A developmental perspective on executive function

Brain signal variability and executive functions across the life span

Neural variability is thought to facilitate survival through flexible adaptation to changing environmental demands. In humans, such capacity for flexible adaptation may manifest as fluid reasoning, inhibition of automatic responses, and mental set-switching-skills falling under the broad domain of executive functions that fluctuate over the life span. Neural variability can be quantified via the BOLD signal in resting-state fMRI. Variability of large-scale brain networks is posited to underpin complex cognitive activities requiring interactions between multiple brain regions. Few studies have examined the extent to which network-level brain signal variability across the life span maps onto high-level processes under the umbrella of executive functions. The present study leveraged a large publicly available neuroimaging dataset to investigate the relationship between signal variability and executive functions across the life span. Associations between brain signal variability and executive functions shifted as a function of age. Limbic-specific variability was consistently associated with greater performance across subcomponents of executive functions. Associations between executive function subcomponents and network-level variability of the default mode and central executive networks, as well as whole-brain variability, varied across the life span. Findings suggest that brain signal variability may help to explain to age-related differences in executive functions across the life span.

Associations between disordered eating, internalizing symptoms, and behavioral and neural correlates of response inhibition in preadolescence

Response inhibition difficulties are reported in individuals with eating disorders (EDs), anxiety, and depression. Although ED symptoms and internalizing symptoms co-occur in preadolescence, there is limited research examining associations between these symptoms and response inhibition in this age group. This study is the first to investigate the associations between behavioral and neural markers of response inhibition, disordered eating (DE), and internalizing symptoms in a community sample of preadolescents. Forty-eight children (M age = 10.95 years, 56.3% male) completed a Go/NoGo task, whereas electroencephalography was recorded. Self-report measures of DE and internalizing symptoms were collected. Higher levels of anxiety and depression were associated with neural markers of suboptimal response inhibition (attenuated P3NoGo amplitudes) in preadolescence. In contrast, higher levels of depression were associated with greater response inhibition at a behavioral level. These findings suggest internalizing symptoms in preadolescence are associated with P3-indexed difficulties in evaluation and monitoring, but these are not sufficient to disrupt behavioral performance on a response inhibition task. This pattern may reflect engagement of compensatory processes to support task performance. DE was not significantly associated with response inhibition, suggesting that difficulties in response inhibition may only be reliably observed in more chronic and severe DE and ED presentations.

Executive Function in Preschool Children with Congenital Heart Disease and Controls: The Role of a Cognitively Stimulating Home Environment

OBJECTIVE

To assess the relationships between (1) environmental and demographic factors and executive function (EF) in preschool children with congenital heart disease (CHD) and controls and (2) clinical and surgical risk factors and EF in preschool children with CHD.

STUDY DESIGN

At 4-6 years of age, parents of children with CHD (n = 51) and controls (n = 124) completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Preschool Version questionnaire and the Cognitively Stimulating Parenting Scale (CSPS). Multivariable general linear modeling assessed the relationship between Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Preschool Version composite scores (Inhibitory Self-Control Index [ISCI], Flexibility Index [FI], and Emergent Metacognition Index [EMI]) and group (CHD/control), sex, age at assessment, gestational age, Index of Multiple Deprivation, and CSPS scores. The relationships between CHD type, surgical factors, and brain magnetic resonance imaging injury rating and ISCI, FI, and EMI scores were assessed.

RESULTS

The presence of CHD, age at assessment, sex, and Index of Multiple Deprivation were not associated with EF scores. Lower gestational age was associated with greater ISCI and FI scores, and age at assessment was associated with lower FI scores. Group significantly moderated the relationship between CSPS and EF, such that CSPS significantly predicted EF in children with CHD (ISCI: P = .0004; FI: P = .0015; EMI: P = .0004) but not controls (ISCI: P = .2727; FI: P = .6185; EMI: P = .3332). There were no significant relationships between EF scores and surgical factors, CHD type, or brain magnetic resonance imaging injury rating.

CONCLUSIONS

Supporting parents to provide a cognitively stimulating home environment may improve EF in children with CHD. The home and parenting environment should be considered when designing intervention studies aimed at improving EF in this patient group.

The Developmental Unfolding of ADHD Symptoms from Early Childhood Through Adolescence: Early Effects of Exuberant Temperament, Parenting and Executive Functioning

Temperament, parenting, and executive functioning (EF) are individual and contextual factors that have been identified to play a role in the development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Specifically, exuberant temperament in toddlerhood has been associated with both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, including ADHD symptoms. Therefore, it is important to understand factors that predict which exuberant children experience increased ADHD symptoms and the specific mechanisms through which early exuberant temperament impacts later ADHD symptoms. Using a multi-method, prospective longitudinal design, this study examined a moderated mediation model wherein the interactive effects of observed exuberance and parenting at age 3 predicted the development of parent-reported ADHD symptoms from childhood through adolescence (age 5, 7, 9, 12, and 15) via child EF (i.e., inhibitory control) at age 4. Parent-child dyads (n = 291) from a longitudinal study on child temperament were included. A piecewise model of ADHD symptom growth demonstrated stability in ADHD symptoms from age 5-9 and a decrease from age 9-15. Results support a moderated mediation model wherein an increase in ADHD symptoms throughout childhood was predicted from early childhood exuberant temperament by way of EF, but only for children whose parents displayed less directive parenting. Findings suggest identifiable early markers of risk, including temperament, parenting, and EF- pointing to possible targets for early intervention/prevention.

Individual variation in bilingual vocabulary in preschoolers with developmental language disorder

BACKGROUND

It is unclear how speech production, selective attention, and phonological working memory are related to first- (L1) and second-language (L2) vocabularies in bilingual preschoolers with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD).

AIMS

To study individual variation in vocabularies in DLD bilingual preschoolers by (1) comparing them to typically developing (TD) bilingual, and TD and DLD monolingual peers; (2) differentially predicting L2 vocabulary; and (3) identifying and characterizing bilinguals' L1/L2 vocabulary profiles.

METHODS

We measured the selective attention, working memory, and L1 Turkish/Polish (where applicable) and L1/L2 Dutch speech and vocabulary abilities of 31 DLD bilingual, 37 TD bilingual, and 61 DLD and 54 TD Dutch monolingual three-to-five year-olds.

RESULTS

DLD bilinguals scored lower than TD bilinguals and TD/DLD monolinguals on all measures, except L2 vocabulary, where all bilinguals underperformed all monolinguals. Selective attention predicted Dutch vocabulary across groups. Three bilingual vocabulary profiles emerged: DLD bilinguals were less likely to be L1 dominant, TD/DLD bilinguals with better attention more often had a Balanced high L1/L2 profile, while those with poorer selective attention and L1 speech tended to be L2 dominant.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the roles of L1 speech and selective attention, rather than L2 speech and working memory, in understanding bilingual vocabulary variation among DLD preschoolers.

