Loss of Klotho contributes to kidney injury by derepression of Wnt/β-catenin signaling

Glutathione is an aging-related metabolic signature in the mouse kidney

The ability to maintain systemic metabolic homeostasis through various mechanisms represents a crucial strength of kidneys in the study of metabolic syndrome or aging. Moreover, age-associated kidney failure has been widely accepted. However, efforts to demonstrate aging-dependent renal metabolic rewiring have been limited. In the present study, we investigated aging-related renal metabolic determinants by integrating metabolomic and transcriptomic data sets from kidneys of young (3 months, n = 7 and 3 for respectively) and old (24 months, n = 8 and 3 for respectively) naive C57BL/6 male mice. Metabolite profiling analysis was conducted, followed by data processing via network and pathway analyses, to identify differential metabolites. In the aged group, the levels of glutathione and oxidized glutathione were significantly increased, but the levels of gamma-glutamyl amino acids, amino acids combined with the gamma-glutamyl moiety from glutathione by membrane transpeptidases, and circulating glutathione levels were decreased. In transcriptomic analysis, differential expression of metabolic enzymes is consistent with the hypothesis of aging-dependent rewiring in renal glutathione metabolism; pathway and network analyses further revealed the increased expression of immune-related genes in the aged group. Collectively, our integrative analysis results revealed that defective renal glutathione metabolism is a signature of renal aging. Therefore, we hypothesize that restraining renal glutathione metabolism might alleviate or delay age-associated renal metabolic deterioration, and aberrant activation of the renal immune system.

Targeting the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway as a Potential Therapeutic Strategy in Renal Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway plays important roles in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Wnt signaling is induced, and β-catenin is activated, associated with the development and progression of renal fibrosis. Wnt/β-catenin controls the expression of various downstream mediators such as snail1, twist, matrix metalloproteinase-7, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, transient receptor potential canonical 6, and renin-angiotensin system components in epithelial cells, fibroblast, and macrophages. In addition, Wnt/β-catenin is usually intertwined with other signaling pathways to promote renal interstitial fibrosis. Actually, given the crucial of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in renal fibrogenesis, blocking this signaling may benefit renal interstitial fibrosis. There are several antagonists of Wnt signaling that negatively control Wnt activation, and these include soluble Fzd-related proteins, the family of Dickkopf 1 proteins, Klotho and Wnt inhibitory factor-1. Furthermore, numerous emerging small-molecule β-catenin inhibitors cannot be ignored to prevent and treat renal fibrosis. Moreover, we reviewed the knowledge focusing on anti-fibrotic effects of natural products commonly used in kidney disease by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Therefore, in this review, we summarize recent advances in the regulation, downstream targets, role, and mechanisms of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in renal fibrosis pathogenesis. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting this pathway to treat renal fibrosis; this may shed new insights into effective treatment strategies to prevent and treat renal fibrosis.

Negative regulators of TGF-β1 signaling in renal fibrosis; pathological mechanisms and novel therapeutic opportunities

Elevated expression of the multifunctional cytokine transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) is causatively linked to kidney fibrosis progression initiated by diabetic, hypertensive, obstructive, ischemic and toxin-induced injury. Therapeutically relevant approaches to directly target the TGF-β1 pathway (e.g., neutralizing antibodies against TGF-β1), however, remain elusive in humans. TGF-β1 signaling is subjected to extensive negative control at the level of TGF-β1 receptor, SMAD2/3 activation, complex assembly and promoter engagement due to its critical role in tissue homeostasis and numerous pathologies. Progressive kidney injury is accompanied by the deregulation (loss or gain of expression) of several negative regulators of the TGF-β1 signaling cascade by mechanisms involving protein and mRNA stability or epigenetic silencing, further amplifying TGF-β1/SMAD3 signaling and fibrosis. Expression of bone morphogenetic proteins 6 and 7 (BMP6/7), SMAD7, Sloan-Kettering Institute proto-oncogene (Ski) and Ski-related novel gene (SnoN), phosphate tensin homolog on chromosome 10 (PTEN), protein phosphatase magnesium/manganese dependent 1A (PPM1A) and Klotho are dramatically decreased in various nephropathies in animals and humans albeit with different kinetics while the expression of Smurf1/2 E3 ligases are increased. Such deregulations frequently initiate maladaptive renal repair including renal epithelial cell dedifferentiation and growth arrest, fibrotic factor (connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2), plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1), TGF-β1) synthesis/secretion, fibroproliferative responses and inflammation. This review addresses how loss of these negative regulators of TGF-β1 pathway exacerbates renal lesion formation and discusses the therapeutic value in restoring the expression of these molecules in ameliorating fibrosis, thus, presenting novel approaches to suppress TGF-β1 hyperactivation during chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression.

Circulating α-klotho regulates metabolism via distinct central and peripheral mechanisms

Emerging evidence implicates the circulating α-klotho protein as a prominent regulator of energy balance and substrate metabolism, with diverse, tissue-specific functions. Despite its well-documented ubiquitous role inhibiting insulin signaling, α-klotho elicits potent antidiabetic and anti-obesogenic effects. α-Klotho facilitates insulin release and promotes β cell health in the pancreas, stimulates lipid oxidation in liver and adipose tissue, attenuates hepatic gluconeogenesis, and increases whole-body energy expenditure. The mechanisms underlying α-klotho's peripheral functions are multifaceted, including hydrolyzing transient receptor potential channels, stimulating integrin β1➔focal adhesion kinase signaling, and activating PPARα via inhibition of insulin-like growth factor receptor 1. Moreover, until recently, potential metabolic roles of α-klotho in the central nervous system remained unexplored; however, a novel α-klotho➔fibroblast growth factor receptor➔PI3kinase signaling axis in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus has been identified as a critical regulator of energy balance and glucose metabolism. Overall, the role of circulating α-klotho in the regulation of metabolism is a new focus of research, but accumulating evidence identifies this protein as an encouraging therapeutic target for Type 1 and 2 Diabetes and obesity. This review analyzes the new literature investigating α-klotho-mediated regulation of metabolism and proposes impactful future directions to progress our understanding of this complex metabolic protein.

PAI-1 induction during kidney injury promotes fibrotic epithelial dysfunction via deregulation of klotho, p53, and TGF-β1-receptor signaling

Renal fibrosis leads to chronic kidney disease, which affects over 15% of the U.S. population. PAI-1 is highly upregulated in the tubulointerstitial compartment in several common nephropathies and PAI-1 global ablation affords protection from fibrogenesis in mice. The precise contribution of renal tubular PAI-1 induction to disease progression, however, is unknown and surprisingly, appears to be independent of uPA inhibition. Human renal epithelial (HK-2) cells engineered to stably overexpress PAI-1 underwent dedifferentiation (E-cadherin loss, gain of vimentin), G2/M growth arrest (increased p-Histone3, p21), and robust induction of fibronectin, collagen-1, and CCN2. These cells are also susceptible to apoptosis (elevated cleaved caspase-3, annexin-V positivity) compared to vector controls, demonstrating a previously unknown role for PAI-1 in tubular dysfunction. Persistent PAI-1 expression results in a loss of klotho expression, p53 upregulation, and increases in TGF-βRI/II levels and SMAD3 phosphorylation. Ectopic restoration of klotho in PAI-1-transductants attenuated fibrogenesis and reversed the proliferative defects, implicating PAI-1 in klotho loss in renal disease. Genetic suppression of p53 reversed the PA1-1-driven maladaptive repair, moreover, confirming a pathogenic role for p53 upregulation in this context and uncovering a novel role for PAI-1 in promoting renal p53 signaling. TGF-βRI inhibition also attenuated PAI-1-initiated epithelial dysfunction, independent of TGF-β1 ligand synthesis. Thus, PAI-1 promotes tubular dysfunction via klotho reduction, p53 upregulation, and activation of the TGF-βRI-SMAD3 axis. Since klotho is an upstream regulator of both PAI-1-mediated p53 induction and SMAD3 signaling, targeting tubular PAI-1 expression may provide a novel, multi-level approach to the therapy of CKD.

