Understanding adolescence as a period of social-affective engagement and goal flexibility

Expecting the unexpected: a review of learning under uncertainty across development

Many of our decisions take place under uncertainty. To successfully navigate the environment, individuals need to estimate the degree of uncertainty and adapt their behaviors accordingly by learning from experiences. However, uncertainty is a broad construct and distinct types of uncertainty may differentially influence our learning. We provide a semi-systematic review to illustrate cognitive and neurobiological processes involved in learning under two types of uncertainty: learning in environments with stochastic outcomes, and with volatile outcomes. We specifically reviewed studies (N = 26 studies) that included an adolescent population, because adolescence is a period in life characterized by heightened exploration and learning, as well as heightened uncertainty due to experiencing many new, often social, environments. Until now, reviews have not comprehensively compared learning under distinct types of uncertainties in this age range. Our main findings show that although the overall developmental patterns were mixed, most studies indicate that learning from stochastic outcomes, as indicated by increased accuracy in performance, improved with age. We also found that adolescents tended to have an advantage compared with adults and children when learning from volatile outcomes. We discuss potential mechanisms explaining these age-related differences and conclude by outlining future research directions.

Sleep Time and Depression Symptoms as Predictors of Cognitive Development Among Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Study From China

Sleep time and depression symptoms are important factors affecting cognitive development in adolescents. Based on the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) database, this study used a two-wave cross-lagged model to examine the bidirectional relationship between sleep time, depression symptoms, and cognitive development. Descriptive statistics showed that Chinese adolescents' cognitive development increased significantly from 7th to 8th grade in junior high school, but unfortunately, their depression level and average sleep time per night demonstrated a slightly deteriorating trend. Correlation analysis showed that there was a relatively stable negative correlation between cognitive development, sleep time, and depression symptoms. Moreover, the cross-lagged model revealed that there was a bidirectional relationship between cognitive development and sleep time, a bidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and sleep time, and a unidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and cognitive development. Male adolescents in the subgroup were consistent with the total sample. Among female adolescents, only cognitive development and sleep time have a bidirectional relationship, while depression symptoms and cognitive development, and depression symptoms and sleep time have a unidirectional relationship. Therefore, it is of significance to take targeted action to promote cognitive development and healthy growth in adolescents worldwide.

A revisit of the amygdala theory of autism: Twenty years after

The human amygdala has long been implicated to play a key role in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Yet it remains unclear to what extent the amygdala accounts for the social dysfunctions in ASD. Here, we review studies that investigate the relationship between amygdala function and ASD. We focus on studies that employ the same task and stimuli to directly compare people with ASD and patients with focal amygdala lesions, and we also discuss functional data associated with these studies. We show that the amygdala can only account for a limited number of deficits in ASD (primarily face perception tasks but not social attention tasks), a network view is, therefore, more appropriate. We next discuss atypical brain connectivity in ASD, factors that can explain such atypical brain connectivity, and novel tools to analyze brain connectivity. Lastly, we discuss new opportunities from multimodal neuroimaging with data fusion and human single-neuron recordings that can enable us to better understand the neural underpinnings of social dysfunctions in ASD. Together, the influential amygdala theory of autism should be extended with emerging data-driven scientific discoveries such as machine learning-based surrogate models to a broader framework that considers brain connectivity at the global scale.

Inconsistencies in Adolescent Self-Reported Sexual Behavior: Experience from Four Randomized Controlled Trials

To examine the degree, correlates, and implications of inconsistent self-report data on sexual risk behaviors of adolescents. We analyzed data from four longitudinal group-randomized controlled trials of evidence-based HIV/STI/pregnancy prevention programs in Texas and California from 2000 to 2010. Across- and within-time logical inconsistencies in sexual behavior survey responses were analyzed using multilevel logistic regression. Rates of any inconsistencies ranged from 12 to 18% across the four trials. In all trials, rates were higher in males than in females. Age, normative beliefs, and race/ethnicity were most strongly associated with inconsistencies. We found substantial rates of inconsistencies in adolescents' self-reports of their sexual behavior, which did not occur at random. Studies should routinely report observed rates of inconsistencies and methods used to adjust for them so that any biases in the population to which the study generalizes are understood by public health practitioners and policy-makers looking to adopt programs for their particular population.

Development and Validation of the Dutch Social Attunement Questionnaire (SAQ)

The social plasticity hypothesis proposes that social attunement, i.e., the adaptation to and harmonization with one's environment, plays a crucial role in the risk for developing alcohol use disorders (AUDs) during adolescence, whereas in adulthood it paradoxically may make individuals more sensitive to the social pull to reduce drinking. This study aimed to develop a valid measure of social attunement: the social attunement questionnaire (SAQ). A total of 26-items were developed and the questionnaire was completed by 576 Dutch mid to late adolescents and adults over three rounds of online data collection. Using exploratory factor analysis in part of the sample (N = 373), the final questionnaire was reduced to two subscales with a total of 11 items. This structure was confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis in the second part of the sample (N = 203). Results showed that the SAQ has acceptable internal consistency, good measurement invariance to gender, and subscales assessing both cognitive as well as behavioural components of social attunement. In line with expectations on alcohol use settings, SAQ scores were not associated directly with alcohol use, but they were predictive of alcohol use when taking into account the interaction between perceived peer drinking and age. The SAQ appears suitable for the assessment of social attunement in (young) adult men and women, particularly assessing the role of social attunement in alcohol use settings. Further research is needed to confirm the utility of the SAQ in older adults and a broader variety of social settings.

How do social media influencers change adolescents' behavior? An evidence from Middle East Countries

Social Media Influencers (SMIs) refer to content creators, entertainment and art vloggers, online gamers, online streamers and any other activities related to social media. SMIs have gained significant portion of media today replacing tradition media and increasingly interacting in education, economy and entertainment world. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of SMIs on adolescents' behavior including intellectual, social, ethical and healthy aspects from the adolescents' perception and perspectives in Middle East countries. Online survey included 27 items was structured and distributed in five Middle East countries. By using convenience sampling, 1612 adolescents (aged 12-22) have completed the questionnaire. Results revealed that SMIs have positive significant impact on adolescents' intellectual aspect while this impact was also significant but negative with different degrees on social, ethical health aspects of adolescents in Middle East countries. Results also revealed that Facebook, what's app and Instagram were the most dominants social media platforms used among adolescents in Middle East countries. This study yields major theoretical contribution as it explores the SMIs influence on adolescents in Middle East and building examination tool based on characteristics and culture of Middle East region.