Cognitive Flexibility Moderates the Predictive Effect of Phonological Awareness on Focus Structures in Chinese Preschool Children

Focus structures, a complex aspect of information structure in language, have garnered significant attention in psycholinguistics. The question of whether Chinese preschoolers aged 4-6 years possess the ability to process focus structures in oral communication, and how cognitive factors influence this ability, remains a research focal point. To address this, we recruited 100 Chinese preschoolers aged 4-6 years as participants in our study. This study manipulated the positions of focus particles in sentences to investigate the impact of phonological awareness on young children's comprehension of focus structures. Additionally, we examined the mediating roles of cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. Our findings indicate the following: (1) phonological awareness positively predicted the accuracy of focus structural processing; (2) inhibitory control did not significantly predict the accuracy of focus structural processing; and (3) cognitive flexibility partially mediated the relationship between phonological awareness and focus structural comprehension. These results confirmed the predictive effect of cognitive flexibility on children's comprehension of focus structures. Moreover, they demonstrate that young children's phonological awareness can predict their focus structure comprehension ability through the mediating role of cognitive flexibility. This suggests that children's cognitive flexibility can aid in understanding sentences with focus structures.

Effectiveness of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in Pediatric Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Interactive features of computerized cognitive training (CCT) may enhance adherence to training, providing a relatively low-cost intervention. A robust systematic review on the effectiveness of CCT for improving working memory (WM) among pediatric survivors with cancer is lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the available evidence and determine the effectiveness of CCT for WM among pediatric survivors with cancer.

INTERVENTIONS/METHODS

Five databases were searched. The Effective Public Health Practice Project was used to assess the study quality. ReviewerManager was used. The primary outcome was WM performance. Secondary outcomes included processing speed, attention, intervention adherence, and number of adverse events.

RESULTS

Six studies were included. Regarding overall quality, 1 study was weak, and 5 studies were moderate. Five studies reported a significant improvement of WM postintervention (P < .05). The meta-analysis of Cogmed interventions on symbolic WM revealed a significant difference between groups (vs placebo), with an overall pooled effect size of 0.71 (95% confidence interval, 0.02-1.41; P = .04). Two and 4 studies investigated the effects of CCT on processing speed and attention, respectively, with conflicting results. Four studies reported adherence of 80% or greater. Two studies reported no adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

Computerized cognitive training using Cogmed has a significant positive effect on WM. The effects of CCT on processing speed and attention remain inconclusive.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

More rigorous trials should be conducted to elucidate the cognitive effects of CCT, particularly processing speed and attention, in the pediatric population with cancer. Further studies should consider combining CCT with other existing interventions to strengthen their effectiveness.

Comparison of Executive Function Skills between Patients with Cerebral Palsy and Typically Developing Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Children with CP show deficits in executive function compared to their typically developing peers, based on the majority of the available evidence. However, the magnitude of these deficits, as well as the proportions of the shortfalls in the three main components, have not yet been examined. This is the first meta-analysis to synthesize evidence on the magnitude of differences between patients with cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing populations in different components of executive function skills (working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility), and thus makes recommendations on which areas of executive functioning are in greatest need of intervention. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search of four databases for studies that measured executive functions in these two groups until 31 August 2023. We calculated the standardized mean difference (Hedges' g), an average effect size overall, and for the three components of executive function skills separately, we used several moderator analyses, including methodological differences between the primary studies. Results: Fifteen articles were included in the meta-analysis. The average mean difference in executive functioning overall was large (g+ = -0.82). Furthermore, large significant differences were found in working memory (g+ = -0.92) and inhibitory control (g+ = -0.82) and a moderate difference was identified in cognitive flexibility (g+ = -0.57). In addition, results of moderator analyses reveal the importance of a rigorous matching of control group participants and CP patients. Conclusions: The results demonstrate a severe impairment in all executive functions among CP patients compared to typically developing peers, which do not decrease over time.

Math items about real-world content lower test-scores of students from families with low socioeconomic status

In many countries, standardized math tests are important for achieving academic success. Here, we examine whether content of items, the story that explains a mathematical question, biases performance of low-SES students. In a large-scale cohort study of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS)-including data from 58 countries from students in grades 4 and 8 (N = 5501,165)-we examine whether item content that is more likely related to challenges for low-SES students (money, food, social relationships) improves their performance, compared with their average math performance. Results show that low-SES students scored lower on items with this specific content than expected based on an individual's average performance. The effect sizes are substantial: on average, the chance to answer correctly is 18% lower. From a hidden talents approach, these results are unexpected. However, they align with other theoretical frameworks such as scarcity mindset, providing new insights for fair testing.

No relations between executive functions and dimensional models of psychopathology or is time the missing link?

Impaired executive functions (EF) have been found within various mental disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia spectrum disorders) as described in DSM-5. However, although impaired EF has been observed within several categories of mental disorders, empirical research on direct relations between EF and broader dimension of psychopathology is still scarce. Therefore, in the current investigation we examined relations between three EF performance tasks and self-reported dimensions of psychopathology (i.e., the internalizing, externalizing, and thought disorder spectra) in a combined dataset of patients with a broad range of mental disorders (N = 440). Despite previously reported results that indicate impaired EF in several categories of mental disorders, in this study no direct relations were found between EF performance tasks and self-reported broader dimensions of psychopathology. These results indicate that relations between EF and psychopathology could be more complex and non-linear in nature. We evaluate the need for integration of EF and dimensional models of psychopathology and reflect on EF as a possible transdiagnostic factor of psychopathology.

Impact of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring executive functions: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a thorough examination of the current understanding of the effect of maternal depression exposure on the executive functions (EFs) of offspring.

METHODS

Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement, a comprehensive search for peer-reviewed cohort studies was performed on the MEDLINE (via PubMed), ScienceDirect, LILACS, PsycINFO, and SciELO databases. Study quality was assessed using the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. The evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation framework.

RESULTS

Thirty-three cohort studies from different countries, enrolling a total of 38,981 participants, were analyzed. Twenty-four studies confirmed the hypothesis of a harmful effect of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring EF. However, high heterogeneity among studies was found, and meta-analysis was not feasible. Fetal programming, genetics, and parental practices have been identified as potential mechanisms that can affect the EFs of children born to mothers who have experienced depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest a negative association between maternal depressive symptoms and offspring EF. Further studies on the effects of chronicity/severity of maternal symptoms and changes in EFs in different sensitive periods are needed.

Joint Developmental Trajectories of Novelty and Usefulness in Chinese Children's Creativity

Creativity encompasses both novelty and usefulness, with novelty referring to the generation of unique and uncommon ideas, while usefulness pertains to the effectiveness and appropriateness of these ideas in addressing the given task. The comprehension of the process of coordinated development for children's novelty and usefulness, including the potential gender differences, is crucial; however, it still lacks clarity in the current academic discourse. To address these gaps, this study investigated the joint developmental trajectories of novelty and usefulness as well as the gender differences in trajectory group membership among Chinese children. A sample of primary school children (initial grade 3, N = 665; 46.4% girls; initial Mage = 8.60 years) were followed for three years. The results revealed a negative association between novelty and usefulness across all three time points. Through parallel-process latent class growth modeling, three distinct trajectories of novelty and usefulness were identified: the High Novelty Decline-Medium Usefulness Increase-Stability Group (66%), the Low Novelty Increase-High Usefulness Decline-Convergence Group (19%), and the Low Novelty Decline-High Usefulness Increase-Divergence Group (15%). These findings suggest that the development of children's creativity is influenced by a multifaceted pattern involving both novelty and usefulness. Moreover, gender differences in trajectory group membership were examined and discussed within the context of creativity development in Chinese children.