PTEN protects kidney against acute kidney injury by alleviating apoptosis and promoting autophagy via regulating HIF1-α and mTOR through PI3K/Akt pathway

Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) deleted on human chromosome 10 is a tumor suppressor with bispecific phosphatase activity, which is often involved in the study of energy metabolism and tumorigenesis. PTEN is recently reported to participate in the process of acute injury. However, the mechanism of PTEN in Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury (IRI) has not yet been clearly elucidated. In this study, mice with bilateral renal artery ischemia-reperfusion and HK-2 cells with hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) were used as acute kidney injury models. We demonstrated that PTEN was downregulated in IRI-induced kidney as well as in H/R-induced HK-2 cells. By silencing and overexpressing PTEN with si-PTEN RNA and PHBLV-CMV-PTEN-flag lentivirus before H/R, we found that PTEN protected HK-2 cells against H/R-induced injury reflected by the change in cell activity and the release of LDH. Furthermore, we inhibited HIF1-α with PX-478 and inactivated mTOR with Rapamycin before the silence of PTEN in H/R model. Our data indicated that the renoprotective effect of PTEN worked via PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and PI3K/Akt/HIF1-α pathway, hence alleviating apoptosis and improving autophagy respectively. Our findings provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanism underlying renoprotection of PTEN on autophagy and apoptosis induced by renal IRI, which offers a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of AKI.

NAicotinamide retains Klotho expression and ameliorates rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury

OBJECTIVES

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a severe complication of rhabdomyolysis that significantly increases mortality. Unfortunately, the therapeutic approach is limited. Inflammation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI, which is a potential therapeutic target. Nicotinamide, a form of vitamin B3 and a precursor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, has been shown to have potent antiinflammation effects. Klotho is a tubular highly expressed renoprotective protein. Therefore, we explored the effect of nicotinamide on rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI and the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

We intramuscularly injected glycerol to induce rhabdomyolysis, and intraperitoneally administrated nicotinamide to observe the effect on kidney injury. Interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and Klotho were determined by Western blot. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was used to assess the interaction of NF-κB, nuclear receptor corepressor, and histone deacetylase 1 with Klotho promoters. Small interfering RNA was used to evaluate the role of Klotho in nicotinamide-related renoprotection.

RESULTS

The results showed that nicotinamide attenuated renal pathologic morphology, kidney functional abnormalities, and kidney inflammatory response in rhabdomyolysis. Moreover, nicotinamide effectively blocked the recruitment of NF-κB, nuclear receptor corepressor, and histone deacetylase 1 to the promoter of Klotho, and preserved Klotho expression. More importantly, the renoprotection effect of nicotinamide was abrogated when Klotho was knocked down by small interfering RNA in rhabdomyolysis mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that Klotho preservation is essential for the renoprotection effect of nicotinamide, and provides a new preventive strategy for rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI.

Mutation of Klotho rs3752472 protect the kidney from the renal epithelial cell injury caused by CaOx crystals through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Calcium oxalate (CaOx) is a major contributor to urolithiasis, one of the most common urological diseases. Our previous study has shown that Klotho rs3752472 polymorphism correlates with an increased risk of CaOx-related urolithiasis in human cohorts. This study aims to identify the effect of Klotho rs3752472 polymorphism on the renal epithelium injury caused by CaOx. A rat urolithiasis model was established and validated. Renal function was assessed, and histological examination was performed. The distribution and expression of Klotho in the rat model were detected by immunohistochemical staining and western blotting analysis. A renal epithelial cell line (HK2) was used and intervened by COM crystals with several concentrations and time points. Expression of Klotho and key mediators in Wnt/β-catenin pathway were assessed by Western blotting analysis. Wide-type and mutated plasmids of Klotho rs3752472 were added in the cell culture, and the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling was tested. Finally, Wide-type and mutated plasmids of Klotho rs3752472 were adoptively transferred to the rat model, and the expression of Klotho was verified. In the rat model, Klotho was mainly distributed in the renal tubular area, which significantly declined in the urolithiasis group. In vitro, COM crystals significantly inhibited the expression of Klotho and induced remarkable renal epithelial cell injury. The mutation of Klotho rs3752472 can notably enhance the expression of Klotho, as well as the protection from renal epithelial cell injury and the inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. After adoptively transferred to the rat urolithiasis model, similar results were observed for the mutation of Klotho rs3752472. Klotho was significantly correlated with the renal epithelial cell injury induced by CaOx crystals. Furthermore, the mutation of Klotho rs3752472 can remarkably enhance the expression of Klotho in renal tissues and cells, and subsequently protect the renal epithelial cell from the formation of CaOx crystals through the inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

Wnt/β-Catenin in Acute Kidney Injury and Progression to Chronic Kidney Disease

Acute kidney injury (AKI) portends a poor clinical prognosis and increases the risk for the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Currently, there are no therapies to treat AKI or prevent its progression to CKD. Wnt/β-catenin is a critical regulator of kidney development that is up-regulated after injury. Most of the literature support a beneficial role for Wnt/β-catenin in AKI, but suggest that this pathway promotes the progression of tubulointerstitial fibrosis, the hallmark of CKD progression. We review the role of Wnt/β-catenin in renal injury with a focus on its potential as a therapeutic target in AKI and in AKI to CKD transition.

Aging and Renal Disease: Old Questions for New Challenges

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a growing problem among aging population, and the number of individuals at risk of end stage renal disease is rising. Part of the reason lies in incomplete understanding of the pathways underlying renal aging and kidney disease, as well as insufficient delivery of evidence-based treatment to elderly patients with CKD. This review aims to address these unsolved issues by delineating updated mechanisms of renal senescence and summarizing recent findings on key clinical aspects of CKD in the elderly. Challenges and obstacles in caring for older people with CKD are discussed, with an emphasis on modification of risk factors, prevention of acute kidney injury, stabilization of progression and decision on dialysis initiation.

Proteomic and transcriptomic profiling reveal different aspects of aging in the kidney

Little is known about the molecular changes that take place in the kidney during the aging process. In order to better understand these changes, we measured mRNA and protein levels in genetically diverse mice at different ages. We observed distinctive change in mRNA and protein levels as a function of age. Changes in both mRNA and protein are associated with increased immune infiltration and decreases in mitochondrial function. Proteins show a greater extent of change and reveal changes in a wide array of biological processes including unique, organ-specific features of aging in kidney. Most importantly, we observed functionally important age-related changes in protein that occur in the absence of corresponding changes in mRNA. Our findings suggest that mRNA profiling alone provides an incomplete picture of molecular aging in the kidney and that examination of changes in proteins is essential to understand aging processes that are not transcriptionally regulated.

Roles for fibroblast growth factor-23 and α-Klotho in acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury is a global disease with high morbidity and mortality. Recent studies have revealed that the fibroblast growth factor-23-α-Klotho axis is closely related to chronic kidney disease, and has multiple biological functions beyond bone-mineral metabolism. However, although dysregulation of fibroblast growth factor-23-α-Klotho has been observed in acute kidney injury, the role of fibroblast growth factor-23-α-Klotho in the pathophysiology of acute kidney injury remains largely unknown. In this review, we describe recent findings regarding fibroblast growth factor-23-α-Klotho, which is mainly involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, and hemodynamic disorders. Further, based on these recent results, we put forth novel insights regarding the relationship between the fibroblast growth factor-23-α-Klotho axis and acute kidney injury, which may provide new therapeutic targets for treating acute kidney injury.

