: 04/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The CRK3 cyclin-dependent kinase of Leishmania has been shown by genetic manipulation of the parasite to be essential for proliferation. We present data which demonstrate that chemical inhibition of CRK3 impairs the parasite's viability within macrophages, thus further validating CRK3 as a potential drug target. A microtiter plate-based histone H1 kinase assay was developed to screen CRK3 against a chemical library enriched for protein kinase inhibitors. Twenty-seven potent CRK3 inhibitors were discovered and screened against Leishmania donovani amastigotes in vitro. Sixteen of the CRK3 inhibitors displayed antileishmanial activity, with a 50% effective dose (ED50) of less than 10 microM. These compounds fell into four chemical classes: the 2,6,9-trisubstituted purines, including the C-2-alkynylated purines; the indirubins; the paullones; and derivatives of the nonspecific kinase inhibitor staurosporine. The paullones and staurosporine derivatives were toxic to macrophages. The 2,6,9-trisubstituted purines inhibited CRK3 in vitro, with 50% inhibitory concentrations ranging from high nanomolar to low micromolar concentrations. The most potent inhibitors of CRK3 (compounds 98/516 and 97/344) belonged to the indirubin class; the 50% inhibitory concentrations for these inhibitors were 16 and 47 nM, respectively, and the ED50s for these inhibitors were 5.8 and 7.6 microM, respectively. In culture, the indirubins caused growth arrest, a change in DNA content, and aberrant cell types, all consistent with the intracellular inhibition of a cyclin-dependent kinase and disruption of cell cycle control. Thus, use of chemical inhibitors supports genetic studies to confirm CRK3 as a validated drug target in Leishmania and provides pharmacophores for further drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Grant
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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141
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Monaco EA, Beaman-Hall CM, Mathur A, Vallano ML. Roscovitine, olomoucine, purvalanol: inducers of apoptosis in maturing cerebellar granule neurons. Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 67:1947-64. [PMID: 15130771 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2003] [Accepted: 02/02/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) mediate proliferation and neuronal development, while aberrant CDK activity is associated with cancer and neurodegeneration. Consequently, pharmacologic inhibitors, such as 2,6,9-trisubstituted purines, which potently inhibit CDKs 1, 2, and 5, were developed to combat these pathologies. One agent, R-roscovitine (CYC202), has advanced to clinical trials as a potential cancer therapy. In primary neuronal cultures, these agents have been used to delineate the physiologic and pathologic functions of CDKs, and associated signaling pathways. Herein we demonstrate that three 2,6,9-trisubstituted purines: olomoucine, roscovitine, and purvalanol, used at concentrations ascribed by others to potently inhibit CDKs 1, 2, and 5, are powerful triggers of death in maturing cerebellar granule neurons, assessed by loss of mitochondrial reductive capacity and differential staining with fluorescent indicators of living/dead neurons. Based on several criteria, including delayed time course and establishment of an irreversible commitment point of death, pyknotic cell and nuclear morphology, and caspase-3 cleavage, the death process is apoptotic. However, pharmacological and biochemical data indicate that apoptosis is independent of CDK 1, 2, or 5 inhibition. This is based on the pattern of changes in c-jun mRNA, c-Jun protein, and Ca(2+)/cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, and also, the ineffectiveness of structurally distinct CDK 1, 2, and 5 inhibitors butyrolactone-1 and PNU112445A to induce apoptosis. Collectively, our results, and those of others, indicate that the CDK regulation of transcription (CDKs 7 and 9) should be examined as a target of these agents, and as an indirect mediator of neuronal fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward A Monaco
- Department of Neuroscience & Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
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142
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Kumar A, Vaid A, Syin C, Sharma P. PfPKB, a Novel Protein Kinase B-like Enzyme from Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:24255-64. [PMID: 15024016 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m312855200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular signals control various important functions of a eukaryotic cell, which is often achieved by regulating a battery of protein kinases and phosphatases. Protein Kinase B (PKB) is an important member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent signaling pathways in several eukaryotes, but the role of PKB in protozoan parasites is not known. We have identified a protein kinase B homologue in Plasmodium falciparum (PfPKB) that is expressed mainly in the schizonts and merozoites. Even though PfPKB shares high sequence homology with PKB catalytic domain, it lacks a pleckstrin homology domain typically found at the N terminus of the mammalian enzyme. Biochemical studies performed to understand the mechanism of PfPKB catalytic activation suggested (i) its activation is dependent on autophosphorylation of a serine residue (Ser-271) in its activation loop region and (ii) PfPKB has an unusual N-terminal region that was found to negatively regulate its catalytic activity. We also identified an inhibitor of PfPKB activity that also inhibits P. falciparum growth, suggesting that this enzyme may be important for the development of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar
- Eukaryotic Gene Expression Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi 110067, India
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143