Exploring the Interaction Between Preschool Executive Control and Caregiver Emotion Socialization in Predicting Adolescent Weight Trajectories

There is a critical need for research examining how neural vulnerabilities associated with obesity, including lower executive control, interact with family factors to impact weight trajectories across adolescence. Utilizing a longitudinal design, the present study investigated caregivers' emotion socialization practices as a moderator of the association between preschool executive control and adolescent body mass index (BMI) trajectories. Participants were 229 youth (Mage = 5.24, SD = 0.03; 47.2% assigned female at birth; 73.8% White, 3.9% Black, 0.4% Asian American, 21.8% multiracial; 12.7% Hispanic) enrolled in a longitudinal study. At preschool-age, participants completed performance-based executive control tasks, and their caregivers reported on their typical emotion-related socialization behaviors (i.e., supportive and nonsupportive responses to children's negative emotions). Participants returned for annual laboratory visits at ages 14 through 17, during which their height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. Although neither preschool executive control nor caregiver emotion-related socialization behaviors were directly associated with BMI growth in adolescence, supportive responses moderated the association between executive control and BMI trajectories. The expected negative association between lower preschool executive control and greater BMI growth was present at below average levels of supportive responses, suggesting that external regulation afforded by supportive responses might reduce risk for adolescent overweight and obesity among children with lower internal self-regulatory resources during preschool. Findings highlight the importance of efforts to bolster executive control early in development and targeted interventions to promote effective caregiver emotion socialization (i.e., more supportive responses) for youth with lower internal self-regulatory abilities to mitigate risk for overweight and obesity and promote health across childhood and adolescence.

Goal-directed learning in adolescence: neurocognitive development and contextual influences

Adolescence is a time during which we transition to independence, explore new activities and begin pursuit of major life goals. Goal-directed learning, in which we learn to perform actions that enable us to obtain desired outcomes, is central to many of these processes. Currently, our understanding of goal-directed learning in adolescence is itself in a state of transition, with the scientific community grappling with inconsistent results. When we examine metrics of goal-directed learning through the second decade of life, we find that many studies agree there are steady gains in performance in the teenage years, but others report that adolescent goal-directed learning is already adult-like, and some find adolescents can outperform adults. To explain the current variability in results, sophisticated experimental designs are being applied to test learning in different contexts. There is also increasing recognition that individuals of different ages and in different states will draw on different neurocognitive systems to support goal-directed learning. Through adoption of more nuanced approaches, we can be better prepared to recognize and harness adolescent strengths and to decipher the purpose (or goals) of adolescence itself.

Far Transfer Effects of Trainings on Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis

Executive Functions are a set of interrelated, top-down processes essential for adaptive goal-directed behaviour, frequently impaired across different neurodevelopmental disorders with variable degrees of severity. Many executive-function-training studies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders have focused on near effects, investigating post-treatment improvements on directly trained processes, while enhancements of skills not directly trained, defined as far effects, are less considered, albeit these could be extremely relevant for reducing the negative impact of a disorder's core symptomatology. This systematic review and metanalysis aims to investigate the far effect outcomes after EF training in children with different types of neurodevelopmental disorders. 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, while 15 studies were selected in the metanalysis. An overall statistically significant effect size was found in the majority of far effect outcome measures considered in the studies. In particular, trainings on executive functions determine significant far effects on daily life functioning (0.46, 95% CI: [0.05-0.87]) and clinical symptoms (0.33, 95% CI: [0.15-0.51]). Despite a high variability of the results, intensity, frequency and the laboratory/life contexts dimension seem to be the most influential variables in determining far effects. This systematic review and metanalysis highlights the need to measure far effects of executive function training in neurodevelopmental disorders, selecting treatments not only on directly targeted processes, but also according to far impacts on the functional weakness of the disorder.

Parent-child couples display shared neural fingerprints while listening to stories

Neural fingerprinting is a method to identify individuals from a group of people. Here, we established a new connectome-based identification model and used diffusion maps to show that biological parent-child couples share functional connectivity patterns while listening to stories. These shared fingerprints enabled the identification of children and their biological parents from a group of parents and children. Functional patterns were evident in both cognitive and sensory brain networks. Defining "typical" shared biological parent-child brain patterns may enable predicting or even preventing impaired parent-child connections that develop due to genetic or environmental causes. Finally, we argue that the proposed framework opens new opportunities to link similarities in connectivity patterns to behavioral, psychological, and medical phenomena among other populations. To our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal the neural fingerprint that represents distinct biological parent-child couples.

Disentangling the relationships between motor control and cognitive control in young children with symptoms of ADHD

Children with ADHD experience difficulties with motor and cognitive control. However, the relationships between these symptoms are poorly understood. As a step toward improving treatment, this study investigated associations between specific aspects of motor control and cognitive control in children with varying levels of hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. A heterogeneous sample of 255 children of 4 to 10 years of age (median = 6.50, MAD = 1.36) completed a battery of tests probing motor generation, visuomotor fluency, visuomotor flexibility, cognitive inhibition, verbal and visuospatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Their caregivers were interviewed regarding their hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. 25.9% of the main sample met diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine whether specific aspects of motor control were associated with specific aspects of cognitive control, and whether any associations were moderated by hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. Additionally, cognitive modeling (the drift diffusion model approximated with EZ-DM) was used to understand performance on a cognitive inhibition task. Visuomotor fluency was significantly associated with cognitive inhibition. Visuomotor flexibility was significantly associated with cognitive flexibility. There were no significant moderation effects. Cognitive modeling was inconclusive. In conclusion, the ability to fluently perform visually guided continuous movement is linked with the ability to inhibit the effects of distracting information. The ability to spontaneously use visual information to flexibly alter motor responses is related to the ability to cognitively shift from one frame of mind to another. These relationships appear to be quantitatively and qualitatively similar across the childhood hyperactive-impulsive continuum as rated by parents.

The Development of Response and Interference Inhibition in Children: Evidence from Serious Game Training

A serious game titled "Crossing the Jungle" was developed in this study to train children's inhibition skills using the Stroop task. The effects of inhibitory control on children were tested by a pre-test, post-test, and one-month follow-up test. In the control groups, children were asked to play a commercial game instead. In experiment 1, 48 participants chose either the training or control game voluntarily, whereas, in experiment 2, 44 participants were randomly assigned to either group. In both experiments, children exposed to the serious game demonstrated training effects from the Stroop spatial task and near-transfer effects from the Flanker task. However, transferring effects were not produced by the Go/No-go task. As a result, although the serious game "Crossing the Jungle" does not improve response inhibition, children aged 9 to 12 who play it may benefit from improved interference inhibition abilities. This provides evidence for the mutual independence of interference inhibition and response inhibition in children at this stage.

Association between motor skills and executive function of children with autism spectrum disorder in Taiwan and the United States

Objective

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parent ratings of motor skills and executive function (EF) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the United States and Taiwan.

Materials and method

One hundred and seventy-two parents/legal guardians of children (4-6 years and 11 months old) with ASD were recruited from two countries, Taiwan (n = 100) and the United States (n = 72). The parents or guardians of the child with ASD completed a questionnaire including demographic information, child's motor skills (using Children Activity Scale - Parents, ChAS-P), and child's EF (using Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory, CHEXI). A series of hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether ChAS-P (total motor score, fine motor skills, and gross motor skill) was associated with CHEXI (total EF score, working memory, and inhibition), after controlling for covariates (i.e., age, gender, race, body mass index, whether children received physical activity or cognitive training, parental education level).

Results

Total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills were significantly associated with EF in both working memory and inhibition as rated by parents in both countries (β = 0.21-0.57, p < 0.01), with the exception of a non-significant association between parent-rated total motor skills, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills, and inhibition among Taiwanese children with ASD. In addition, the associations between parent ratings of motor skills (i.e., fine motor and gross motor skills) and EF (i.e., working memory and inhibition) were similar between the two countries.