Vitamin D Receptor Mediates a Myriad of Biological Actions Dependent on Its 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D Ligand: Distinct Regulatory Themes Revealed by Induction of Klotho and Fibroblast Growth Factor-23

The hormonal vitamin D metabolite, 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)₂D], produced in kidney, acts in numerous end organs via the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR) to trigger molecular events that orchestrate bone mineral homeostasis. VDR is a ligand‐controlled transcription factor that obligatorily heterodimerizes with retinoid X receptor (RXR) to target vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) in the vicinity of vitamin D‐regulated genes. Circulating 1,25(OH)₂D concentrations are governed by PTH, an inducer of renal D‐hormone biosynthesis catalyzed by CYP27B1 that functions as the key player in a calcemic endocrine circuit, and by fibroblast growth factor‐23 (FGF23), a repressor of the CYP27B1 renal enzyme, creating a hypophosphatemic endocrine loop. 1,25(OH)₂D/VDR–RXR acts in kidney to induce Klotho (a phosphaturic coreceptor for FGF23) to correct hyperphosphatemia, NPT2a/c to correct hypophosphatemia, and TRPV5 and CaBP28k to enhance calcium reabsorption. 1,25(OH)₂D‐liganded VDR–RXR functions in osteoblasts/osteocytes by augmenting RANK‐ligand expression to paracrine signal osteoclastic bone resorption, while simultaneously inducing FGF23, SPP1, BGLP, LRP5, ANK1, ENPP1, and TNAP, and conversely repressing RUNX2 and PHEX expression, effecting localized control of mineralization to sculpt the skeleton. Herein, we document the history of 1,25(OH)₂D/VDR and summarize recent advances in characterizing their physiology, biochemistry, and mechanism of action by highlighting two examples of 1,25(OH)₂D/VDR molecular function. The first is VDR‐mediated primary induction of Klotho mRNA by 1,25(OH)₂D in kidney via a mechanism initiated by the docking of liganded VDR–RXR on a VDRE at −35 kb in the mouse Klotho gene. In contrast, the secondary induction of FGF23 by 1,25(OH)₂D in bone is proposed to involve rapid nongenomic action of 1,25(OH)₂D/VDR to acutely activate PI3K, in turn signaling the induction of MZF1, a transcription factor that, in cooperation with c‐ets1‐P, binds to an enhancer element centered at −263 bp in the promoter‐proximal region of the mouse fgf23 gene. Chronically, 1,25(OH)₂D‐induced osteopontin apparently potentiates MZF1. © 2020 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Epigenetic modifications of Klotho expression in kidney diseases

Developments of many renal diseases are substantially influenced by epigenetic modifications of numerous genes, mainly mediated by DNA methylations, histone modifications, and microRNA interference; however, not all gene modifications causally affect the disease onset or progression. Klotho is a critical gene whose repressions in various pathological conditions reportedly involve epigenetic regulatory mechanisms. Klotho is almost unexceptionally repressed early after acute or chronic renal injuries and its levels inversely correlated with the disease progression and severity. Moreover, the strategies of Klotho derepression via epigenetic modulations beneficially change the pathological courses both in vitro and in vivo. Hence, Klotho is not only considered a biomarker of the renal disease but also a potential or even an ideal target of therapeutic epigenetic intervention. Here, we summarize and discuss studies that investigate the Klotho repression and intervention in renal diseases from an epigenetic point of view. These information might shed new sights into the effective therapeutic strategies to prevent and treat various renal disorders.

Salt causes aging-associated hypertension via vascular Wnt5a under Klotho deficiency

Aging is associated with a high prevalence of hypertension due to elevated susceptibility of BP to dietary salt, but its mechanism is unknown. Serum levels of Klotho, an anti-aging factor, decline with age. We found that high salt (HS) increased BP in aged mice and young heterozygous Klotho-knockout mice and was associated with increased vascular expression of Wnt5a and p-MYPT1, which indicate RhoA activity. Not only the Wnt inhibitor LGK974 and the Wnt5a antagonist Box5 but Klotho supplementation inhibits HS-induced BP elevation, similarly to the Rho kinase inhibitor fasudil, associated with reduced p-MYPT1 expression in both groups of mice. In cultured vascular smooth muscle cells, Wnt5a and angiotensin II (Ang II) increased p-MYPT1 expression but knockdown of Wnt5a with siRNA abolished Ang II-induced upregulation of p-MYPT1, indicating that Wnt5a is indispensable for Ang II-induced Rho/ROCK activation. Notably, Klotho inhibited Wnt5a- and Ang II-induced upregulation of p-MYPT1. Consistently, Klotho supplementation ameliorated HS-induced augmentation of reduced renal blood flow (RBF) response to intra-arterial infusion of Ang II and the thromboxane A2 analog U46619, which activated RhoA in both groups of mice and were associated with the inhibition of BP elevation, suggesting that abnormal response of RBF to Ang II contributes to HS-induced BP elevation. Thus, Klotho deficiency underlies aging-associated salt-sensitive hypertension through vascular non-canonical Wnt5a/RhoA activation.

Association Between the Anti-Aging Gene Klotho and Selected Rheumatologic Autoimmune Diseases

Klotho long recognized for its role in anti-aging, is potentially implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and systemic sclerosis. Aging of the immune system coincides with the inability of the body to recognize self-antigens, which often leads to autoimmune responses. The role of Klotho in these autoimmune diseases should be of high interest; however, few articles have been published exploring the role of Klotho in the pathogenesis, organ involvement, or clinical manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and systemic sclerosis. Herein, we discuss information gathered from peer-reviewed publications to describe the emerging role of Kl in these select rheumatologic autoimmune diseases.

TWEAK-Fn14 as a common pathway in the heart and the kidneys in cardiorenal syndrome

There is a complex relationship between cardiac and renal disease, often referred to as the cardiorenal syndrome. Heart failure adversely affects kidney function, and both acute and chronic kidney disease are associated with structural and functional changes to the myocardium. The pathological mechanisms and contributing interactions that surround this relationship remain poorly understood, limiting the opportunities for therapeutic intervention. The cytokine tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) and its receptor, fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14), are abundantly expressed in injured kidneys and heart. The TWEAK-Fn14 axis promotes responses that drive tissue injury such as inflammation, proliferation, fibrosis, and apoptosis, while restraining the expression of tissue protective factors such as the anti-aging factor Klotho and the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α). High levels of TWEAK induce cardiac remodeling, and promote inflammation, tubular and podocyte injury and death, fibroblast proliferation, and, ultimately, renal fibrosis. Accordingly, targeting the TWEAK-Fn14 axis is protective in experimental kidney and heart disease. TWEAK has also emerged as a biomarker of kidney damage and cardiovascular outcomes and has been successfully targeted in clinical trials. In this review, we update our current knowledge of the roles of the TWEAK-Fn14 axis in cardiovascular and kidney disease and its potential contribution to the cardiorenal syndrome. © 2021 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Inactivation of Wnt/β-catenin/renin angiotensin axis by tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitor, infliximab, ameliorates CKD induced in rats

Infliximab (IFX), a chimeric monoclonal antibody against tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), is widely used to treat autoimmune diseases and chronic diseases associated with inflammation. TNF-α was reported to inhibit klotho, reactivate β-catenin and cause tubular cell injury in vitro. Whether the inhibition of TNF-α can regulate Wnt/β-catenin pathway via klotho in CKD in vivo is not studied yet. We aimed to investigate the impact of IFX on Wnt/β-catenin pathway in doxorubicin (DOX)-induced nephropathy. Doxorubicin (3.5 mg/kg; i.p., twice weekly for 3 weeks) increased serum cystatin-C, urine albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR), but depleted renal podocin. It markedly increased renal contents of TNF-α, interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL1β). DOX decreased the renal expression of klotho which in turn increased Wnt1, active β-catenin/total β-catenin ratio in renal tissue. Significant increase in renal gene expression of RENIN, ACE, and AT1 was observed. Moreover, renal fibronectin and collagen deposition increased in renal tissue. Treatment with either IFX (5 mg/kg, once; i.p.), losartan (LOS, 10 mg/kg/day, orally) or their combination significantly improved renal function, inhibited inflammatory cytokines and fibrosis. Renal TNF-α was negatively correlated with renal klotho. On the hand, it was positively correlated with renal Wnt1 and active β-catenin/total β-catenin ratio. The combined IFX and LOS treatment was the most effective in improving all studied parameters. In conclusion, this study proved, for the first time, the inhibitory effect of IFX on renal Wnt/β-catenin signaling in DOX-induced nephropathy in vivo by up-regulating renal klotho. Therefore, these results suggest a new role for IFX in chronic kidney disease via targeting renal Wnt/β-catenin/renin angiotensin axis.