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Kley N, Ivanov I, Meier-Ewert S. Genomics and proteomics tools for compound mode-of-action studies in drug discovery. Pharmacogenomics 2004; 5:395-404. [PMID: 15165175 DOI: 10.1517/14622416.5.4.395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
A broad range of genomics and proteomics technologies are increasingly being integrated into emerging research fields such as pharmacogenomics, pharmacoproteomics, chemogenomics, chemical genetics, and chemical biology. Here we review applications of genomic and proteomic technologies to drug mechanism-of-action studies and how these are beginning to impact the drug discovery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Kley
- GPC Biotech, Inc, 610 Lincoln Street, Waltham MA 02451, USA. nikolai.kley@ gpc-biotech.com
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144
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Droucheau E, Primot A, Thomas V, Mattei D, Knockaert M, Richardson C, Sallicandro P, Alano P, Jafarshad A, Baratte B, Kunick C, Parzy D, Pearl L, Doerig C, Meijer L. Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase-3: molecular model, expression, intracellular localisation and selective inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2004; 1697:181-96. [PMID: 15023360 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2003.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2003] [Accepted: 11/12/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide increasing resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to common anti-malaria agents calls for the urgent identification of new drugs. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) represents a potential screening target for the identification of such new compounds. We have cloned PfGSK-3, the P. falciparum gene homologue of GSK-3 beta. It encodes a 452-amino-acid, 53-kDa protein with an unusual N-terminal extension but a well-conserved catalytic domain. A PfGSK-3 tridimensional homology model was generated on the basis of the recently crystallised human GSK-3 beta. It illustrates how the regions involved in the active site, in substrate binding (P+4 phosphate binding domain) and in activity regulation are highly conserved. Recombinant PfGSK-3 phosphorylates GS-1, a GSK-3-specific peptide substrate, glycogen synthase, recombinant axin and the microtubule-binding protein tau. Neither native nor recombinant PfGSK-3 binds to axin. Expression and intracellular localisation of PfGSK-3 were investigated in the erythrocytic stages. Although PfGSK-3 mRNA is present in similar amounts at all stages, the PfGSK-3 protein is predominantly expressed at the early trophozoite stage. Once synthesized, PfGSK-3 is rapidly transported to the erythrocyte cytoplasm where it associates with vesicle-like structures. The physiological functions of PfGSK-3 for the parasite remain to be elucidated. A series of GSK-3 beta inhibitors were tested on both PfGSK-3 and mammalian GSK-3beta. Remarkably these enzymes show a partially divergent sensitivity to the compounds, suggesting that PfGSK-3 selective compounds might be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliane Droucheau
- C.N.R.S., Cell Cycle Group, Station Biologique, B.P. 74, 29682 Roscoff cedex, Bretagne, France
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145
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Doerig C. Protein kinases as targets for anti-parasitic chemotherapy. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2004; 1697:155-68. [PMID: 15023358 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2003.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2003] [Accepted: 11/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic protozoa infecting humans have a staggering impact on public health, especially in the developing world. Furthermore, several protozoan species are major pathogens of domestic animals and have a considerable impact on food production. In many instances, the parasites have developed resistance against available chemotherapeutic agents, making the search for alternative drugs a priority. In line with the current interest in protein kinases inhibitors as potential drugs against a variety of diseases, the possibility that protein kinases may represent targets for novel anti-parasitic agents is being explored. Research into parasite protein kinases has benefited greatly from genome and EST sequencing projects, with the genomes of a few species fully sequenced (notably that of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum) and several more under way. The overall picture that emerged from research in this area shows that the phylogenetic isolation of parasitic protozoa is reflected by atypical structural and functional properties of many of their protein kinase homologues. Likewise, evidence is emerging, which suggests that the organisation of some otherwise well-conserved signal transduction pathways is divergent in some parasitic species. The differences between protein kinases of a parasite and their homologues in its host cell suggest that specific inhibition of the former can be achieved. The development of anti-parasitic drugs based on protein kinase inhibition is being pursued following two avenues: one consists of screening chemical libraries on recombinant enzymes; several protein kinases from parasitic protozoa are now available for this approach. The second approach relies on the identification of the molecular targets of kinase inhibitors which display anti-parasitic properties. This has led to promising developments in a few instances, in particular regarding PKG as a drug target against Eimeria and Toxoplasma, and purvalanol B, a purine-based CDK inhibitor which appears to affect unexpected targets in several protozoan parasites. The recent resolution of the structure of a Plasmodium protein kinase complexed with small inhibitory molecules opens the way to a rational approach towards the design of anti-parasitic drugs based on kinase inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Doerig
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, INSERM, 56 Dumbarton Road, Glasgow G11 6NU, Scotland, UK.