Conclusion

Positive associations with specific aspects of parent ratings of fine motor and gross motor skills and working memory and inhibition were found in children with ASD from both countries. These findings have implications for future interventions and programs focused on improving early motor skills and EF development for young children with ASD from Taiwan and the United States.

Intelligence and executive function are associated with age at insult, time post-insult, and disability following chronic pediatric acquired brain injury

Background

Pediatric acquired brain injury (pABI) profoundly affects cognitive functions, encompassing IQ and executive functions (EFs). Particularly, young age at insult may lead to persistent and debilitating deficits, affecting daily-life functioning negatively. This study delves into the intricate interplay of age at insult, time post-insult, and their associations with IQ and EFs during chronic (>1 year) pABI. Additionally, we investigate cognitive performance across different levels of global function, recognizing the multifaceted nature of developmental factors influencing outcomes.

Methods

Drawing upon insult data and baseline information analyzing secondary outcomes from a multicenter RCT, including comprehensive medical and neuropsychological assessments of participants aged 10 to 17 years with pABI and parent-reported executive dysfunctions. The study examined associations between age at insult (early, EI; ≤7y vs. late, LI; > 7y) and time post-insult with IQ and EFs (updating, shifting, inhibition, and executive attention). Additionally, utilizing the Pediatric Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended, we explored cognitive performance across levels of global functioning.

Results

Seventy-six participants, median 8 years at insult and 5 years post-insult, predominantly exhibiting moderate disability (n = 38), were included. Notably, participants with LI demonstrated superior IQ, executive attention, and shifting compared to EI, [adjusted mean differences with 95% Confidence Intervals (CIs); 7.9 (1.4, 14.4), 2.48 (0.71, 4.24) and 1.73 (0.03, 3.43), respectively]. Conversely, extended post-insult duration was associated with diminished performances, evident in mean differences with 95% CIs for IQ, updating, shifting, and executive attention compared to 1-2 years post-insult [-11.1 (-20.4, -1.7), -8.4 (-16.7, -0.1), -2.6 (-4.4, -0.7), -2.9 (-4.5, -1.2), -3.8 (-6.4, -1.3), -2.6 (-5.0, -0.3), and -3.2 (-5.7, -0.8)]. Global function exhibited a robust relationship with IQ and EFs.

Conclusion

Early insults and prolonged post-insult durations impose lasting tribulations in chronic pABI. While confirmation through larger studies is needed, these findings carry clinical implications, underscoring the importance of vigilance regarding early insults. Moreover, they dispel the notion that children fully recover from pABI; instead, they advocate equitable rehabilitation offerings for pABI, tailored to address cognitive functions, recognizing their pivotal role in achieving independence and participation in society. Incorporating disability screening in long-term follow-up assessments may prove beneficial.

Executive function in children with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder compared to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, and in children with different irritability levels

Addressing current challenges in research on disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD), this study aims to compare executive function in children with DMDD, children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). We also explore associations between irritability, a key DMDD characteristic, and executive function in a clinical sample regardless of diagnosis. Our sample include children (6-12 years) referred to child psychiatric clinics. Measures of daily-life (parent-reported questionnaire) and performance-based (neuropsychological tasks) executive function were applied. Identifying diagnoses, clinicians administered a standardized semi-structured diagnostic interview with parents. Irritability was assessed by parent-report. First, we compared executive function in DMDD (without ADHD/ODD), ADHD (without DMDD/ODD), ODD (without DMDD/ADHD) and DMDD + ADHD (without ODD). Second, we analyzed associations between executive function and irritability using the total sample. In daily life, children with DMDD showed clinically elevated and significantly worse emotion control scores compared to children with ADHD, and clinically elevated scores on cognitive flexibility compared to norm scores. Children with DMDD had significantly less working memory problems than those with ADHD. No differences were found between DMDD and ODD. Increased irritability was positively associated with emotional dyscontrol and cognitive inflexibility. For performance-based executive function, no diagnostic differences or associations with irritability were observed. We discuss how, in daily life, children with high irritability-levels get overwhelmed by feelings without accompanying regulatory capacities.

Exercise and Acute Cognitive Enhancement

Substantial research has explored the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. Meta-analytic reviews provide summary statistics relative to these effects when the cognitive task is performed while exercising and when performed after exercise. When performed concomitantly the effects of exercise are typically small or negative with the exception of moderate effects for speed of cognitive performance during moderate intensity exercise. When cognitive performance is assessed following the cessation of exercise, the effects are typically positive. When considering the effects following exercise, most studies have focused on executive function and episodic memory as the cognitive outcomes of interest with meta-analyses supporting small-to-moderate benefits. When potential moderators related to exercise parameters or participants characteristics are examined, results suggest that 20 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity exercise consistently benefits performance with larger effects evident for executive function tasks with higher cognitive demands, for long-term memory tasks when exercise is performed prior to information encoding, and when considering individuals with lower initial cognitive performance levels. These observed benefits are likely due to the impacts acute exercise can have on physiological arousal, brain function, and brain neurotrophic factors. Advancements in our understanding of the potential of a single session of exercise to benefit cognitive performance are important for exercise prescription and to inform chronic exercise programs designed to benefit cognition.

Evidence for positive and negative transfer of abstract task knowledge in adults and school-aged children

Engaging cognitive control is essential to flexibly adapt to constantly changing environments. However, relatively little is known about how prior task experience impacts on the engagement of cognitive control in novel task environments. We aimed to clarify how individuals learn and transfer the engagement of cognitive control with a focus on the hierarchical and temporal aspects of task knowledge. Highlighting two distinct cognitive control processes, the engagement of cognitive control in advance (proactive control) and in response to conflicts (reactive control), we conducted six preregistered online experiments with both adults (Experiment 1, 3, and 5: N = 71, N = 108, and N = 70) and 9- to 10-year-olds (Experiment 2, 4, 6: N = 69, N = 108, and N = 70). Using two different experimental paradigms, we demonstrated that prior task experience of engaging reactive control makes adults and 9-to 10-year-olds respond in a reactive way in a subsequent similar-structured condition with different stimuli in which proactive control could have been engaged. This indicates that individuals do learn knowledge about the temporal structure of task goal activation and, on occasion, negatively transfer this knowledge. Furthermore, individuals exhibited these negative transfer effects in a similar-structured condition with different task goals and stimuli, indicating that they learn hierarchically-structured task knowledge. The collective findings suggest a new way of understanding how hierarchical and temporal task knowledge influences the engagement of cognitive control and highlight potential mechanisms underlying the near transfer effects observed in cognitive control training.

Fifty years of executive control research in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder:What we have learned and still need to know

For 50 years, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been considered a disorder of executive control (EC), the higher-order, cognitive skills that support self-regulation, goal attainment and what we generally call "attention." This review surveys our current understanding of the nature of EC as it pertains to ADHD and considers the evidence in support of eight hypotheses that can be derived from the EC theory of ADHD. This paper provides a resource for practitioners to aid in clinical decision-making. To support theory building, I draw a parallel between the EC theory of ADHD and the common gene-common variant model of complex traits such as ADHD. The conclusion offers strategies for advancing collaborative research.

Balancing academics and athletics: School-level athletes' results are positively associated with their academic performance

BACKGROUND

Using data from a nationwide high-school sample, the present study aimed to examine whether school-level athletes' sporting results are positively or negatively associated with their academic performance.