Excessive fibroblast growth factor 23 promotes renal fibrosis in mice with type 2 cardiorenal syndrome

Cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) has a high mortality, but its pathogenesis remains elusive. Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is increased in both renal dysfunction and cardiac dysfunction, and FGF receptor 4 (FGFR4) has been identified as a receptor for FGF23. Deficiency of FGF23 causes growth retardation and shortens the lifespan, but it is unclear whether excess FGF23 is detrimental in CRS. This study sought to investigate whether FGF23 plays an important role in CRS-induced renal fibrosis. A mouse model of CRS was created by surgical myocardial infarction for 12 weeks. CRS mice showed a significant increase of circulatory and renal FGF23 protein levels, as well as an upregulation of p-GSK, active-β-catenin, TGF-β, collagen I and vimentin, a downregulation of renal Klotho expression and induction of cardiorenal dysfunction and cardiorenal fibrosis. These changes were enhanced by cardiac overexpression of FGF23 and attenuated by FGF receptor blocker PD173074 or β-catenin blocker IGC001. In fibroblasts (NRK-49F), expression of FGFR4 rather than Klotho was detected. Recombinant FGF23 upregulated the expression of p-GSK, active-β-catenin, TGF-β, collagen I and vimentin proteins. These changes were attenuated by FGFR4 blockade with BLU9931 or β-catenin blockade with IGC001. We concluded that FGF23 promotes CRS-induced renal fibrosis mediated by partly activating FGFR4/β-catenin signaling pathway.

FoxM1 promotes Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation and renal fibrosis via transcriptionally regulating multi-Wnts expressions

The activation of Wnt/β‐catenin pathway plays a pivotal role in promoting renal fibrosis. The activation of Wnt/β‐catenin pathway relies on the binding of Wnts to Frizzled receptors on cell membrane. However, the factor regulating Wnts production remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that transcriptional factor FoxM1 was significantly increased in obstructed kidneys and patients' kidneys with fibrosis. The up‐regulation of FoxM1 mainly distributed in tubular epithelial cells. Pharmacological inhibition of FoxM1 down‐regulated multi‐Wnts elevation in UUO mice and attenuated renal fibrosis. In cultured renal tubular epithelial cells, overexpression of FoxM1 promoted 8 Wnts expression, while knock‐down on FoxM1‐suppressed multi‐Wnts including Wnt1, Wnt2b and Wnt3 expression induced by Ang II. Chromatin immunoprecipitation PCR confirmed that FoxM1 bound to Wnt1, Wnt2b, Wnt3 promoters and luciferase assay further identified that the transcriptions of Wnt1, Wnt2b and Wnt3 were regulated by FoxM1. Thus, our findings show that multi‐Wnt family members were regulated by transcriptional factor FoxM1. FoxM1 might be a key switch for activating β‐catenin pathway and renal fibrosis. Therefore, FoxM1 might be a potential therapeutic target in manipulating renal fibrosis.

Matrix metalloproteinase-10 protects against acute kidney injury by augmenting epidermal growth factor receptor signaling

Matrix metalloproteinase-10 (MMP-10) is a zinc-dependent endopeptidase involved in regulating a wide range of biologic processes, such as apoptosis, cell proliferation, and tissue remodeling. However, the role of MMP-10 in the pathogenesis of acute kidney injury (AKI) is unknown. In this study, we show that MMP-10 was upregulated in the kidneys and predominantly localized in the tubular epithelium in various models of AKI induced by ischemia/reperfusion (IR) or cisplatin. Overexpression of exogenous MMP-10 ameliorated AKI, manifested by decreased serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, tubular injury and apoptosis, and increased tubular regeneration. Conversely, knockdown of endogenous MMP-10 expression aggravated kidney injury. Interestingly, alleviation of AKI by MMP-10 in vivo was associated with the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its downstream AKT and extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and 2 (ERK1/2) signaling. Blockade of EGFR signaling by erlotinib abolished the MMP-10-mediated renal protection after AKI. In vitro, MMP-10 potentiated EGFR activation and protected kidney tubular cells against apoptosis induced by hypoxia/reoxygenation or cisplatin. MMP-10 was colocalized with heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) in vivo and activated it by a process of proteolytical cleavage in vitro. These studies identify HB-EGF as a previously unrecognized substrate of MMP-10. Our findings also underscore that MMP-10 can protect against AKI by augmenting EGFR signaling, leading to promotion of tubular cell survival and proliferation after injury.

Klotho retards renal fibrosis through targeting mitochondrial dysfunction and cellular senescence in renal tubular cells

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has a high prevalence worldwide and is an intricate issue to whole medical society. Renal fibrosis is the common pathological feature for various kinds of CKD. As an anti-aging protein, Klotho is predominantly expressed in renal tubular epithelial cells. Reports show Klotho could retard age-related renal fibrosis. Mitochondrial dysfunction plays an important role in cellular senescence. However, the role of Klotho in mitochondrial dysfunction in CKD has not yet been determined. In this study, we treated unilateral ischemia-reperfusion (UIRI) mice and cultured human renal tubular epithelial cells (HKC-8) with Klotho. We assessed renal fibrosis, cellular senescence, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. We also focused on mitochondrial function assessment. In UIRI mice, ectopic expression of Klotho greatly retarded fibrotic lesions and the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Interestingly, Klotho significantly preserved mitochondrial mass, inhibited mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and restored the expression of mitochondrial respiration chain complex subunits. Consequently, Klotho restrained cellular senescence. In HKC-8 cells, Klotho significantly inhibited Wnt1- and Wnt9a-induced mitochondrial injury, cellular senescence, and fibrotic lesions. These results suggest Klotho has a protective role in renal function through targeted protection on mitochondria. This further broads the understanding of the beneficial efficacies of Klotho in CKD.

Fibroblast growth factor 23 and new-onset chronic kidney disease in the general population: the Prevention of Renal and Vascular Endstage Disease (PREVEND) study

BACKGROUND

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), a phosphate-regulating hormone that increases early in the course of chronic kidney disease (CKD), is associated with disease progression in patients with established CKD. Here we aimed to investigate the association between plasma FGF23 and new-onset CKD in the general population.

METHODS

We included 5253 individuals without CKD who participated in the Prevention of Renal and Vascular Endstage Disease study, a prospective, population-based cohort. Multi-variable Cox regression was used to study the association of plasma C-terminal FGF23 with new-onset CKD, defined as a combined endpoint of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 mL/min/ 1.73 m2, urinary 24-h albumin excretion (UAE) >30 mg/24 h or both, or with all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

The median baseline FGF23 was 68 [interquartile range (IQR) 56-85] RU/mL, eGFR was 95 ± 13 mL/min/1.73 m2 and UAE was 7.8 (IQR 5.8-11.5)  mg/24 h. After follow-up of 7.5 (IQR 7.2-8.0)  years, 586 participants developed CKD and 214 participants died. A higher FGF23 level was associated with new-onset CKD, independent of risk factors for kidney disease and parameters of bone and mineral homoeostasis {fully adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 1.25 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.10-1.44] per doubling of FGF23; P = 0.001}. In secondary analyses, FGF23 was independently associated with new-onset eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 [adjusted HR 1.28 (95% CI 1.00-1.62); P = 0.048] or with UAE >30 mg/24 h [adjusted HR 1.24 (95% CI 1.06-1.45); P = 0.01] individually. A higher FGF23 level was also associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality [fully adjusted HR 1.30 (95% CI 1.03-1.63); P = 0.03].

CONCLUSIONS

High FGF23 levels are associated with an increased risk of new-onset CKD and all-cause mortality in this prospective population-based cohort, independent of established CKD risk factors.

Klotho in Clinical Nephrology: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications

αKlotho (called Klotho here) is a membrane protein that serves as the coreceptor for the circulating hormone fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23). Klotho is also cleaved and released as a circulating substance originating primarily from the kidney and exerts a myriad of housekeeping functions in just about every organ. The vital role of Klotho is shown by the multiorgan failure with genetic deletion in rodents, with certain features reminiscent of human disease. The most common causes of systemic Klotho deficiency are AKI and CKD. Preclinical data on Klotho biology have advanced considerably and demonstrated its potential diagnostic and therapeutic value; however, multiple knowledge gaps exist in the regulation of Klotho expression, release, and metabolism; its target organs; and mechanisms of action. In the translational and clinical fronts, progress has been more modest. Nonetheless, Klotho has potential clinical applications in the diagnosis of AKI and CKD, in prognosis of progression and extrarenal complications, and finally, as replacement therapy for systemic Klotho deficiency. The overall effect of Klotho in clinical nephrology requires further technical advances and additional large prospective human studies.