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146
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Brehmer D, Godl K, Zech B, Wissing J, Daub H. Proteome-wide Identification of Cellular Targets Affected by Bisindolylmaleimide-type Protein Kinase C Inhibitors. Mol Cell Proteomics 2004; 3:490-500. [PMID: 14769951 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m300139-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Bisindolylmaleimide compounds such as GF109203X are potent inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC) activity. Although bisindolylmaleimides are not entirely selective for PKC and are known to inhibit a few other protein kinases, these reagents have been extensively used to study the functional roles of PKC family enzymes in cellular signal transduction for more than a decade. Here, we establish a proteomics approach to gain further insights into the cellular effects of this compound class. Functional immobilization of suitable bisindolylmaleimide analogues in combination with the specific purification of cellular binding proteins by affinity chromatography led to the identification of several known and previously unknown enzyme targets. Subsequent in vitro binding and activity assays confirmed the protein kinases Ste20-related kinase and cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and the non-protein kinases adenosine kinase and quinone reductase type 2 as novel targets of bisindolylmaleimide inhibitors. As observed specifically for CDK2, minor chemical variation of the ligand by immobilizing the closely related bisindolylmaleimides III, VIII, and X dramatically affected target binding. These observed changes in affinity correlated with both the measured IC(50) values for in vitro CDK2 inhibition and results from molecular docking into the CDK2 crystal structure. Moreover, the conditions for affinity purification could be adapted in a way that immobilized bisindolylmaleimide III selectively interacted with either PKC alpha or ribosomal S6 protein kinase 1 only after activation of these kinases. Thus, we have established an efficient technique for the rapid identification of cellular bisindolylmaleimide targets and further demonstrate the comparative selectivity profiling of closely related kinase inhibitors within a cellular proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Brehmer
- Axxima Pharmaceuticals AG, Max-Lebsche-Platz 32, 81377 Munich, Germany
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147
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Whittaker SR, Walton MI, Garrett MD, Workman P. The Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor CYC202 (R-roscovitine) inhibits retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation, causes loss of Cyclin D1, and activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Cancer Res 2004; 64:262-72. [PMID: 14729633 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-0110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Deregulation of the cell cycle commonly occurs during tumorigenesis, resulting in unrestricted cell proliferation and independence from mitogens. Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors have the potential to induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in cancer cells. CYC202 (R-roscovitine) is a potent inhibitor of CDK2/cyclin E that is undergoing clinical trials. Drugs selected to act on a particular molecular target may exert additional or alternative effects in intact cells. We therefore studied the molecular pharmacology of CYC202 in human colon cancer cells. Treatment of HT29 and KM12 colon carcinoma cell lines with CYC202 decreased both retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation and total retinoblastoma protein. In addition, an increase in the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 was observed. As a result, downstream activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway occurred, as demonstrated by an increase in ELK-1 phosphorylation and in c-FOS expression. Use of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases 1/2 inhibitors showed that the CYC202-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 phosphorylation was mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases 1/2 dependent but did not contribute to the cell cycle effects of the drug, which included a reduction of cells in G(1), inhibition of bromodeoxyuridine incorporation during S-phase, and a moderate increase in G(2)-M phase. Despite activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, cyclin D1 protein levels were decreased by CYC202, an effect that occurred simultaneously with loss of retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation and inhibition of cell cycle progression. The reduced expression of cyclin D1 protein was independent