METHODS

Athletic performance was assessed using the results of spring and summer regional qualifying interschool tennis tournaments in Japan among both male and female tournaments across all prefectures in Japan. Academic performance was assessed using the standardized rank scores for academic performance at the school level, with higher scores denoting superior academic levels; this is the most common measure of academic performance in Japanese high schools. Linear mixed models were conducted to compare the academic performance of high schools with winning and losing records, respectively, for all games together and for the spring and summer tournaments separately. The results of a total of 4,870 games were analyzed.

RESULTS

High schools with winning records showed a significantly higher academic-performance score than those with losing records, and this association was stronger among boys than girls. The observed difference in academic-performance scores between the schools with winning and losing records, respectively, was replicated in both tournament settings (i.e., spring and summer).

CONCLUSIONS

Athletic results are positively associated with academic performance at the school level. Given the cross-sectional nature of the present study, the present results do not necessarily imply that sports participation can improve academic performance; rather, the present study suggests that balancing academic and athletic commitments is feasible.

A psychometric evaluation of the NIH Toolbox fluid cognition tests adapted for Swahili and Dholuo languages in Kenyan children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the culturally adapted NIH Toolbox African Languages® when used in Swahili and Dholuo-speaking children in western Kenya.

METHOD

Swahili-speaking participants were recruited from Eldoret and Dholuo-speaking participants from Ajigo; all were <14 years of age and enrolled in primary school. Participants completed a demographics questionnaire and five fluid cognition tests of the NIH Toolbox® African Languages program, including Flanker, Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), Picture Sequence Memory, Pattern Comparison, and List Sorting tests. Statistical analyses examined aspects of reliability, including internal consistency (in both languages) and test-retest reliability (in Dholuo only).

RESULTS

Participants included 479 children (n = 239, Swahili-speaking; n = 240, Dholuo-speaking). Generally, the tests had acceptable psychometric properties for research use within Swahili- and Dholuo-speaking populations (mean age = 10.5; SD = 2.3). Issues related to shape identification and accuracy over speed limited the utility of DCCS for many participants, with approximately 25% of children unable to match based on shape. These cultural differences affected outcomes of reliability testing among the Dholuo-speaking cohort, where accuracy improved across all five tests, including speed.

CONCLUSIONS

There is preliminary evidence that the NIH Toolbox ® African Languages potentially offers a valid assessment of development and performance using tests of fluid cognition in Swahili and Dholuo among research settings. With piloting underway across other diverse settings, future research should gather additional evidence on the clinical utility and acceptability of these tests, specifically through the establishment of norming data among Kenyan regions and evaluating these psychometric properties.

Age-related, multivariate associations between white matter microstructure and behavioral performance in three executive function domains

The executive function (EF) domains of working memory (WM), response inhibition (RI), and set shifting (SS) show maturational gains and are linked to neuroimaging-measured brain changes. This study explored ways in which maturation-linked differences in EF abilities are systematically associated with white matter microstructural differences from adolescence into young adulthood. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and nine neurocognitive tests were collected from 120 healthy subjects ages 12-24. Analyses across the white matter skeleton were performed, focusing on fractional anisotropy (FA). Data were 'fused' using a multivariate technique (CCA+jICA), producing four independent components (ICs) depicting white matter FA values that covaried with test performance. Correlations between age and IC loading coefficients identified three EF-DTI profiles that may change developmentally. In one, SS performance was linked to greater reliance on the FA of ventral brain tracts, and less on dorsal tracts with age. In another, white matter microstructure was related to a pattern of strong WM and weak SS that became more pronounced with age. A final IC revealed that younger individuals with low RI and high WM/SS skills typically matured out of this cognitive imbalance, underscored by white matter changes with age. These novel multivariate results begin to emphasize the complexity of brain structure-cognition relationships in adolescents and young adults.

Household Income and Early Adolescents' Executive Function: The Different Roles of Perceived Discrimination and Shift-and-Persist

Household income predicts early adolescents' cognitive development. However, the mechanism underlying this association and protective factors are unclear. This study assessed one-year longitudinal data to examine whether perceived discrimination mediated the association between household income and executive function and the moderating role of shift-and-persist. 344 early adolescents in rural China were included in the study (mean = 10.88 years, SD = 1.32 years, girls: 51.74%). The latent variable model revealed that household income predicted early adolescents' cognitive flexibility and working memory in the subsequent year through perceived discrimination. Shift-and-persist moderated the negative effects of perceived discrimination on cognitive flexibility: perceived discrimination impeded cognitive flexibility only among early adolescents with low shift-and-persist. The findings highlight perceived discrimination in the relation between household income and early adolescents' executive function and underscore the protective role of shift-and-persist.

The trajectory of maternal perinatal depressive symptoms predicts executive function in early childhood

BACKGROUND

Perinatal maternal depression may affect fetal neurodevelopment directly or indirectly via exposures such as smoking, alcohol, or antidepressant use. The relative contribution of these risk factors on child executive function (EF) has not been explored systematically.

METHODS

A prospective pregnancy cohort of 197 women and their children was studied to determine whether maternal depression diagnosis and the trajectory of maternal depressive symptoms (MDSs) from early pregnancy to 12 months postpartum predicts child EF at age 4 (measured using the preschool age psychiatric assessment, NEPSY-II, and Shape School task) using latent growth curve modeling. Indirect effects of smoking, alcohol, and antidepressant use were also formally tested.

RESULTS

Increasing maternal perinatal depressive symptoms over time predicted more inattentive symptoms, poorer switching, and motor inhibition, but not cognitive inhibition. When adjusted for multiple comparison, and after accounting for maternal cognition and education, the association with child inattentive symptoms remained significant. However, diagnosed depression did not predict child EF outcomes. Prenatal exposure to smoking, alcohol, and antidepressants also did not mediate pathways from depressive symptoms to EF outcomes. Our findings were limited by sample size and statistical power to detect outcome effects of smaller effect size.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that increasing MDSs over the perinatal period is associated with poorer EF outcomes in children at age 4 - independent of prenatal smoking, drinking, or antidepressant use. Depressive chronicity, severity, and postpartum influences may play crucial roles in determining childhood outcomes of EF.

Key predictors of epilepsy-specific health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in youth with epilepsy

PURPOSE

Epilepsy-specific health-related quality of life (HRQOL) is an important outcome in youth with epilepsy (YWE). The PedsQL™ Epilepsy Module is the only caregiver-proxy and youth self-report epilepsy-specific HRQOL measure that can be used with youth 2-25 years. Multiple factors affect HRQOL, including epilepsy-specific characteristics, comorbid mental and behavioral health concerns, as well as sociodemographic factors. However, we have not yet examined the cumulative impact of these factors on epilepsy-specific HRQOL in YWE using the PedsQL™ Epilepsy module.

METHOD

Youth with epilepsy (n = 281) and their caregivers completed questionnaires focused on sociodemographic factors (e.g., youth biological sex and age), mood/anxiety and behavior symptoms (i.e., Behavioral Assessment Scale for Children - Second Edition; BASC-2, Parent Rating Scale), epilepsy characteristics [e.g., seizure frequency, number of anti-seizure medications (ASMs), ASM side effects, and years since diagnosis], and the PedsQL™ Epilepsy module (subscales: Impact, Cognitive Functioning, Executive Functioning, Sleep, and Mood/Behavior).