Cellular Senescence in Kidney Fibrosis: Pathologic Significance and Therapeutic Strategies

Age-related disorders such as chronic kidney disease (CKD) are increasingly prevalent globally and pose unprecedented challenges. In many aspects, CKD can be viewed as a state of accelerated and premature aging. Aging kidney and CKD share many common characteristic features with increased cellular senescence, a conserved program characterized by an irreversible cell cycle arrest with altered transcriptome and secretome. While developmental senescence and acute senescence may positively contribute to the fine-tuning of embryogenesis and injury repair, chronic senescence, when unresolved promptly, plays a crucial role in kidney fibrogenesis and CKD progression. Senescent cells elicit their fibrogenic actions primarily by secreting an assortment of inflammatory and profibrotic factors known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Increasing evidence indicates that senescent cells could be a promising new target for therapeutic intervention known as senotherapy, which includes depleting senescent cells, modulating SASP and restoration of senescence inhibitors. In this review, we discuss current understanding of the role and mechanism of cellular senescence in kidney fibrosis. We also highlight potential options of targeting senescent cells for the treatment of CKD.

The Interplay of WNT and PPARγ Signaling in Vascular Calcification

Vascular calcification (VC), the ectopic deposition of calcium phosphate crystals in the vessel wall, is one of the primary contributors to cardiovascular death. The pathology of VC is determined by vascular topography, pre-existing diseases, and our genetic heritage. VC evolves from inflammation, mediated by macrophages, and from the osteochondrogenic transition of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) in the atherosclerotic plaque. This pathologic transition partly resembles endochondral ossification, involving the chronologically ordered activation of the β-catenin-independent and -dependent Wingless and Int-1 (WNT) pathways and the termination of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) signal transduction. Several atherosclerotic plaque studies confirmed the differential activity of PPARγ and the WNT signaling pathways in VC. Notably, the actively regulated β-catenin-dependent and -independent WNT signals increase the osteochondrogenic transformation of VSMC through the up-regulation of the osteochondrogenic transcription factors SRY-box transcription factor 9 (SOX9) and runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2). In addition, we have reported studies showing that WNT signaling pathways may be antagonized by PPARγ activation via the expression of different families of WNT inhibitors and through its direct interaction with β-catenin. In this review, we summarize the existing knowledge on WNT and PPARγ signaling and their interplay during the osteochondrogenic differentiation of VSMC in VC. Finally, we discuss knowledge gaps on this interplay and its possible clinical impact.

Effect of Klotho protein during porcine oocyte maturation via Wnt signaling

Klotho protein is well-known as an anti-aging agent, however, several studies have suggested that Klotho protein also increases antioxidant activity and the reproductive system, as Klotho protein is closely associated with Wnt signaling. The objective of our study was to investigate the enhancement of porcine oocyte in vitro maturation via the Klotho protein-Wnt signaling pathway. Following immunohistochemistry and ELISA, we treated cells with Klotho protein during in vitro maturation. Lithium Chloride, a specific activator of Wnt signaling, was subsequently co-administered with Klotho protein. Mature oocytes subjected to treatments were used for the analysis of embryonic development, qRT-PCR, and immunocytochemistry. Treatment with 5pg/ml Klotho protein significantly increased cumulus cell expansion, blastocyst formation rates, and the total cell number of blastocysts. During cotreatment with 5mM Lithium Chloride and 5pg/ml Klotho protein, blastocyst formation rates were the highest in Klotho protein-treated oocytes and the lowest in Lithium Chloride-treated oocytes. Expression levels of Wnt signaling-related transcripts and proteins were significantly impacted by Klotho protein and Lithium Chloride. Moreover, cellular ATP levels and antioxidant activities were enhanced by Klotho protein treatment. These findings suggest a significant involvement of the Klotho protein-Wnt signaling mechanism in porcine oocyte maturation.

Wnt signaling in kidney: the initiator or terminator?

The kidney is a key organ in the human body that excretes toxins and sustains the water-electrolyte balance. During embryonic development and disease progression, the kidney undergoes enormous changes in macrostructure, accompanied by a variety of microstructural histological changes, such as glomerular formation and sclerosis, tubule elongation and atrophy, interstitial establishment, and fibrosis progression. All of these rely on the frequent occurrence of cell death and growth. Notably, to overcome disease, some cells regenerate through self-repair or progenitor cell differentiation. However, the signaling mechanisms underlying kidney development and regeneration have not been elucidated. Recently, Wnt signaling has been noted to play an important role. Although it is a well-known developmental signal, the role of Wnt signaling in kidney development and regeneration is not well recognized. In this review, we review the role of Wnt signaling in kidney embryonic development, tissue repair, cell division, and progenitor cell differentiation after injury. Moreover, we briefly highlight advances in our understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of Wnt signaling in mediating cellular senescence in kidney parenchymal and stem cells, an irreversible arrest of cell proliferation blocking tissue repair and regeneration. We also highlight the therapeutic targets of Wnt signaling in kidney diseases and provide important clues for clinical strategies.

Epigenetic and non-epigenetic regulation of Klotho in kidney disease

Klotho is a novel renoprotective anti-aging protein available in membrane-bound or soluble form. Klotho is expressed in brain, pancreas, and other solid organs but shows highest expression levels in the kidney. Klotho sustains normal kidney physiology but Klotho regulation also contributes to the progression of kidney disease. Systemic and intrarenal levels of Klotho fall drastically during acute kidney injury, kidney fibrosis, diabetic nephropathy, and other forms of chronic kidney disease, etc. Moreover, exogenous supplementation or overexpression of endogenous Klotho attenuates kidney disease. The regulation of endogenous Klotho expression involves epigenetic as well as non-epigenetic mechanisms. The epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation, post-translational histone modifications, miRNAs regulate the change in Klotho expression in kidney disease. Non-epigenetic mechanisms such as ER stress, Wnt signaling, activation of the renin angiotensin system (RAS), excessive reactive oxygen species and cytokine generation, albumin overload, and PPAR-γ signaling also contribute to Klotho regulation. Evolving evidence highlight the capacity of natural products to regulate Klotho expression in kidney disease. All these preclinical data suggest that Klotho could be a novel biomarker as well as therapeutic target. Here we review the different mechanisms of Klotho regulation in the context of Klotho as a biomarker and potential therapeutic agent.

Advancements in therapeutic drugs targeting of senescence

Aging leads to a high burden on society, both medically and economically. Cellular senescence plays an essential role in the initiation of aging and age-related diseases. Recent studies have highlighted the therapeutic value of senescent cell deletion in natural aging and many age-related disorders. However, the therapeutic strategies for manipulating cellular senescence are still at an early stage of development. Among these strategies, therapeutic drugs that target cellular senescence are arguably the most highly anticipated. Many recent studies have demonstrated that a variety of drugs exhibit healthy aging effects. In this review, we summarize different types of drugs promoting healthy aging – such as senolytics, senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) inhibitors, and nutrient signaling regulators – and provide an update on their potential therapeutic merits. Taken together, our review synthesizes recent advancements in the therapeutic potentialities of drugs promoting healthy aging with regard to their clinical implications.

Histone deacetylase 3 aberration inhibits Klotho transcription and promotes renal fibrosis

Development of renal fibrosis is a hallmark of renal aging and chronic kidney disease of all etiologies and characterized by extensive renal cell injuries and subsequent myofibroblast transdifferentiations (MTDs), which are significantly influenced by aberrant histone deacetylase (HDAC) activities. However, the key HDAC isoforms and effectors that are causally involved in the processes remain poorly understood. Here, we report that aberrant HDAC3 induction and its inhibition of Klotho, a renal epithelium-enriched aging suppressor, contribute significantly to renal fibrogenesis. HDAC3 was preferentially elevated with concomitant Klotho suppression in fibrotic kidneys incurred by unilateral ureter obstruction (UUO) and aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN), whereas Hdac3 knockout resisted the fibrotic pathologies. The HDAC3 elevation is substantially blocked by the inhibitors of TGFβ receptor and Smad3 phosphorylation, suggesting that TGFβ/Smad signal activates Hdac3 transcription. Consistently, an HDAC3-selective inhibitor RGFP966 derepressed Klotho and mitigated the renal fibrotic injuries in both UUO and AAN mice. Further, HDAC3 overexpression or inhibition in renal epithelia inversely affected Klotho abundances and HDAC3 was inducibly associated with transcription regulators NCoR and NF-kB and bound to Klotho promoter in fibrotic kidney, supporting that aberrant HDAC3 targets and transcriptionally inhibits Klotho under renal fibrotic conditions. More importantly, the antirenal fibrosis effects of RGFP966 were largely compromised in mice with siRNA-mediated Klotho knockdown. Hence, HDAC3 aberration and the subsequent Klotho suppression constitute an important regulatory loop that promotes MTD and renal fibrosis and uses of HDAC3-selective inhibitors are potentially effective in treating renal fibrotic disorders.