Cognitive Flexibility in Mice: Effects of Puberty and Role of NMDA Receptor Subunits

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to adapt flexibly to changing circumstances. In laboratory mice, we investigated whether cognitive flexibility is higher in pubertal mice than in adult mice, and whether this difference is related to the expression of distinct NMDA receptor subunits. Using the attentional set shifting task as a measure of cognitive flexibility, we found that cognitive flexibility was increased during puberty. This difference was more pronounced in female pubertal mice. Further, the GluN2A subunit of the NMDA receptor was more expressed during puberty than after puberty. Pharmacological blockade of GluN2A reduced the cognitive flexibility of pubertal mice to adult levels. In adult mice, the expression of GluN2A, GluN2B, and GluN2C in the orbitofrontal cortex correlated positively with performance in the attentional set shifting task, whereas in pubertal mice this was only the case for GluN2C. In conclusion, the present study confirms the observation in humans that cognitive flexibility is higher during puberty than in adulthood. Future studies should investigate whether NMDA receptor subunit-specific agonists are able to rescue deficient cognitive flexibility, and whether they have the potential to be used in human diseases with deficits in cognitive flexibility.

The Role of Neural Self-Referential Processes Underlying Self-Concept in Adolescent Depression: A Comprehensive Review and Proposed Neurobehavioral Model

There is growing knowledge about how self-concept develops in adolescence and contributes to the onset of depression, but researchers have only recently begun investigating the neural mechanisms that underlie self-referential cognition in adolescents with and without depression. This paper reviews task-related functional neuroimaging (fMRI) research on self-referential neural processing in both healthy and depressed adolescents (M_age range = 12-18 years), with a focus on elucidating brain activation that may subserve adolescent self-perception and related associations with depression. Drawing on conclusions from the affective neuroscience literature and developmental theory, we propose a neurobehavioral model and future research recommendations to address how social factors might shape self-referential neural processes and self-concept in ways that confer risk for depression. We review the operationalization of self-concept, developmental theory (i.e., symbolic interactionism) on self-concept development, and the role of self-concept in adolescent depression. We then review empirical studies assessing neural activation during healthy and depressed adolescents' processing of self-relevant information, and the limited studies assessing links between social factors and neural self-referential processing.

Context and domain matter: the error-related negativity in peer presence predicts fear of negative evaluation, not global social anxiety, in adolescents

BACKGROUND

Social anxiety symptoms are most likely to emerge during adolescence, a developmental window marked by heightened concern over peer evaluation. However, the neurocognitive mechanism(s) underlying adolescent social anxiety remain unclear. Emerging work points to the error-related negativity (ERN) as a potential neural marker of exaggerated self/error-monitoring in social anxiety, particularly for errors committed in front of peers. However, social anxiety symptoms are marked by heterogeneity and it remains unclear exactly what domain(s) of social anxiety symptoms are associated with ERN variation in peer presence, particularly within the adolescent period.

METHODS

To advance and deepen the mechanistic understanding of the ERN's putative role as a neural marker for social anxiety in adolescence, we leveraged a social manipulation procedure and assessed a developmentally salient domain of social anxiety during adolescence - fear of negative evaluation (FNE). Adolescents residing in Hanzhong, a small city in the southwestern region of mainland China, had EEG recorded while performing a flanker task, twice (peer presence/absence); FNE, as well as global social anxiety symptoms, was assessed.

RESULTS

Overall ERN increases in peer presence. FNE specifically, but not global levels of social anxiety symptoms, predicted ERN in peer presence.

CONCLUSIONS

These data are the first demonstration that the ERN relates to a specific domain of social anxiety in adolescents, as well as the first evidence of such relations within a non-WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic) sample. Results have important implications for theory and research into adolescent social anxiety.

Risk and protective factor profiles predict addictive behavior among adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Internet gaming disorder (IGD), compulsive sexual behavior (CSB), and problematic social network usage (PSNU) are prevalent disorders among adolescents. Research indicates an increase in the number of adolescents engaging in daily gaming, sex, and the use of social networks, as well as an increase in the number of adolescents diagnosed with these disorders. The current study aims to detect unique profiles of risk and protective factors and examine whether these profiles could explain the different severities of IGD, CSB, and PSNU among adolescents.

METHOD

The sample comprised 544 Jewish Israeli adolescents from the general community (age 14-18), who were asked about risk (childhood adversity, childhood trauma, depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress, self-concealment, internalized stigma) and protective (parent-adolescent communication,) factors and addictive behaviors (IGD, CSB, and PSNU).

RESULTS

Adolescents were classified into three different clusters based on their risk and protective factors: "at risk" (n = 48, 8.82%), "moderate" (n = 400, 73.53%), and "resilient" (n = 96, 17.65%). The "at risk" group had significantly greater severity of addictive behaviors (IGD, CSB, and PSNU) than did the "moderate" or "resilient" groups, and the "moderate" group had significantly greater severity of addictive behaviors than the "resilient" group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the fact that protective and risk factor profiles are highly indicative of various addictive behaviors among adolescents. The current research expands knowledge about addictive behaviors by providing a more individualized approach to understanding addictive behaviors among adolescents.

Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on structural brain development in early adolescence

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a global health crisis with large behavioral effects and serious stress and social consequences. Particularly, teenagers suffered pandemic-related social restrictions including school closures. This study examined whether and how structural brain development was influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic and whether pandemic length was associated with accumulating or resilience effects of brain development. We investigated structural changes in social brain regions (medial prefrontal cortex: mPFC; temporoparietal junction: TPJ) as well as the stress-related hippocampus and amygdala, using a longitudinal design of 2 MRI waves. We selected two age-matched subgroups (9-13 years old), one was tested before (n = 114) and the other during (peri-pandemic group, n = 204) the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicated that teenagers in the peri-pandemic group showed accelerated development in the mPFC and hippocampus compared to the before-pandemic group. Furthermore, TPJ growth showed immediate effects followed by possibly subsequent recovery effects that returned to a typical developmental pattern. No effects were observed for the amygdala. The findings of this region-of-interest study suggest that experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic measures had accelerating effects on hippocampus and mPFC development but the TPJ showed resilience to negative effects. Follow-up MRI assessments are needed to test acceleration and recovery effects over longer periods.

Temporal discounting for self and friends in adolescence: A fMRI study

Adolescence is characterized by impulsivity but also by increased importance of friendships. This study took the novel perspective of testing temporal discounting in a fMRI task where choices could affect outcomes for 96 adolescents (aged 10-20-years) themselves and their best friend. Decisions either benefitted themselves (i.e., the Self Immediate - Self Delay' condition) or their friend (i.e., 'Friend Immediate - Friend Delay' condition); or juxtaposed rewards for themselves and their friends (i.e., the 'Self Immediate - Friend Delay' or 'Friend Immediate - Self Delay' conditions). We observed that younger adolescents were more impulsive; and all participants were more impulsive when this was associated with an immediate benefit for friends. Individual differences analyses revealed increased activity in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex extending in the ventral striatum for immediate relative to delayed reward choices for self. Temporal choices were associated with activity in the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, insula, and ventral striatum, but only activity in the right inferior parietal lobe was associated with age. Finally, temporal delay choices for friends relative to self were associated with increased activity in the temporo-parietal junction and precuneus. Overall, this study shows a unique role of the social context in adolescents' temporal decision making.