RESULTS

Hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to examine caregiver-proxy and youth self-reported factors that affect epilepsy-specific HRQOL. Results indicate the strongest key shared predictors of HRQOL in YWE, for both youth and caregiver informants, were mental and behavioral health symptoms. For instance, caregiver-proxy report of YWE HRQOL indicated BASC-2 Externalizing (p < 0.05), Behavioral Symptoms (p < 0.01), and Adaptive Skills (p < 0.001) explained 58 % of the variance in youth Cognitive Functioning HRQOL, while youth self-report of HRQOL indicated that BASC-2 Externalizing (p < 0.01), Behavioral Symptoms (p < 0.05), and Adaptive Skills (p < 0.001) contributed only 36 % of the variance in Cognitive Functioning HRQOL above and beyond the variance explained by sociodemographic and epilepsy-specific characteristics. Similar results were noted for Executive Functioning HRQOL domain, wherein caregiver-proxy report of YWE HRQOL indicated BASC-2 Internalizing (p < 0.01), Behavioral Symptoms (p < 0.001) and Adaptive Skills (p < 0.001) explained 65 % of variance in Executive Functioning, whereas youth self-report of Executive Functioning HRQOL indicated that caregiver-proxy BASC-2 Internalizing (p < 0.001) and Behavioral Symptoms (p < 0.01) explained 34 % of the variance in Executive Functioning HRQOL, above and beyond the variance explained by sociodemographic and epilepsy-specific characteristics. Unique mental and behavioral health predictors of YWE HRQOL were also found for both caregiver-proxy and youth self-report.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the integral role of mental and behavioral health symptoms in epilepsy-specific HRQOL, it is critical to address mental and behavioral health symptoms preventatively and proactively to provide YWE with the most optimal health plan, including good seizure control, minimal ASM side effects, and the best possible HRQOL.

Melatonin enhances the restoration of neurological impairments and cognitive deficits during drug withdrawal in methamphetamine-induced toxicity and endoplasmic reticulum stress in rats

Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychostimulant with a very high addiction rate. Prolonged use of METH has been observed as one of the root causes of neurotoxicity. Melatonin (Mel) has been found to have a significant role in METH-induced neurotoxicity. This study aimed to investigate the restorative effect of Mel on behavioral flexibility in METH-induced cognitive deficits. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to be intraperitoneally injected with saline (control) or Meth at 5 mg/kg for 7 consecutive days. Then, METH injection was withdrawn and rats in each group were subcutaneously injected with saline or Mel at 10 mg/kg for 14 consecutive days. The stereotypic behavioral test and attentional set-shifting task (ASST) were used to evaluate neurological functions and cognitive flexibility, respectively. Rats developed abnormal features of stereotyped behaviors and deficits in cognitive flexibility after 7 days of METH administration. However, post-treatment with Mel for 14 days after METH withdrawal dramatically ameliorated the neurological and cognitive deficits in METH-treated rats. Blood biomarkers indicated METH-induced systemic low-grade inflammation. Moreover, METH-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the prefrontal cortex was diminished by melatonin supplementation. These findings might reveal the therapeutic potential of Mel in METH toxicity-induced neurological and cognitive deficits.

Nurturing resilience in American Indian/Alaska Native preschool children: the role of cultural socialization, executive function, and neighborhood risk

Introduction

American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) children possess numerous cultural assets, yet higher exposures to neighborhood risks (e.g., lack of housing, crime) may present barriers to healthy cognitive development, including executive function (EF). Cultural socialization may promote resilience and support children's early cognition, but this has not been adequately studied. The present study examined the effects of neighborhood risk and cultural socialization on EF for AI/AN preschool children.

Method

Parents/caregivers of 768 AI/AN preschoolers from the 2015 AI/AN Head Start Family and Community Experiences (FACES) Study rated neighborhood risk via two scales: "Neighborhood Problems" and "Environmental Conditions," and cultural socialization practices via two scales: cultural activities and tribal language activities. Children's EF was measured directly using the Pencil Tap Task and the Leiter-R attention subscale.

Results

Families perceived neighborhood risks as relatively low, and overall risk did not predict children's EF. However, higher average language socialization was significantly related to higher EF, as were two specific language activities (encouraging children to learn their tribal language, making sure children heard their tribal language) and two cultural activities (playing AI/AN games, participating in tribal ceremonies), controlling for neighborhood risk.

Discussion

Findings suggest some aspects of cultural socialization may promote resilience among AI/AN preschoolers by supporting early EF. Mechanisms may include increased spiritual, social, and cultural connections, and practice with EF skills during cultural games. Future research should partner with AI/AN communities to investigate culturally grounded EF interventions and reevaluate measures of neighborhood risk to promote resilience and connectedness for AI/AN children.

Effects of open and closed skill exercise interventions on executive function in typical children: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The effects of open and closed skill exercise interventions for executive function in children and adolescents have received widespread attention. Open skill refers to the skill of performing motor tasks in an unpredictable environment; closed skill refers to the skill of performing motor tasks in a stable environment. However, the results of related studies are currently controversial and Meta-analysis is urgently needed.

METHODS

After computer searches of CNKI, Wan-Fang, VIP, WOS, PubMed, and EBSCO databases, two researchers independently screened articles, extracted information, and evaluated the quality of the articles. This study was statistical analyzed using Stata 16.0 software.

RESULTS

A total of 31 articles were included, including 2988 typical children. Open, closed, continuous and sequential skills all improved executive function in typical children to varying degrees, but open and sequential skills were more effective in improving executive function, particularly in the former in the working memory (SMD=-0.833, P < 0.001) and in the latter in the inhibitory control (SMD=-0.834, P < 0.001) and cognitive flexibility (SMD=-0.903, P < 0.001). Long-term, moderate- intensity interventions were better than acute, vigorous-intensity interventions for executive function, with long-term interventions reflected in working memory (SMD=-0.579, P < 0.001) and moderate-intensity interventions reflected in all three dimensions of executive function (P < 0.01). Intervention periods, intervention intensity and continuous and sequential skills classified by action structure play a significant moderating role. Better results for long-term, sequential structural action interventions based on open skills (P < 0.001); better results for acute, moderate intensity, sequential structural action interventions based on closed (P < 0.05). Whereas intervention intensity had a non-significant moderating effect in the open skills intervention, both moderate and vigorous intensity had a significant effect on executive function (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Open and closed skills have different levels of facilitation effects on executive function in typical children, but open skills are more effective. The facilitation effects of open and closed skills were moderated by the qualitative characteristics and action structure of the intervention.

Stability of executive function in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia

Executive function plays an important role in promoting learning and social-emotional development in children. Neonatal hypoglycemia associates with executive function difficulties at 4.5 years, but little is known about the development of executive function over time in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia. We aimed to describe the stability of executive function from early to mid-childhood in children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycemia and its association with neonatal hypoglycemia. Participants in a prospective cohort study of infants born at risk for neonatal hypoglycemia were assessed at ages 2, 4.5, and 9-10 years. We assessed executive function with batteries of performance-based and questionnaire-based measures, and classified children into one of four stability groups (persistent typical, intermittent typical, intermittent difficulty, and persistent difficulty) based on dichotomized scores (typical versus low at each age). Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the associations between neonatal hypoglycemia and executive function stability groups. Three hundred and nine children, of whom 197 (64%) experienced neonatal hypoglycemia were assessed. The majority of children had stable and typical performance-based (63%) and questionnaire-based (68%) executive function across all three ages. Around one-third (30-36%) of children had transient difficulties, and only a few (0.3-1.9%) showed persistent difficulties in executive function at all ages. There was no consistent evidence of an association between neonatal hypoglycemia and the stability of executive function. Neonatal hypoglycemia does not appear to predict a specific pattern of development of executive function in children born at risk.