of the p38(SAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways, which are known regulators of cyclin D1 protein. Interestingly, CYC202 caused a clear reduction in cyclins D1, A, and B1 mRNA, whereas c-FOS mRNA increased by 2-fold. This was accompanied by a loss of RNA polymerase II phosphorylation and total RNA polymerase II protein, suggesting that CYC202 was inhibiting transcription, possibly via inhibition of CDK7 and CDK9 complexes. It can be concluded that although CYC202 can act as a CDK2 inhibitor, it also has the potential to inhibit CDK4 and CDK1 activities in cancer cells through the down-regulation of the corresponding cyclin partners. This provides a possible mechanism by which CYC202 can cause a reduction in retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation at multiple sites and cell cycle arrest in G(1), S, and G(2)-M phases. In addition to providing useful insights into the molecular pharmacology of CYC202 in human cancer cells, the results also suggest potential pharmacodynamic end points for use in clinical trials with the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Whittaker
- Cancer Research UK Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Haddow Laboratories, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG, United Kingdom
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148
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Wan Y, Hur W, Cho CY, Liu Y, Adrian FJ, Lozach O, Bach S, Mayer T, Fabbro D, Meijer L, Gray NS. Synthesis and Target Identification of Hymenialdisine Analogs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 11:247-59. [PMID: 15123286 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2003] [Revised: 11/18/2003] [Accepted: 11/24/2003] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Hymenialdisine (HMD) is a sponge-derived natural product kinase inhibitor with nanomolar activity against CDKs, Mek1, GSK3beta, and CK1 and micromolar activity against Chk1. In order to explore the broader application of the pyrrolo[2,3-c]azepine skeleton of HMD as a general kinase inhibitory scaffold, we searched for additional protein targets using affinity chromatography in conjunction with the synthesis of diverse HMD analogs and profiled HMD against a panel of 60 recombinant enzymes. This effort has led to nanomolar to micromolar inhibitors of 11 new targets including p90RSK, KDR, c-Kit, Fes, MAPK1, PAK2, PDK1, PKCtheta, PKD2, Rsk1, and SGK. The synthesis of HMD analogs has resulted in the identification of compounds with enhanced and/or dramatically altered selectivities relative to HMD (28n) and in molecules with antiproliferative activities 30-fold higher than HMD (28p).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqin Wan
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, Department of Chemistry, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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149
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Becker F, Murthi K, Smith C, Come J, Costa-Roldán N, Kaufmann C, Hanke U, Degenhart C, Baumann S, Wallner W, Huber A, Dedier S, Dill S, Kinsman D, Hediger M, Bockovich N, Meier-Ewert S, Kluge AF, Kley N. A Three-Hybrid Approach to Scanning the Proteome for Targets of Small Molecule Kinase Inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 11:211-23. [PMID: 15123283 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2003] [Revised: 11/18/2003] [Accepted: 11/19/2003] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we explored the application of a yeast three-hybrid (Y3H)-based compound/protein display system to scanning the proteome for targets of kinase inhibitors. Various known cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, including purine and indenopyrazole analogs, were displayed in the form of methotrexate-based hybrid ligands and deployed in cDNA library or yeast cell array-based screening formats. For all inhibitors, known cell cycle CDKs as well as novel candidate CDK-like and/or CDK-unrelated kinase targets could be identified, many of which were independently confirmed using secondary enzyme assays and affinity chromatography. The Y3H system described here may prove generally useful in the discovery of candidate drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Becker
- GPC Biotech AG, 20 Fraunhoferstrasse, Planegg/Martinsried 82152, Germany
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150
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Wignall SM, Gray NS, Chang YT, Juarez L, Jacob R, Al Burlingame, Schultz PG, Heald R. Identification of a Novel Protein Regulating Microtubule Stability through a Chemical Approach. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2003.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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