The neurobiology of hatred: Tools of Dialogue© intervention for youth reared amidst intractable conflict impacts brain, behaviour, and peacebuilding attitudes

Myths, drama, and sacred texts have warned against the fragile nature of human love; the closer the affiliative bond, the quicker it can turn into hatred, suggesting similarities in the neurobiological underpinnings of love and hatred. Here, I offer a theoretical account on the neurobiology of hatred based on our model on the biology of human attachments and its three foundations; the oxytocin system, the "affiliative brain", comprising the neural network sustaining attachment, and biobehavioural synchrony, the process by which humans create a coupled biology through coordinated action. These systems mature in mammals in the context of the mother-infant bond and then transfer to support life within social groups. During this transition, they partition to support affiliation and solidarity to one's group and fear and hatred towards out-group based on minor variations in social behaviour. I present the Tools of Dialogue© intervention for outgroup members based on social synchrony. Applied to Israeli and Palestinian youth and implementing RCT, we measured social behaviour, attitudes, hormones, and social brain response before and after the 8-session intervention. Youth receiving the intervention increased reciprocity and reduced hostile behaviour towards outgroup, attenuated the neural marker of prejudice and increased neural empathic response, reduced cortisol and elevated oxytocin, and adapted attitudes of compromise. These neural changes predicted peacebuilding support 7 years later, when young adults can engage in civil responsibilities. Our intervention, the first to show long-term effects of inter-group intervention on brain and behaviour, demonstrates how social synchrony can tilt the neurobiology of hatred towards the pole of affiliation.

Avoidance Self-Efficacy: Personal Indicators of Risky Sex and Substance Use among At-Risk Youth

Adolescent substance use (SU) is associated with risky sex behavior and sexually transmitted infections and is a risk factor for subsequent risky sex decisions. Based on a sample of 1,580 youth in residential SU treatment, this study investigated how a static factor (race) and two dynamic personal factors (risk-taking, assertiveness) contributed to adolescents' perceived ability to avoid high-risk SU and sex behavior (avoidance self-efficacy). Results showed that race correlated with risk-taking and assertiveness, with White youth reporting higher ratings of assertiveness and risk-taking. Self-reported assertiveness and risk-taking also predicted SU and risky sex avoidance. This study underscores the importance of race and personal factors in relation to adolescents' confidence in avoiding high-risk situations.

Adolescents' Hormonal Responses to Social Stress and Associations with Adolescent Social Anxiety and Maternal Comfort: A Preliminary Study

Both social support and social stress can impact adolescent physiology including hormonal responses during the sensitive transition to adolescence. Social support from parents continues to play an important role in socioemotional development during adolescence. Sources of social support and stress may be particularly impactful for adolescents with social anxiety symptoms. The goal of the current study was to examine whether adolescent social anxiety symptoms and maternal comfort moderated adolescents' hormonal response to social stress and support. We evaluated 47 emotionally healthy 11- to 14-year-old adolescents' cortisol and oxytocin reactivity to social stress and support using a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test for Adolescents that included a maternal comfort paradigm. Findings demonstrated that adolescents showed significant increases in cortisol and significant decreases in oxytocin following the social stress task. Subsequently, we found that adolescents showed significant decreases in cortisol and increases in oxytocin following the maternal comfort paradigm. Adolescents with greater social anxiety symptoms showed higher levels of cortisol at baseline but greater declines in cortisol response following maternal social support. Social anxiety symptoms were unrelated to oxytocin response to social stress or support. Our findings provide further evidence that mothers play a key role in adolescent regulation of physiological response, particularly if the stressor is consistent with adolescents' anxiety. More specifically, our findings suggest that adolescents with higher social anxiety symptoms show greater sensitivity to maternal social support following social stressors. Encouraging parents to continue to serve as a supportive presence during adolescent distress may be helpful for promoting stress recovery during the vulnerable transition to adolescence.

Sleep Deprivation and Insomnia in Adolescence: Implications for Mental Health

Sleep changes significantly throughout the human lifespan. Physiological modifications in sleep regulation, in common with many mammals (especially in the circadian rhythms), predispose adolescents to sleep loss until early adulthood. Adolescents are one-sixth of all human beings and are at high risk for mental diseases (particularly mood disorders) and self-injury. This has been attributed to the incredible number of changes occurring in a limited time window that encompasses rapid biological and psychosocial modifications, which predispose teens to at-risk behaviors. Adolescents’ sleep patterns have been investigated as a biunivocal cause for potential damaging conditions, in which insufficient sleep may be both a cause and a consequence of mental health problems. The recent COVID-19 pandemic in particular has made a detrimental contribution to many adolescents’ mental health and sleep quality. In this review, we aim to summarize the knowledge in the field and to explore implications for adolescents’ (and future adults’) mental and physical health, as well as to outline potential strategies of prevention.

Towards the Influence of Media on Suicidality: A Systematic Review of Netflix's 'Thirteen Reasons Why'

Online streaming series 'Thirteen Reasons Why' (13RW), released in March 2017, was criticized for its sensationalist portrayal of the main character's suicide, leading some people to voice fears of a global contagion of self-harm behaviors. The current investigation provides a systematic review of original studies analyzing the role of 13RW as an influencing factor for suicide. Articles were identified through a systematic search of Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycInfo, and a manual search of reference lists from inception until the 16 January 2023. Twenty-seven published articles were identified from an initial search of 496 studies. The positive effects of watching 13RW included a reduction in suicide stigma and a greater likelihood to discuss mental health concerns and seek for help. However, several studies reported negative outcomes, including significant increases in the rate of deaths by suicide in adolescents, the number of admissions for suicidal reasons, and the prevalence and severity of suicidal ideation and self-harm behaviors in vulnerable viewers. Still, due to methodological limitations, no causal relationship could be established. Preventive measures are required to alert of the risk and should be particularly addressed to susceptible subjects. Psychoeducational programs should be focused on this kind of phenomena in vulnerable populations.