BRIEF-A: Factor structure and measurement invariance across self-report and informant forms

OBJECTIVE

This study analyzes the psychometric properties of the two forms (self-report and informant) of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult version (BRIEF-A) in a sample of healthy Portuguese adults.

METHOD

The participants were 608 adults, 304 of whom answered the self-report form (ages 18-59; 137 male and 167 female) and 304 who answered the informant form (ages 18-70; 110 male and 194 female).

RESULTS

The internal consistency for the indexes and the Global Executive Composite was very good (≥.90), whereas for the scales they were either acceptable (between .70 and .80) or good (≥.80), except for the Inhibit scale in both forms. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test seven competing factor models for each of the forms. The original two-factor model (Behavioral Regulation and Metacognition Indexes) showed a slightly better model fit than the three-factor model (Behavioral Regulation, Emotional Regulation, and Metacognition Indexes) in both forms. The multiple-group analysis of the two-correlated-factor model across forms was supported (configural, metric, and partial scalar invariance).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the BRIEF-A showed adequate psychometric properties, suggesting that it is a useful instrument to assess everyday executive functioning in healthy Portuguese adults.

Determine the impact of Emotive Intelligent Spaces on children's behavioural and cognitive outcomes

This study aims to investigate the impact of a novel environmental intervention-Emotive Intelligent Spaces (EIS) on young children's self-regulation and working memory using a single-subject reversal design (ABAB). EIS is a semi-private space with coloured lights that could adapt to each child's preferred colour based on the child's self-reported emotional state. A total of 29 three-to-seven-year-old participants completed the experiment from fall 2020 to summer 2021. Self-regulation was measured by the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task; working memory was measured by the Woodcock-Johnson Numbers Reversed subset. Children's age was controlled as a covariate. Descriptive statistics indicated that the group means of self-regulation scores were higher in the intervention conditions. However, the group means of working memory scores were lower in the intervention conditions. We conducted repeated measure ANCOVA for the main analysis, and results showed no statistically significant differences in children's self-regulation and working memory scores between baseline and intervention conditions. It is recommended that future studies should take the illuminance level into consideration of the intervention effect. Further, our study implies that avoiding visual overstimulation in the classroom (e.g. heavily decorated walls) may create an optimal level of visual arousal and promote focused attention.

Clustering and Switching in Semantic Verbal Fluency: Their Development and Relationship with Word Productivity in Typically Developing Greek-Speaking Children and Adolescents

Performance in semantic verbal fluency (SVF) tasks, mainly measured by the number of words of a particular semantic category produced within a limited time, is a widely accepted measure of cognitive functioning used in the neuropsychological assessment of children and adults. Two strategic processes, Clustering and Switching (C&S) have been proposed to underlie fluency processes and affect performance in the task. However, few studies have reported on the development of those cognitive strategies and their relationship with word productivity in typically developing children. Even fewer studies have covered a broad developmental period from preschool to adolescence or measured the effect of contextual factors in this relationship. Based on a sample of 472 typically developing Greek-speaking children aged 4;0 to 16;11 years, we investigated the development of SVF performance and reported on the degree to which it is affected by C&S strategies, children's sex, and level of parental education. Results revealed a large effect of age on word productivity and on the use of C&S strategies. Two switching factors (number of clusters and number of switches) and two clustering factors (mean cluster size and a novel measure, maximum cluster size), appeared to be significantly associated with word productivity, with the largest effect being attributed to the two switching factors. C&S factors, together with children's age and parental education, predicted 91.7% of the variance in the SVF score. Children's sex was not found to have a significant effect on either word productivity or C&S strategies. Results are discussed for their theoretical implications on the strategic processes underlying word production in typically developing children.

The relation between executive functions, error-related brain activity, and ADHD symptoms in clinically evaluated school-aged children

Two event-related potentials (ERPs) elicited following errors, the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe), have been proposed to reflect cognitive control, though the specific processes remain debated. Few studies have examined the ERN and Pe's relations with individual differences in cognitive control/executive functioning using well-validated tests administered separately from the inhibition tasks used to elicit the ERN/Pe. Additionally, neurocognitive tests of executive functions tend to strongly predict ADHD symptoms, but the extent to which task-based and EEG-based estimates of executive functioning/cognitive control account for the same variance in ADHD symptoms remains unclear. The current study addressed these limitations by examining relations between the ERN/Pe and three core executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control, set shifting) in a clinically-evaluated sample of 53 children ages 8-12 (Mage = 10.36, SD = 1.42; 77.4% White/Non-Hispanic; 16 girls) with and without ADHD. Results demonstrated that neither the ERN nor Pe were related to overall cognitive control/executive functioning, or to working memory or set shifting specifically (all 95%CIs include 0.0). In contrast, a larger Pe was associated with better-developed inhibitory control (β=-.35, 95%CI excludes 0.0), but did not capture aspects of inhibitory control that are important for predicting ADHD symptoms. Neither the ERN nor Pe predicted ADHD symptoms (95%CIs include 0.0). Results were generally robust to control for age, sex, SES, ADHD symptom cluster, and anxiety, and emphasize the need for caution when interpreting the ERN/Pe as indices of broad-based cognitive control/executive functioning, as well as using the ERN/Pe to examine cognitive processes contributing to ADHD symptomatology.

Association between milk and dairy consumption and executive functioning: A cross-sectional survey based on rural Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

Milk and dairy product consumption continue to increase in developing countries, with positive effects on adolescent physical and mental health. However, the effect of milk and dairy product consumption on executive function of adolescents has been less reported. This study aimed to analyze the status of milk and dairy product consumption and its association with executive function among adolescents in rural areas of China. The study aims to contribute to the healthy development of adolescents in rural areas of China.

METHODS

A three-stage stratified whole-group sampling method was used to investigate the milk and dairy product consumption status and executive function of 1360 adolescents in rural areas of China. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi-square test was used to compare the milk and dairy product consumption of different categories of adolescents. Linear regression analysis and logistic regression analysis were used to analyze the association between milk and dairy product consumption and executive function.

RESULTS

The proportions of adolescents in rural China with milk and dairy product consumption ≤1 t/w, 2-4 t/w, and ≥5 t/w were 39.26%, 45.07%, and 15.66%, respectively. After adjusting for relevant confounding variables, logistic regression analysis showed that compared to adolescents with milk and dairy product consumption ≥5 t/w, milk and dairy product consumption 2-4 t/w (OR = 2.115,95% CI: 1.265, 3.533) and ≤1 t/w (OR = 5.929,95% CI: 3.552,9.895) had a higher risk of inhibit control dysfunction (p < 0.05). Compared to adolescents with milk and dairy product consumption ≥5 t/w, adolescents with milk and dairy product consumption ≤1 t/w (OR = 2.141,95% CI: 1.110,4.129) had a higher risk of conversion the risk of flexibility dysfunction was also higher in adolescents with milk and dairy product consumption ≤1 t/w (OR = 2.141,95% CI: 1.110,4.129).

CONCLUSION

Milk and dairy product consumption among adolescents in rural areas of China is inadequate and has a positive association with executive function. In the future, we should increase milk and dairy product consumption and improve executive function of adolescents in rural areas of China in order to promote healthy physical and mental development.