WNT-β-catenin signalling - a versatile player in kidney injury and repair

The WNT-β-catenin system is an evolutionary conserved signalling pathway that is of particular importance for morphogenesis and cell organization during embryogenesis. The system is usually suppressed in adulthood; however, it can be re-activated in organ injury and regeneration. WNT-deficient mice display severe kidney defects at birth. Transient WNT-β-catenin activation stimulates tissue regeneration after acute kidney injury, whereas sustained (uncontrolled) WNT-β-catenin signalling promotes kidney fibrosis in chronic kidney disease (CKD), podocyte injury and proteinuria, persistent tissue damage during acute kidney injury and cystic kidney diseases. Additionally, WNT-β-catenin signalling is involved in CKD-associated vascular calcification and mineral bone disease. The WNT-β-catenin pathway is tightly regulated, for example, by proteins of the Dickkopf (DKK) family. In particular, DKK3 is released by 'stressed' tubular epithelial cells; DKK3 drives kidney fibrosis and is associated with short-term risk of CKD progression and acute kidney injury. Thus, targeting the WNT-β-catenin pathway might represent a promising therapeutic strategy in kidney injury and associated complications.

The interaction partners of (pro)renin receptor in the distal nephron

The (pro)renin receptor (PRR), a key regulator of intrarenal renin-angiotensin system (RAS), is predominantly presented in podocytes, proximal tubules, distal convoluted tubules, and the apical membrane of collecting duct A-type intercalated cells, and plays a crucial role in hypertension, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, and fluid homeostasis. In addition to its well-known renin-regulatory function, increasing evidence suggests PRR can also act in a variety of intracellular signaling cascades independently of RAS in the renal medulla, including Wnt/β-catenin signaling, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)/prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) signaling, and the apelinergic system, and work as a component of the vacuolar H⁺ -ATPase. PRR and these pathways regulate the expression/activity of each other that controlling blood pressure and renal functions. In this review, we highlight recent findings regarding the antagonistic interaction between PRR and ELABELA/apelin, the mutually stimulatory relationship between PRR and COX-2/PGE₂ or Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the renal medulla, and their involvement in the regulation of intrarenal RAS thereby control blood pressure, renal injury, and urine concentrating ability in health and patho-physiological conditions. We also highlight the latest progress in the involvement of PRR for the vacuolar H⁺ -ATPase activity.

MicroRNA-466o-3p mediates β-catenin-induced podocyte injury by targeting Wilms tumor 1

Podocytes are highly specialized cells that play an essential role in maintaining the integrity and function of the glomerular filtration barrier. Wilms tumor 1 (WT1) and β-catenin are two master regulators that play opposing roles in podocyte biology and mutually antagonize each other. However, exactly how β-catenin inhibits WT1 remains incompletely understood. In this study, we demonstrated the role of miR-466o-3p in mediating β-catenin-triggered podocyte injury by targeting WT1. The expression of miR-466o-3p was upregulated in cultured podocytes after β-catenin activation and in glomerular podocytes in adriamycin (ADR) nephropathy, remnant kidney after 5/6 renal ablation, and diabetic kidney disease. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay confirmed that miR-466o-3p directly targeted WT1 mRNA. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-466o-3p downregulated WT1 protein and promoted podocyte injury in vitro. Conversely, inhibition of miR-466o-3p alleviated β-catenin-induced podocyte dysfunction. In mouse model of ADR nephropathy, overexpression of miR-466o-3p inhibited WT1, aggravated podocytes injury and deteriorated proteinuria. In contrast, inhibition of renal miR-466o-3p by antagomiR, either prior to or after ADR injection, substantially restored WT1, alleviated podocytes injury and reduced renal fibrosis. These studies reveal a critical role for miR-466o-3p, a novel microRNA that has not been characterized previously, in mediating β-catenin-triggered WT1 inhibition. Our findings also uncover a new pathogenic mechanism by which β-catenin promotes podocyte injury and proteinuria in glomerular diseases.

Cellular Senescence: A New Player in Kidney Injury

Kidney diseases secondary to several pathogeneses affect millions of people worldwide and have become increasingly recognized as a global public health problem. Recent evidence suggests that cellular senescence plays an important role in the pathogenesis of different forms of renal damage, including acute and chronic kidney disease, and renal transplantation. Renal senescence involves cell cycle arrest and affects several cellular pathways, manifesting in downregulation of klotho, elevated expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, cellular telomere shortening, and oxidative stress. Furthermore, senescent cells might induce kidney injury by paracrine release of inflammatory factors. Yet, cellular senescence may be renoprotective during development and in some models of renal diseases, reflecting the yin/yang duality of cellular senescence. This review provides an overview of the role of this emerging player in renal injury, with emphasis on new findings of cellular senescence.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 and Adverse Clinical Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes: a Bitter-Sweet Symphony

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is a key phosphate-regulating hormone that has been associated with adverse outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Emerging data suggest that FGF23 plays a specific role in type 2 diabetes, partly independent of kidney function. We aimed to summarize current literature on the associations between FGF23 and outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes with or without CKD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several cohort studies have shown strong associations between plasma FGF23 and cardiovascular outcomes in diabetic CKD. Moreover, recent data suggest that FGF23 are elevated and may also be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and mortality in type 2 diabetes patients without CKD, although the magnitude of the association is smaller than in CKD patients. Diabetes-related factors may influence plasma FGF23 levels, and a higher FGF23 levels seem to contribute to a higher cardiovascular and mortality risk in patients with type 2 diabetes. Although this risk may be relevant in diabetic individuals with preserved kidney function, it is strongly accentuated in diabetic nephropathy. Future studies should clarify if FGF23 is merely a disease severity marker or a contributor to adverse outcomes in type 2 diabetes and establish if antidiabetic medication can modify FGF23 levels.

High Phosphate Induces and Klotho Attenuates Kidney Epithelial Senescence and Fibrosis

Cellular senescence is an irreversible cell growth arrest and is associated with aging and age-related diseases. High plasma phosphate (Pi) and deficiency of Klotho contribute to aging and kidney fibrosis, a pathological feature in the aging kidney and chronic kidney disease. This study examined the interactive role of Pi and Klotho in kidney senescence and fibrosis. Homozygous Klotho hypomorphic mice had high plasma Pi, undetectable Klotho in plasma and kidney, high senescence with massive collagen accumulation in kidney tubules, and fibrin deposits in peritubular capillaries. To examine the Pi effect on kidney senescence, a high (2%) Pi diet was given to wild-type mice. One week of high dietary Pi mildly increased plasma Pi, and upregulated kidney p16/p21 expression, but did not significantly decrease Klotho. Two weeks of high Pi intake led to increase in plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1, and decrease in kidney Klotho, but still without detectable increase in kidney fibrosis. More prolonged dietary Pi for 12 weeks exacerbated kidney senescence and fibrosis; more so in heterozygous Klotho hypomorphic mice compared to wild-type mice, and in mice with chronic kidney disease (CKD) on high Pi diet compared to CKD mice fed a normal Pi diet. In cultured kidney tubular cells, high Pi directly induced cellular senescence, injury and epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and enhanced H₂O₂-induced cellular senescence and injury, which were abrogated by Klotho. Fucoidan, a bioactive molecule with multiple biologic functions including senescence inhibition, blunted Pi-induced cellular senescence, oxidation, injury, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and senescence-associated secretary phenotype. In conclusion, high Pi activates senescence through distinct but interconnected mechanisms: upregulating p16/p21 (early), and elevating plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and downregulating Klotho (late). Klotho may be a promising agent to attenuate senescence and ameliorate age-associated, and Pi-induced kidney degeneration such as kidney fibrosis.