Puberty and risky decision-making in male adolescents

Pubertal development is a potential trigger for increases in risk-taking behaviours during adolescence. Here, we sought to investigate the relationship between puberty and neural activation during risky decision-making in males using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Forty-seven males aged 12.5-14.5 years completed an fMRI risk-taking task (BART) and reported their tendencies for risky decision-making using a self-report questionnaire. Puberty was assessed through self-reported pubertal status and salivary testosterone levels. Testosterone concentration, but not physical pubertal status, was positively correlated with self-reported risk-taking behaviour, while neither was correlated with BART performance. Across the whole sample, participants had greater activation of the bilateral nucleus accumbens and right caudate on trials when they made a successful risky decision compared to trials when they made a safe choice or when their risky decision was unsuccessful. There was a negative correlation between pubertal stage and brain activation during unsuccessful risky decision-making trials compared within unsuccessful control trials. Males at a lower stage of pubertal development showed increased activation in the left insula, right cingulate cortex, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), right putamen and right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) relative to more pubertally mature males during trials when they chose to take a risk and the balloon popped compared to when they watched the computer make an unsuccessful risky decision. Less pubertally mature males also showed greater activation in brain regions including the dmPFC, right temporal and frontal cortices, right OFC, right hippocampus and occipital cortex in unsuccessful risky trials compared to successful risky trials. These results suggest a puberty-related shift in neural activation within key brain regions when processing outcomes of risky decisions, which may reduce their sensitivity to negative feedback, and in turn contribute to increases in adolescent risk-taking behaviours.

Into and Through the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Impact of Colorism on the Criminalization of Black Girls

Colorism is a social construct privileging lighter-skinned people of color with proximity to European features over their darker-skinned counterparts. Despite the significant role in the lives of Black women and girls, colorism is an overlooked and understudied phenomenon, particularly regarding how it shapes their punishment and criminalization in schools. We conceptualize colorism as a social determinant of Black girls’ psychological well-being and outcomes. Darker-skinned Black girls face disproportionately severe school discipline, negative evaluation by teachers and peers, and are inundated with stereotypical messages that influence their sense of self—which increase vulnerability to trauma and psychological distress. Once inside the legal system, colorism plays a role in moving dark-skinned Black girls further into and through the pipeline at every stage of legal processing. The goal of the paper is to (1) highlight the role of colorism in the criminalization of Black girls, (2) identify school, forensic, and counseling/clinical psychology’s role in reducing the impact of colorism on Black girls’ lived experience as it relates to mental health and criminalization, and (3) identify psychological research and policy needs to mitigate the impact of colorism on Black girls’ life outcomes.

Moral Beauty During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Prosocial Behavior Among Adolescents and the Inspiring Role of the Media

In this study, we examined whether adolescents helped others during the COVID-19 pandemic and how stories in the media inspired them in doing so. Using an online daily diary design, 481 younger adolescents (M = 15.29, SD = 1.76) and 404 older adolescents (M = 21.48, SD = 1.91) were followed for 2 weeks. Findings from linear mixed effects models demonstrated that feelings of being moved by stories in the media were related to giving emotional support to family and friends, and to helping others, including strangers. Exposure to COVID-19 news and information was found to spark efforts to support and help as well and keeping physical distance in line with the advised protective behaviors against COVID-19. Moreover, helping others was related to increased happiness. Overall, the findings of this study highlight the potential role of the media in connecting people in times of crisis.

Social network position, trust behavior, and neural activity in young adolescents

Our social interactions take place within numerous social networks, in which our relationships with others define our position within these networks. In this study, we examined how the centrality of positions within social networks was associated with trust behavior and neural activity in 49 adolescents (M_age = 12.8 years, SD_age = 0.4 years). The participants played a trust game with a cartoon animation as a partner, which showed adaptive behavior in response to the participant and was generally untrustworthy. Social network positions were obtained in secondary school classrooms where the participants and their classmates reported on who their friends were. Using social network analysis, a score was calculated that indicated the centrality of everyone's position within the friendship network. The results showed that more central social network positions were associated with higher levels of initial trust behavior, although no evidence was found for a relationship between network position and the adaptation of trust behavior. The results of the functional MRI analyses showed that the centrality of the network positions was positively associated with caudate activity when making trust decisions. Furthermore, the adolescents with more central network positions also showed stronger increases of caudate activity when the partner's return was processed compared to the adolescents with less central network positions. The current study provides initial evidence that social network positions in friendship networks relate to socio-cognitive behavior and neural activity in adolescents.

Value of Self-Disclosure to Parents and Peers During Adolescence

Self-disclosure is a crucial part of developing close interpersonal relationships during adolescence. In particular, sharing information with a greater depth of intimacy is thought to strengthen social bonds and thus support mental health. The current study investigated the value for different depths of self-disclosures to close others (mothers and best friends) during adolescence and its association with mental health and well-being. Fifty-four girls (11.0-15.9 years) completed a forced-choice monetary paradigm to assess value for self-disclosures and questionnaires on mental health. Participants significantly valued (i.e., forfeited monetary reward) for disclosures to both mothers and best friends, although intimate disclosures were more "costly" than superficial disclosures. Greater value for intimate self-disclosures to mothers was also associated with better mental health and well-being.

Effects of foster care intervention and caregiving quality on the bidirectional development of executive functions and social skills following institutional rearing

Institutional rearing negatively impacts the development of children's social skills and executive functions (EF). However, little is known about whether childhood social skills mediate the effects of the foster care intervention (FCG) and foster caregiving quality following early institutional rearing on EF and social skills in adolescence. We examined (a) whether children's social skills at 8 years mediate the impact of the FCG on the development of EF at ages 12 and 16 years, and (b) whether social skills and EF at ages 8 and 12 mediate the relation between caregiving quality in foster care at 42 months and subsequent social skills and EF at age 16. Participants included abandoned children from Romanian institutions, who were randomly assigned to a FCG (n = 68) or care as usual (n = 68), and a never-institutionalized group (n = 135). At ages 8, 12, and 16, social skills were assessed via caregiver and teacher reports and EF were assessed via the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Caregiving quality of foster caregivers was observed at 42 months. FCG predicted better social skills at 8 years, which in turn predicted better EF in adolescence. Higher caregiver quality in foster care at 42 months predicted better social skills at 8 and 12 years, and better EF at 12 years, which in turn predicted 16-year EF and social skills. These findings suggest that interventions targeting caregiving quality within foster care home environments may have long-lasting positive effects on children's social skills and EF.

Therapeutic touch and therapeutic alliance in pediatric care and neonatology: An active inference framework

Therapeutic affective touch has been recognized as essential for survival, nurturing supportive interpersonal interactions, accelerating recovery-including reducing hospitalisations, and promoting overall health and building robust therapeutic alliances. Through the lens of active inference, we present an integrative model, combining therapeutic touch and communication, to achieve biobehavioural synchrony. This model speaks to how the brain develops a generative model required for recovery, developing successful therapeutic alliances, and regulating allostasis within paediatric manual therapy. We apply active inference to explain the neurophysiological and behavioural mechanisms that underwrite the development and maintenance of synchronous relationships through touch. This paper foregrounds the crucial role of therapeutic touch in developing a solid therapeutic alliance, the clinical effectiveness of paediatric care, and triadic synchrony between health care practitioner, caregiver, and infant in a variety of clinical situations. We start by providing a brief overview of the significance and clinical role of touch in the development of social interactions in infants; facilitating a positive therapeutic alliance and restoring homeostasis through touch to allow a more efficient process of allostatic regulation. Moreover, we explain the role of CT tactile afferents in achieving positive clinical outcomes and updating prior beliefs. We then discuss how touch is implemented in treatment sessions to promote cooperative interactions in the clinic and facilitate theory of mind. This underwrites biobehavioural synchrony, epistemic trust, empathy, and the resolution of uncertainty. The ensuing framework is underpinned by a critical application of the active inference framework to the fields of pediatrics and neonatology.

The development of adolescent trust behavior

Interpersonal trust shows developmental changes during adolescence. The current study used a longitudinal design to examine the development of trust behavior, the presence of gender differences in these developmental trajectories, and the association between individual differences in these developmental trajectories and perspective-taking abilities. The participants played a trust game with a hypothetical trustworthy partner and a trust game with a hypothetical untrustworthy partner in 3 consecutive years (M_age = 12.55 years, M_age = 13.54 years, and M_age = 14.54 years). Concerning the development of trust behavior, the results showed an age-related increase in initial trust behavior and indicated increasingly adaptive trust behavior with age during untrustworthy interactions, whereas no evidence was found for age-related changes in the adaptation of trust during trustworthy interactions. Gender differences were found for the development of initial trust behavior (with boys showing a stronger increase with age than girls), whereas no support was found for the presence of gender differences in the developmental trajectories of adaptive trust behavior during trustworthy and untrustworthy interactions. Furthermore, no evidence was found for perspective-taking abilities to explain individual differences in the development of initial trust behavior or in the development of adaptive trust behavior during trustworthy and untrustworthy interactions. The results provide evidence that, during adolescence initial trust behavior increased with age, more for boys than for girls, and that both boys and girls showed a stronger adaptive response to the untrustworthy partner but not to the trustworthy partner.

Thumbs up or thumbs down: neural processing of social feedback and links to social motivation in adolescent girls

Adolescence is a period of rapid biological and psychological development, characterized by increasing emotional reactivity and risk-taking, especially in peer contexts. Theories of adolescent neural development suggest that the balance in sensitivity across neural threat, reward and regulatory systems contributes to these changes. Building on previous research, this study used a novel social feedback task to explore activation and functional connectivity in the context of social threat and reward in a sample of mid-adolescent girls (n = 86, Mage = 16.32). When receiving negative peer feedback, adolescents showed elevated activation in, and amygdala connectivity with, social processing regions [e.g. medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ)]. When receiving positive feedback, adolescents showed elevated activation in social and reward (e.g. mPFC and ventromedial prefrontal cortex) processing regions and less striatum-cerebellum connectivity. To understand the psychological implications of neural activation and co-activation, we examined associations between neural processing of threat and reward and self-reported social goals. Avoidance goals predicted elevated amygdala and striatum connectivity with social processing regions [e.g. medial temporal gyrus (MTG)], whereas approach goals predicted deactivation in social processing regions (e.g. MTG/TPJ and precuneus), highlighting the importance of considering individual differences in sensitivity to social threat and reward in adolescence.

Social goals in girls transitioning to adolescence: associations with psychopathology and brain network connectivity

The motivation to socially connect with peers increases during adolescence in parallel with changes in neurodevelopment. These changes in social motivation create opportunities for experiences that can impact risk for psychopathology, but the specific motivational presentations that confer greater psychopathology risk are not fully understood. To address this issue, we used a latent profile analysis to identify the multidimensional presentations of self-reported social goals in a sample of 220 girls (9-15 years old, M = 11.81, SD = 1.81) that was enriched for internalizing symptoms, and tested the association between social goal profiles and psychopathology. Associations between social goals and brain network connectivity were also examined in a subsample of 138 youth. Preregistered analyses revealed four unique profiles of social goal presentations in these girls. Greater psychopathology was associated with heightened social goals such that higher clinical symptoms were related to a greater desire to attain social competence, avoid negative feedback and gain positive feedback from peers. The profiles endorsing these excessive social goals were characterized by denser connections among social-affective and cognitive control brain regions. These findings thus provide preliminary support for adolescent-onset changes in motivating factors supporting social engagement that may contribute to risk for psychopathology in vulnerable girls.

Neighborhood disadvantage, race/ethnicity and neural sensitivity to social threat and reward among adolescents

Experiences within one's social environment shape neural sensitivity to threatening and rewarding social cues. However, in racialized societies like the USA, youth from minoritized racial/ethnic backgrounds can have different experiences and perceptions within neighborhoods that share similar characteristics. The current study examined how neighborhood disadvantage intersects with racial/ethnic background in relation to neural sensitivity to social cues. A racially diverse (59 Hispanic/Latine, 48 White, 37 Black/African American, 15 multi-racial and 6 other) and primarily low to middle socioeconomic status sample of 165 adolescents (88 female; Mage = 12.89) completed a social incentive delay task while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. We tested for differences in the association between neighborhood disadvantage and neural responses to social threat and reward cues across racial/ethnic groups. For threat processing, compared to White youth, neighborhood disadvantage was related to greater neural activation in regions involved in salience detection (e.g. anterior cingulate cortex) for Black youth and regions involved in mentalizing (e.g. temporoparietal junction) for Latine youth. For reward processing, neighborhood disadvantage was related to greater brain activation in reward, salience and mentalizing regions for Black youth only. This study offers a novel exploration of diversity within adolescent neural development and important insights into our understanding of how social environments may 'get under the skull' differentially across racial/ethnic groups.

Auditory Domain Sensitivity and Neuroplasticity-Based Targeted Cognitive Training in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Sensory processing, along with the integration of external inputs into stable representations of the environment, is integral to social cognitive functioning; challenges in these processes have been reported in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) since the earliest descriptions of autism. Recently, neuroplasticity-based targeted cognitive training (TCT) has shown promise as an approach to improve functional impairments in clinical patients. However, few computerized and adaptive brain-based programs have been trialed in ASD. For individuals with sensory processing sensitivities (SPS), the inclusion of some auditory components in TCT protocols may be aversive. Thus, with the goal of developing a web-based, remotely accessible intervention that incorporates SPS concerns in the auditory domain, we assessed auditory SPS in autistic adolescents and young adults (N = 25) who started a novel, computerized auditory-based TCT program designed to improve working memory and information processing speed and accuracy. We found within-subject gains across the training program and between pre/post-intervention assessments. We also identified auditory, clinical, and cognitive characteristics that are associated with TCT outcomes and program engagement. These initial findings may be used to inform therapeutic decisions about which individuals would more likely engage in and benefit from an auditory-based, computerized TCT program.