Hydrogen sulfide attenuates renal fibrosis by inducing TET-dependent DNA demethylation on Klotho promoter

Hypoxia is a key pathogenetic characteristic of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Klotho has renoprotective effect and its expression is commonly suppressed in CKD patients. We showed that chronic hypoxia in unilateral ureteral obstruction model mice is associated with renal Klotho promoter methylation and expression silencing. Administration of low-dose of sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) effectively ameliorated renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis in the mouse model by demethylating Klotho promoter and restoring its expression. Mechanistically, hypoxia microenvironment in CKD reduced cellular oxygen availability and Fe²⁺ concentration, and led to impaired activity of ten-eleven translocation (TET), which is critical in maintaining Klotho promoter demethylation status. NaHS treatment greatly improved hypoxia condition, restored TET activity, reversed DNA methylation, and thus, increased Klotho expression. Our results strongly suggested that correcting hypoxia condition to restore TET activity could be a promising therapeutic strategy against CKD.

Soluble Klotho, a biomarker and therapeutic strategy to reduce bronchopulmonary dysplasia and pulmonary hypertension in preterm infants

Preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and pulmonary hypertension (PH) have accelerated lung aging and poor long-term outcomes. Klotho is an antiaging protein that modulates oxidative stress, angiogenesis and fibrosis. Here we test the hypothesis that decreased cord Klotho levels in preterm infants predict increased BPD-PH risk and early Klotho supplementation prevents BPD-like phenotype and PH in rodents exposed to neonatal hyperoxia. In experiment 1, Klotho levels were measured in cord blood of preterm infants who were enrolled in a longitudinal cohort study. In experiment 2, using an experimental BPD-PH model, rat pups exposed to room air or hyperoxia (85% O₂) were randomly assigned to receive every other day injections of recombinant Klotho or placebo. The effect of Klotho on lung structure, PH and cardiac function was assessed. As compared to controls, preterm infants with BPD or BPD-PH had decreased cord Klotho levels. Early Klotho supplementation in neonatal hyperoxia-exposed rodents preserved lung alveolar and vascular structure, attenuated PH, reduced pulmonary vascular remodeling and improved cardiac function. Together, these findings have important implications as they suggest that perinatal Klotho deficiency contributes to BPD-PH risk and strategies that preserve Klotho levels, may improve long-term cardiopulmonary outcomes in preterm infants.

Complement component C5a induces aberrant epigenetic modifications in renal tubular epithelial cells accelerating senescence by Wnt4/βcatenin signaling after ischemia/reperfusion injury

Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, affect tubular maladaptive response after Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) and accelerate renal aging. Upon ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, Complement activation leads to C5a release that mediates damage; however, little is known about the effect of C5a-C5a Receptor (C5aR) interaction in Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells (RTEC).

Through a whole-genome DNA methylation analysis in cultured RTEC, we found that C5a induced aberrant methylation, particularly in regions involved in cell cycle control, DNA damage and Wnt signaling. The most represented genes were BCL9, CYP1B1 and CDK6. C5a stimulation of RTEC led to up-regulation of SA-β Gal and cell cycle arrest markers such as p53 and p21. C5a increased also IL-6, MCP-1 and CTGF gene expression, consistent with SASP development. In accordance, in a swine model of renal I/R injury, we found the increased expression of Wnt4 and βcatenin correlating with SA-β Gal, p21, p16 and IL-6 positivity. Administration of Complement Inhibitor (C1-Inh), antagonized SASP by reducing SA-β Gal, p21, p16, IL-6 and abrogating Wnt4/βcatenin activation.

Thus, C5a affects the DNA methylation of genes involved in tubular senescence. Targeting epigenetic programs and Complement may offer novels strategies to protect tubular cells from accelerated aging and to counteract progression to Chronic Kidney Disease

[Low serum Klotho level as a predictor of calcification of the heart and blood vessels in patients with CKD stages 2-5D]

Cardiovascular calcification (CVC) makes a significant contribution to the manifestation of cardiovascular complications in patients with chronic kidney disease. Early CVC markers are currently being actively studied to optimize cardio-renoprotective strategies. We performed a prospective comparative analysis of the following factors: FGF-23, a-Klotho, sclecrostin, phosphate, parathyroid hormone, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), central systolic pressure as an independent determinant of CVC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study included 131 patients with chronic kidney disease 25D st. Serum levels of FGF-23, Klotho, and sclerostin were evaluated using the ELISA method. Vascular augmentation (stiffness) indices, central arterial pressure (using the SphygmoCor device), calcification of heart valves and the degree of aortic calcification (aortic radiography) were also investigated. The observation period was 2 years.

RESULTS

According to the Spearman correlation analysis, the percent of calcification increase and the change in Klotho level are most related. According to ROC analysis, a decrease in serum levels of Klotho by 50 units or more is a significant predictor of an increase in aortic calcification of 50% or more with a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 77%. Using logistic regression analysis, it was found that a serum Klotho level 632 pg/L predicts an eGFR below a median level of 48 ml/min/1.73 m2 with a sensitivity of 85.5% and a specificity of 78.5%. Wherein OR 17.477 (CI 95% 8.04637.962; p0.001).

CONCLUSION

The factor most associated with CVC is Klotho. Decreased serum level of Klotho is a predictor of aortic calcification. In addition, the initial serum level of Klotho is a predictor of eGFR after 2 years.

A Land of Controversy: Fibroblast Growth Factor-23 and Uremic Cardiac Hypertrophy

Cardiac hypertrophy is a common feature in patients with CKD. Recent studies revealed that two phosphate regulators, fibroblast growth factor-23 and α-Klotho, are highly involved in the pathophysiologic process of CKD-induced cardiac hypertrophy. With decreasing renal function, elevated fibroblast growth factor-23 and decreased α-Klotho may contribute to cardiac hypertrophy by targeting the heart directly or by inducing systemic changes, such as vascular injury, hemodynamic disorders, and inflammation. However, several studies have demonstrated that disturbances in the fibroblast growth factor-23/α-Klotho axis do not lead to cardiac hypertrophy. In this review, we describe the cardiac effects of the fibroblast growth factor-23/α-Klotho axis and summarize recent progress in this field. In addition, we present not only the main controversies in this field but also provide possible directions to resolve these disputes.

Klotho and the Treatment of Human Malignancies

Klotho was first discovered as an anti-ageing protein linked to a number of age-related disease processes, including cardiovascular, renal, musculoskeletal, and neurodegenerative conditions. Emerging research has also demonstrated a potential therapeutic role for Klotho in cancer biology, which is perhaps unsurprising given that cancer and ageing share similar molecular hallmarks. In addition to functioning as a tumour suppressor in numerous solid tumours and haematological malignancies, Klotho represents a candidate therapeutic target for patients with these diseases, the majority of whom have limited treatment options. Here, we examine contemporary evidence evaluating the anti-neoplastic effects of Klotho and describe the modulation of downstream oncogenic signalling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin, FGF, IGF1, PIK3K/AKT, TGFβ, and the Unfolded Protein Response. We also discuss possible approaches to developing therapeutic Klotho and consider technological advances that may facilitate the delivery of Klotho through gene therapy.

AP-2β/KCTD1 Control Distal Nephron Differentiation and Protect against Renal Fibrosis

The developmental mechanisms that orchestrate differentiation of specific nephron segments are incompletely understood, and the factors that maintain their terminal differentiation after nephrogenesis remain largely unknown. Here, the transcription factor AP-2β is shown to be required for the differentiation of distal tubule precursors into early stage distal convoluted tubules (DCTs) during nephrogenesis. In contrast, its downstream target KCTD1 is essential for terminal differentiation of early stage DCTs into mature DCTs, and impairment of their terminal differentiation owing to lack of KCTD1 leads to a severe salt-losing tubulopathy. Moreover, sustained KCTD1 activity in the adult maintains mature DCTs in this terminally differentiated state and prevents renal fibrosis by repressing β-catenin activity, whereas KCTD1 deficiency leads to severe renal fibrosis. Thus, the AP-2β/KCTD1 axis links a developmental pathway in the nephron to the induction and maintenance of terminal differentiation of DCTs that actively prevents their de-differentiation in the adult and protects against renal fibrosis.