Associations between Anxiety, Depression, Chronic Pain and Oral Health-Related Quality of Life, Happiness, and Polymorphisms in Adolescents' Genes

Adolescence is marked by changes and vulnerability to the emergence of psychological problems. This study aimed to investigate associations between anxiety/depression/chronic pain and oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL)/happiness/polymorphisms in the COMT, HTR2A and FKBP5 genes in Brazilian adolescents. A cross-sectional study was conducted with ninety adolescents 13 to 18 years. Anxiety, depression and chronic pain were evaluated using the RDC/TMD. The Oral Health Impact Profile was used to assess oral OHRQoL. The Subjective Happiness Scale was used to assess happiness. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in COMT (rs165656, rs174675), HTR2A (rs6313, rs4941573) and FKBP5 (rs1360780, rs3800373) were genotyped using the Taqman® method. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed (p < 0.05). Chronic pain and depression were associated with feelings of happiness (p < 0.05). A significant inverse association was found between anxiety and OHRQoL (p = 0.004). The presence of minor allele C of COMT rs174675 was significantly associated with depression (p = 0.040). Brazilian adolescents with depression and chronic pain considers themselves to be less happy than others and those with anxiety are more likely to have a negative impact on OHRQoL. Moreover, the rs174675 variant allele in the COMT gene was associated with depressive symptoms in Brazilian adolescents.

Heterogeneity in social participation among young people with vision impairment

Young people may adapt to vision impairment (VI) in a variety of ways. To explore heterogeneity in social participation, data were mined for distinct patterns. Existing data from 258 young people with VI, aged between 26 and 44 years ( M = 35.3 years; SD = 5.07), were clustered. Social participation was measured by four closed-ended questions and the Social Network Map. Loneliness was measured by the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness scale. K-medoids clustering with the Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm was used to cluster social participation variables and age.Eight clusters were identified, with participants in the two largest clusters, clusters 1 ( n = 84) and 2 ( n = 50), scoring high on almost all social participation outcomes. Participants in cluster 8 ( n = 14) had the lowest social participation scores. However, also over half of the participants in clusters 4, 5, 6, and 7 experienced feelings of loneliness. Findings demonstrate considerable heterogeneity in social participation among young people with VI, which however does not link to loneliness. These variations in social participation underline the need for a differentiated approach to address needs of young people with VI.

White matter microstructure shows sex differences in late childhood: Evidence from 6797 children

Sex differences in white matter microstructure have been robustly demonstrated in the adult brain using both conventional and advanced diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging approaches. However, sex differences in white matter microstructure prior to adulthood remain poorly understood; previous developmental work focused on conventional microstructure metrics and yielded mixed results. Here, we rigorously characterized sex differences in white matter microstructure among over 6000 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study who were between 9 and 10 years old. Microstructure was quantified using both the conventional model-diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-and an advanced model, restriction spectrum imaging (RSI). DTI metrics included fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean, axial, and radial diffusivity (MD, AD, RD). RSI metrics included normalized isotropic, directional, and total intracellular diffusion (N0, ND, NT). We found significant and replicable sex differences in DTI or RSI microstructure metrics in every white matter region examined across the brain. Sex differences in FA were regionally specific. Across white matter regions, boys exhibited greater MD, AD, and RD than girls, on average. Girls displayed increased N0, ND, and NT compared to boys, on average, suggesting greater cell and neurite density in girls. Together, these robust and replicable findings provide an important foundation for understanding sex differences in health and disease.

Ontological Adaptation in Transition to Adulthood: A Theoretical Framework for Integrating Phenomenology and Neuroscience in Psychosis Research

In this theoretical review, the neurodevelopmental model of psychotic disorders is considered within the framework of ontological development, referring to the individual-level construction of a sense of reality regarding identity and worldview. Following Erikson's theory of development, the challenge of forging a personal and social identity is a developmental process typical of late adolescence and early adulthood. Accompanying this process is a developmentally normal increase in exploratory and risk-taking behavior, which sometimes includes challenging and defying cultural norms. Although many aspects of ontological adaptation are developmentally appropriate, we argue that psychopathology such as psychosis can be rooted in an abnormal deviation of this process, in which aberrant salience accelerates the typical drive to develop a meaningful sense of identity, leading to delusion formation. By placing psychosis onset within a broader context of normal development, this model offers a humanistic approach for understanding experiences of new onset of psychotic disorders.

Adolescents' Perceptions of Social Risk and Prosocial Tendencies: Developmental Change and Individual Differences

Many prosocial behaviors involve social risks such as speaking out against a popular opinion, bias, group norm, or authority. However, little is known about whether adolescents' prosocial tendencies develop over time with their perceptions of social risks. This accelerated longitudinal study used within-subject growth-curve analyses to test the link between prosocial tendencies and social risk perceptions, in a sample of adolescents who completed self-reports annually for three years (N = 893; M age = 12.30 years, 10 - 14 years at Wave 1, and 10 - 17 years across the full study period; 50% Girls, 33% White non-Latinx, 27% Latinx, 20% African American, 20% Mixed/Other Race). The association between social risk tolerance and prosocial tendencies changed significantly across adolescence, such that at for younger adolescents, more prosocial tendencies were associated with less social risk tolerance, whereas for relatively older adolescents, more prosocial tendencies were associated marginally with more social risk tolerance. Additional individual differences by empathy (but not sensation seeking) emerged. These findings suggest that prosocial development across adolescence may be associated with an underlying ability to tolerate social risks.

The effect of incorrect prior information on trust behavior in adolescents

During adolescence, social cognition and the brain undergo major developments. Social interactions become more important, and adolescents must learn that not everyone can be trusted equally. Prior knowledge about the trustworthiness of an interaction partner may affect adolescents' expectations about the partner. However, the expectations based on prior knowledge can turn out to be incorrect, causing the need to respond adaptively during the interaction. In the current fMRI study, we investigated the effect of incorrect prior knowledge on adolescent trust behavior and on the neural processes of trust. Thirty-three adolescents (M_age = 17.2 years, SD_age = 0.5 years) played two trust games with partners whose behavior was preprogrammed using an algorithm that modeled trustworthy behavior. Prior to the start of both games, participants received information suggesting that the partner in one game was untrustworthy (raising incorrect expectations) and the partner in the other game trustworthy (raising correct expectations). Results indicated that participants adapted their trust behavior following incorrect prior expectations. No evidence for a change in trust behavior was shown when prior expectations were correct. fMRI analyses revealed that when receiving the partner's response, activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and in the superior parietal gyrus were increased when participants had incorrect expectations about the partner compared to when participants had correct expectations. When making trust decisions, no significant differences in neural activity were found when comparing the two games. This study provides insight into how adolescent trust behavior and neural mechanisms are affected by expectations and provides an increased understanding of the factors that influence adolescent social interactions.

Mindset and perceived parental support of autonomy safeguard adolescents' autonomous motivation during COVID-19 home-based learning

During school closures throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, less support from peers and teachers may have required more autonomous motivation from adolescents. Little is known about factors that could shield against these negative effects. Driven by two influential motivational theories, we examined how mindset, feelings of school burnout and the three basic psychological needs of the self-determination theory, could predict changes in autonomous motivation when controlling for pre-pandemic levels of motivation. The results from a sample of Dutch adolescents (Mage = 14.63 years) and their parents (Mage = 48.65 years) showed that endorsing a growth mindset was positively associated with autonomous motivation during the school closures, while feelings of school burnout were negatively associated with autonomous motivation. Additionally, perceived parental autonomy support (i.e. a measure of the basic psychological need of autonomy) related to more autonomous motivation during home-based learning. Our findings highlight the personal and family factors that influence how adolescents respond to home-based learning and suggest ways to keep adolescents motivated and diminish possible negative consequences during future home-based learning situations.

Investigating the Role of Friendship Interventions on the Mental Health Outcomes of Adolescents: A Scoping Review of Range and a Systematic Review of Effectiveness

Friendships are crucial in adolescent development. This paper presents a scoping review, followed by a systematic review, to assess friendship interventions and their impacts on the mental health outcomes of adolescents aged 12-24 years. Studies were included if they incorporated a friend or authentic social group in an intervention dedicated to improving mental health outcomes and well-being. Twenty-four studies were included in the scoping review, and eighteen in the systematic review. Data from 12,815 adolescents were analysed; three prominent themes emerged. The most common theme was promoting mental health literacy, followed by supporting help-seeking, and friendship-building/combating isolation. Most evaluations focused on the individual who had received the intervention, rather than their wider friends who would have been potential contacts and experienced any altered interactions. Of the studies focusing on friendship-building, all had positive short-term outcomes but inconclusive long-term effects. Two studies recruited friends from an individual's authentic social group. While opportunities for improving mental health literacy and help-seeking emerged as key themes, the role of friends in mental health interventions has only been included in a small number of studies. Given that friends are a key point of contact for many adolescents, a better understanding of their domains of influence, particularly on mental health, will potentially enhance interventions.

Contemporary Hermits: A Developmental Psychopathology Account of Extreme Social Withdrawal (Hikikomori) in Young People

Although it is widely accepted that human beings have an ingrained 'need to belong,' there seem to be a substantial subset of young people who seclude themselves for most of the time at home and no longer engage in education or work, ultimately withdrawing from participation in society. In Japan, this phenomenon has been labeled as 'hikikomori,' but given its global presence it may be preferable to use the term 'extreme social withdrawal' (ESW). In this qualitative review, we provide a description and definition of ESW, provide figures on its prevalence, and discuss a number of associated concepts, including loneliness and "aloneliness," school absenteeism and dropout, the 'new' developmental stage of adultolescence, and the labor force categories of freeter ('freelance arbeiter') and NEET (a young person not in employment, education, or training). The core of the paper is focused on the origins of ESW in young people and provides a narrative overview of relevant etiological factors, such as aberrant brain processes, unfavorable temperament, psychiatric conditions, adverse family processes including detrimental parenting, negative peer experiences, societal pressures, and excessive internet and digital media use, which are all placed within a comprehensive developmental psychopathology framework. We will close with a discussion of possible interventions for young people with ESW and formulate a guideline that describes (the temporal order of) various components that need to be included in such a treatment.

The stability of the twofold multidimensionality of academic self-concept: A study of Chinese secondary school students

Introduction

The present investigation examined the stability of the twofold multidimensional structure of academic self-concepts (ASCs) in three domains, namely Chinese, math, and general school using four-wave data collected over 2 years among 552 Chinese secondary school students.

Method

Adopting both a within-network and a between-network approach, confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) and factor correlations were performed in Mplus 8.2.

Results

The within-network results showed that CFA models wherein competence and affect dimensions were conflated generated unacceptable fit. In contrast, the CFAs in which competence and affect were modeled as separate latent factors consistently produced superior fit to the data. The between-network results demonstrated that in the Chinese and math domains and across the four-time waves, the competence components were more strongly related to the achievements in matching domains than the affect components were. Furthermore, both the competence and affect components of ASCs and achievements were positively correlated in the non-matching domains, which were somewhat contradictory to the internal/external frame of reference model predicting zero or negative relations.

Discussion

Such results seem to suggest more involvement in social comparison than in dimensional comparison of Chinese students, which might be attributed to the collectivistic Chinese culture and the common phenomenon of academic social comparisons among Chinese adolescents in schools.

Network structure and temporal stability of depressive symptoms after a natural disaster among children and adolescents

Background: Previous studies have found that the postdisaster developmental course of depression is more stable than that of other mental disorders among children and adolescents. However, the network structure and temporal stability of depressive symptoms after natural disasters among children and adolescents remain unknown.Objective: This study aims to understand the depressive symptom network and evaluate its temporal stability among children and adolescents after natural disasters.Methods: Three-wave measurements were conducted among 1,466 children and adolescents at 3, 15, and 27 months following the Zhouqu debris flow. Depressive symptoms were evaluated by the Child Depression Inventory (CDI), which was dichotomised to signify the presence or absence of depressive symptoms. Depression networks were estimated with the Ising model, and expected influence was used to assess node centrality. A network comparison test was used to test the differences in the depression networks among the three temporal points.Results: Overall, the depressive symptom network was temporally stable regarding symptom centrality and global connectivity over the two-year study period. Self-hate, loneliness, and sleep disturbance were central symptoms and had low variability in the depressive networks at the three temporal points. Crying and self-deprecation had large temporal variability in centrality.Conclusion: The present study provides the first evidence for the temporal stability of the youth depressive symptom network postdisaster. The similar central symptoms and connectivity of depression symptoms at different temporal points after natural disasters may partially explain the stable prevalence and developmental trajectory of depression. Self-hate, loneliness, and sleep disturbance could be central characteristics, and sleep disturbance and reduced appetite, sadness and crying, and misbehaviour and disobedience could be key associations in the endurance of depression among children and adolescents after experiencing a natural disaster.

A developmental perspective on sleep consistency: Preschool age through emerging adulthood

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND

Beyond sleep duration, the regularity of sleep patterns (e.g., sleep consistency), including variability in sleep timing (e.g., bedtime, wake time) and duration, is a critical marker of sleep health. Sleep consistency is captured using a variety of methods within the literature (e.g., sleep intraindividual variability, social jetlag), but most of the research focuses on adolescents.