Serum Klotho in Living Kidney Donors and Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Meta-Analysis

α-Klotho is a known anti-aging protein that exerts diverse physiological effects, including phosphate homeostasis. Klotho expression occurs predominantly in the kidney and is significantly decreased in patients with chronic kidney disease. However, changes in serum klotho levels and impacts of klotho on outcomes among kidney transplant (KTx) recipients and kidney donors remain unclear. A literature search was conducted using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Database from inception through October 2019 to identify studies evaluating serum klotho levels and impacts of klotho on outcomes among KTx recipients and kidney donors. Study results were pooled and analyzed utilizing a random-effects model. Ten cohort studies with a total of 431 KTx recipients and 5 cohort studies with a total of 108 living kidney donors and were identified. After KTx, recipients had a significant increase in serum klotho levels (at 4 to 13 months post-KTx) with a mean difference (MD) of 243.11 pg/mL (three studies; 95% CI 67.41 to 418.81 pg/mL). Although KTx recipients had a lower serum klotho level with a MD of = -234.50 pg/mL (five studies; 95% CI -444.84 to -24.16 pg/mL) compared to healthy unmatched volunteers, one study demonstrated comparable klotho levels between KTx recipients and eGFR-matched controls. Among kidney donors, there was a significant decrease in serum klotho levels post-nephrectomy (day 3 to day 5) with a mean difference (MD) of -232.24 pg/mL (three studies; 95% CI -299.41 to -165.07 pg/mL). At one year following kidney donation, serum klotho levels remained lower than baseline before nephrectomy with a MD of = -110.80 pg/mL (two studies; 95% CI 166.35 to 55.24 pg/mL). Compared to healthy volunteers, living kidney donors had lower serum klotho levels with a MD of = -92.41 pg/mL (two studies; 95% CI -180.53 to -4.29 pg/mL). There is a significant reduction in serum klotho levels after living kidney donation and an increase in serum klotho levels after KTx. Future prospective studies are needed to assess the impact of changes in klotho on clinical outcomes in KTx recipients and living kidney donors.

Effect of renin-angiotensin system on senescence

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays crucial roles in the control of blood pressure and sodium homeostasis. Moreover, RAS also acts as a key player in cell and organ senescence, mainly by activation of the classical axis of angiotensin (Ang) converting enzyme (ACE)/Ang II/Ang II type 1 receptor via overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Overactivation of the classical RAS axis induces organ dysfunction in the vasculature, brain, kidney and skeletal muscle, resulting in atherosclerosis, stroke, chronic kidney disease and sarcopenia. Moreover, RAS has been shown to regulate lifespan, using gene-modification models. Recently, mice lacking the Ang II type 1 receptor were shown to exhibit an increase in lifespan compared with control mice. Here, the effect of RAS on age-related tissue dysfunction in several organs is reviewed, including not only the classical axis but also protective functions of RAS such as the ACE2/Ang (1-7)/Mas axis. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2020; ••: ••-••.

The MicroRNA MiR-29c Alleviates Renal Fibrosis via TPM1-Mediated Suppression of the Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway

Purpose

This study aimed to evaluate the mechanism by which miR-29c expression in fibroblasts regulates renal interstitial fibrosis.

Methods

We stimulated NRK-49F cells with TGF-β1 to mimic the effects of fibrosis in vitro, while unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) was performed to obstruct the mid-ureter in mice. MiR-29c mimic or miR-29c inhibitor was used to mediate genes expressions in vitro. The recombinant adeno associated virus (rAAV) vectors carrying a FSP1 promoter that encodes miR-29c precursor or miR-29c inhibitor was used to mediate genes expressions in vivo, and a flank incision was made to expose the left kidney of each animal.

Results

In the present study, TGF-β1 was demonstrated to regulate miR-29c expression through Wnt/β-catenin signaling. In contrast, miR-29c appears to inhibit the Wnt/β-catenin pathway by suppressing TPM1 expression. As suggested by this feedback mechanism, miR-29c may be a key fibrosis-related microRNA expressed by fibroblasts in TGF-β1/Wnt/β-catenin-driven renal fibrosis, and manipulation of miR-29c action may accordingly offer a potential therapeutic pathway for renal fibrosis treatment.

Conclusion

MiR-29c expression was downregulated in UUO mouse kidneys as well as TGF-β1-treated NRK-49F cells, which thus inhibits myofibroblast formation via targeting of TPM1. Additionally, the production of extracellular matrix (ECM) in renal fibroblasts appears to be controlled by the reciprocal regulation of miR-29c action and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Inflammation and Premature Ageing in Chronic Kidney Disease

Persistent low-grade inflammation and premature ageing are hallmarks of the uremic phenotype and contribute to impaired health status, reduced quality of life, and premature mortality in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Because there is a huge global burden of disease due to CKD, treatment strategies targeting inflammation and premature ageing in CKD are of particular interest. Several distinct features of the uremic phenotype may represent potential treatment options to attenuate the risk of progression and poor outcome in CKD. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2)-kelch-like erythroid cell-derived protein with CNC homology [ECH]-associated protein 1 (KEAP1) signaling pathway, the endocrine phosphate-fibroblast growth factor-23-klotho axis, increased cellular senescence, and impaired mitochondrial biogenesis are currently the most promising candidates, and different pharmaceutical compounds are already under evaluation. If studies in humans show beneficial effects, carefully phenotyped patients with CKD can benefit from them.

Klotho/FGF23 and Wnt Signaling as Important Players in the Comorbidities Associated with Chronic Kidney Disease

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23) and Klotho play an essential role in the regulation of mineral metabolism, and both are altered as a consequence of renal failure. FGF23 increases to augment phosphaturia, which prevents phosphate accumulation at the early stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD). This effect of FGF23 requires the presence of Klotho in the renal tubules. However, Klotho expression is reduced as soon as renal function is starting to fail to generate a state of FGF23 resistance. Changes in these proteins directly affect to other mineral metabolism parameters; they may affect renal function and can produce damage in other organs such as bone, heart, or vessels. Some of the mechanisms responsible for the changes in FGF23 and Klotho levels are related to modifications in the Wnt signaling. This review examines the link between FGF23/Klotho and Wnt/β-catenin in different organs: kidney, heart, and bone. Activation of the canonical Wnt signaling produces changes in FGF23 and Klotho and vice versa; therefore, this pathway emerges as a potential therapeutic target that may help to prevent CKD-associated complications.

Klotho Gene in Human Salt-Sensitive Hypertension

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Hypertension is a common aging-related disorder. Salt intake is one of the main environmental factors contributing to the development of hypertension. Transgenic mice with one-half Klotho deficiency displayed a spontaneous BP increase and salt-sensitive hypertension in response to high sodium intake. Usually circulating levels of α-Klotho decrease with age, and this reduction may be stronger in patients with several aging-related diseases. This study aimed at exploring the association of Klotho with salt sensitivity in humans.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

The role of Klotho polymorphisms and α-Klotho serum levels was evaluated in patients with hypertension who were treatment naive and underwent an acute salt-sensitivity test (discovery n=673, intravenous 2 L of 0.9% saline in 2 hours). Salt sensitivity was defined as a mean BP increase of >4 mm Hg at the end of the infusion. A total of 32 single nucleotide polymorphisms in the Klotho gene (KL), previously identified with a genome-wide association study, were used in the genetic analysis and studied for a pressure-natriuresis relationship.

RESULTS

Of the patients with hypertension, 35% were classified as salt sensitive. The most relevant polymorphism associated with pressure natriuresis was the common missense single nucleotide polymorphism rs9536314, and the GG and GT genotypes were more represented among patients who were salt sensitive (P=0.001). Those carrying the G allele showed a less steep pressure-natriuresis relationship, meaning that a significant increase in mean BP was needed to excrete the same quantity of salt compared with patients who were salt resistant. KL rs9536314 also replicated the pressure-natriuresis association in an independent replication cohort (n=193) and in the combined analysis (n=866). There was an inverse relationship between circulating Klotho and mean BP changes after the saline infusion (r=-0.14, P=0.03). Moreover, circulating α-Klotho was directly related to kidney function at baseline eGFR (r=0.22, P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

KL rs9536314 is associated with salt-sensitive hypertension in patients with hypertension who are treatment naive. Moreover, circulating α-Klotho levels were mainly related to diastolic BP changes at the end of a salt load and to eGFR as an expression of kidney aging.