METHODS

Drawing on a developmental perspective, this narrative review highlights how normative changes at the individual (e.g., biological, cognitive, and social) and contextual (e.g., home, school, sociocultural) levels may contribute to inconsistent sleep patterns across development.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

This review emphasizes how inconsistent sleep may increase across pivotal transitions throughout development (e.g., elimination of naps, puberty, summertime, entering college). Finally, recommendations for measuring sleep consistency and areas to address in future research are discussed.

Are you more risk-seeking when helping others? Effects of situational urgency and peer presence on prosocial risky behavior

Introduction

Prosocial risky behavior (PRB) proposes that individuals take risks for others' benefits or social welfare, and that this may involve trade-offs between risk and social preferences. However, little is known about the underlying cognitive mechanisms of risk-seeking or aversion during PRB.

Methods

This study adopted the dilemma-priming paradigm to examine the interaction between the risk levels of personal cost and situational urgency on PRB (Experiment 1, N  = 88), and it further uncovered the modulation of the risk levels of failure (Experiment 2, N  = 65) and peer presence (Experiment 3, N  = 80) when helping others.

Results

In Experiment 1, the participants involved in risky dilemmas made more altruistic choices for strangers in urgent situations compared to those for strangers in non-urgent situations. However, increasing the risk levels of personal cost decreased the frequencies of help offered to strangers in urgent situations. Experiment 2 further established that, similar to the risk of personal cost, increasing the risk levels of failure when helping others also decreased the frequencies of help offered to strangers in urgent situations. Furthermore, in dilemmas involving a low-risk personal cost, Experiment 3 showed that peer presence encouraged the participants to make more altruistic choices when providing help to strangers in non-urgent situations.

Discussion

Individuals demonstrate obvious risk-seeking behavior when helping others and that both non-urgent situations and peer presence weaken the effect of increased risk aversion on PRB in a limited manner.

A preliminary neuroimaging investigation of the effects of mindfulness training on attention reorienting and amygdala reactivity to emotional faces in adolescent and adult females

INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is a time of increased emotional reactivity and improving cognitive control. Mindfulness meditation training may foster adolescents' cognitive control and emotional regulation skills; however little is known about the impact of mindfulness training in adolescents compared to adults. We examined the effect of mindfulness meditation versus a closely matched active control condition (relaxation training) on behavioral and neural measures of cognitive control and emotional reactivity in a small group of adolescents and adults.

METHODS

Structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected before and after 8 weeks of training in 26 adolescent (12-14 years) and 17 adult (23-33 years) female participants in the United Kingdom while they completed an n-back task with emotional face distractors and an attentional control task. Participants of each group chose a class date/time and the classes were then randomly allocated to mindfulness or relaxation conditions.

RESULTS

Compared to relaxation training, mindfulness training led to an increase in the speed of reorienting attention across age groups. In addition, there was preliminary evidence for reduced amygdala response to emotional face distractors in adolescents after mindfulness training.

CONCLUSIONS

An 8-week mindfulness program showed similar facilitative effects in adolescent and adult females on the reorienting of attention, a skill that is repeatedly practiced during mindfulness meditation. Mindfulness also reduced left amygdala reactivity to emotional face distractors in adolescents only. Mindfulness meditation practice can therefore have a facilitative effect on female adolescents' attentional control, and possibly attenuate their emotional reactivity.

Physical Effort Exertion for Peer Feedback Reveals Evolving Social Motivations From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

Peer relationships and social belonging are particularly important during adolescence. Using a willingness-to-work paradigm to quantify incentive motivation, we examined whether evaluative information holds unique value for adolescents. Participants (N = 102; 12-23 years old) rated peers, predicted how peers rated them, and exerted physical effort to view each peer's rating. We measured grip force, speed, and opt-out behavior to examine the motivational value of peer feedback, relative to money in a control condition, and to assess how peer desirability and participants' expectations modulated motivated effort across age. Overall, when compared with adolescents, adults were relatively less motivated for feedback than money. Whereas adults exerted less force and speed for feedback when expecting rejection, adolescents exerted greater force and speed when expecting to be more strongly liked or disliked. These findings suggest that the transition into adulthood is accompanied by a self-protective focus, whereas adolescents are motivated to consume highly informative feedback, even if negative.

Associations between parental conflict and social and monetary reward responsiveness in adolescents with clinical depression

Increased rates of depression beginning in adolescence are thought to be attributed in part to marked developmental changes in reward systems and interpersonal relationships. Blunted reward response has been observed in depression and this may be shaped in part by social experiences, raising questions about the combined associations of parental conflict, depression, and reward response in both social and monetary domains. The present study used the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential that indexes both monetary and social reward processing, to examine the unique and combined associations of parental conflict and depressive symptoms on reward responsiveness in adolescents with clinical depression (N = 70) 14-18 years of age (M = 15.81, SD = 1.46; 65.7% female). Results indicated that depressive symptoms interacted with maternal conflict in characterizing the RewP to social, but not monetary, rewards. Specifically, higher levels of current depressive symptoms and potentiated maternal conflict together were associated with an attenuated RewP to social rewards in this clinical sample. We found no significant effects of paternal conflict. This investigation highlights maternal conflict as an important environmental factor for reward responsiveness and also emphasizes the utility of examining social reward responsiveness in depression in order to better understand the impacts of contextual factors.

Exogenous testosterone administration is associated with differential neural response to unfamiliar peer's and own caregiver's voice in transgender adolescents

Changes in gonadal hormones during puberty are thought to potentiate adolescents' social re-orientation away from caregivers and towards peers. This study investigated the effect of testosterone on neural processing of emotional (vocal) stimuli by unfamiliar peers vs. parents, in transgender boys receiving exogenous testosterone as a gender-affirming hormone (GAH+) or not (GAH-). During fMRI, youth heard angry and happy vocal expressions spoken by their caregiver and an unfamiliar teenager. Youth also self-reported on closeness with friends and parents. Whole-brain analyses (controlling for age) revealed that GAH+ youth showed blunted neural response to caregivers' angry voices-and heightened response to unfamiliar teenage angry voices-in the anterior cingulate cortex. This pattern was reversed in GAH- youth, who also showed greater response to happy unfamiliar teenager vs. happy caregiver voices in this region. Blunted ACC response to angry caregiver voices-a pattern characteristic of GAH+ youth-was associated with greater relative closeness with friends over parents, which could index more "advanced" social re-orientation. Consistent with models of adolescent neurodevelopment, increases in testosterone during adolescence may shift the valuation of caregiver vs. peer emotional cues in a brain region associated with processing affective information.