Early cumulative risk and outcomes in adolescence and adulthood: The role of executive function and behavioral regulation

This study examined the extent to which early cumulative risk predicts a range of behavioral and psychological outcomes (i.e., depression, future orientation, risky behavior, educational attainment, and socioeconomic outcomes) measured at ages 15 and 26 and whether executive function (EF) and/or behavioral regulation mediated and/or moderated these associations. Data for this study came from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development and included a sample of 1,364 participants (52% male) born in 1991 and followed through age 26. Results indicated that early cumulative risk was related to depression and risky behavior at age 15 as well as depression, income, future orientation, and educational attainment at age 26. Furthermore, both EF and behavioral regulation mediated relations among cumulative risk and academic achievement at age 15 and between cumulative risk and income and educational attainment at age 26. Finally, three significant interactions emerged for age 15 outcomes, indicating that EF and behavioral regulation may change relations between cumulative risk and depression, reading, and future orientation. Implications for future research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

How does sensitivity influence early executive function? A critical review on hot and cool processes

There is compelling evidence that the quality of caregiver-child interactions during toddlerhood and the preschool years supports the development of executive function (EF) (Bernier et al., 2010; 2015; 2016; Fay-Stammbach et al., 2014; Geeraerts et al., 2021). Based on such findings, we make the case herein that sensitivity may be one of the most important dimensions of parenting contributing to early EF. In the present article, we will review empirical evidence, integrating findings from a wide range of scientific disciplines - cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and developmental psychopathology - and present theoretical ideas about how two contexts of sensitive caregiving - i.e. sensitivity to distress and non-distress cues - may be contributing differently to hot and cool EF development. Implications for future investigations on the environmental contributors of early EF, and its mechanisms, are discussed.

The Brain's Control Networks in Reading: Insights From Cross-Task Studies of Youth

Humans engage multiple brain systems to read successfully, including using regions important for vision, language, and control. Control refers to the set of executive processes in the brain that guide moment-to-moment behavior in service of our goals. There is a growing appreciation for the role of the brain's control system in reading comprehension, in reading skill change over time, and in those who have difficulty with the reading process. One way to understand the brain's control engagement in reading may be to study control engagement across multiple tasks in order to study consistencies, or cross-task similarities, relative to reading-specific variations. In this commentary, I briefly summarize some of our recent work studying the brain's control networks across different tasks (e.g., when reading, or doing different executive function tasks). I then review our findings of when control activation does or does not relate to measures of reading ability, and reading growth over time. The utility of cross-task comparisons in neuroimaging is noted, as well as the need to better understand multiple sources of heterogeneity in our developmental samples. I end by discussing a few of the many future directions for further study of the brain with regard to the brain's control processing and academic achievement.

Attending to what's important: what heat maps may reveal about attention, inhibitory control, and fraction arithmetic performance

Math proficiency is an important predictor of educational attainment and life success. However, developing mathematical competency is challenging, and some content (e.g., fractions) can be enigmatic. Numerous factors are suspected to influence math performance, including strategy knowledge, attention, and executive functions. In two online studies, we investigated the relationship between adults' fraction arithmetic performance, confidence judgments, inhibitory control (a component of executive functions), and attention to strategy-relevant fraction components. We explored the utility of heat maps (based on mouse clicks) to measure adults' attention to strategy-relevant fraction arithmetic components (operationalized according to each mathematical operation). In Study 1, attending to strategy-relevant fraction components was correlated with inhibitory control, but this finding did not replicate in Study 2. Across both studies, inhibitory control and attention to strategy-relevant fraction components were correlated with arithmetic accuracy. Intraindividual variability in participants' attention to strategy-relevant fraction components was also found. Our findings suggest that heat map questions may be a viable alternative to assess participants' attention during fraction tasks and that attention to specific fraction-arithmetic problem features is related to problem-solving accuracy.

Biological and environmental factors may affect children's executive function through motor and sensorimotor development: Preterm birth and cerebral palsy

Disruptive biological and environmental factors may undermine the development of children's motor and sensorimotor skills. Since the development of cognitive skills, including executive function, is grounded in early motor and sensorimotor experiences, early delays or impairments in motor and sensorimotor processing often trigger dynamic developmental cascades that lead to suboptimal executive function outcomes. The purpose of this perspective paper is to link early differences in motor/sensorimotor processing to the development of executive function in children born preterm or with cerebral palsy. Uncovering such links in clinical populations would improve our understanding of developmental pathways and key motor and sensorimotor skills that are antecedent and foundational for the development of executive function. This knowledge will allow the refinement of early interventions targeting motor and sensorimotor skills with the goal of proactively improving executive function outcomes in at-risk populations.

A canonical trajectory of executive function maturation from adolescence to adulthood

Theories of human neurobehavioral development suggest executive functions mature from childhood through adolescence, underlying adolescent risk-taking and the emergence of psychopathology. Investigations with relatively small datasets or narrow subsets of measures have identified general executive function development, but the specific maturational timing and independence of potential executive function subcomponents remain unknown. Integrating four independent datasets (N = 10,766; 8-35 years old) with twenty-three measures from seventeen tasks, we provide a precise charting, multi-assessment investigation, and replication of executive function development from adolescence to adulthood. Across assessments and datasets, executive functions follow a canonical non-linear trajectory, with rapid and statistically significant development in late childhood to mid-adolescence (10-15 years old), before stabilizing to adult-levels in late adolescence (18-20 years old). Age effects are well captured by domain-general processes that generate reproducible developmental templates across assessments and datasets. Results provide a canonical trajectory of executive function maturation that demarcates the boundaries of adolescence and can be integrated into future studies.

Effects of sensory integration training on balance function and executive function in children with autism spectrum disorder: evidence from Footscan and fNIRS

Introduction

This study investigates the efficacy of sensory integration training (SIT) in enhancing balance and executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with the aim of highlighting its potential for organizing and processing sensory information in the brain.

Methods

Utilizing Footscan for biomechanical evidence and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for neural activation, we engaged two participant groups: a control group (n = 9) and an experimental group (n = 9). Assessments involved the Sharpened Romberg Test (SRT) for balance under varied visual conditions and the Go/No-Go task for executive function.

Results

The SIT intervention significantly improved balance function, particularly in Visual Deprivation (VD) scenarios. Neurophysiological data revealed heightened activation in the right Inferior Frontal Gyrus (R-IFG) and right Middle Frontal Gyrus (R-MFG), suggesting enhanced executive function. The potential of R-IFG/MFG activation as a reliable biomarker for assessing executive function in ASD was identified.

Discussion

The study provides empirical evidence supporting SIT's effectiveness in enhancing balance and executive functions in children with ASD. The therapy not only improves sensory processing and motor skills but also appears to compensate for sensory deficits, particularly in vision, vestibular perception, and proprioception. Enhanced neural activation in specific PFC regions underscores SIT's role in improving cognitive aspects, including inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. The multidisciplinary approach adopted for this research highlights the intricate interplay between sensory-motor functions and cognitive control in ASD, paving the way for integrated therapeutic strategies. Despite these advancements, the mechanisms through which SIT exerts these multifaceted effects require further exploration.

Impact of a Nutrient Formulation on Longitudinal Myelination, Cognition, and Behavior from Birth to 2 Years: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Observation studies suggest differences in myelination in relation to differences in early life nutrition. This two-center randomized controlled trial investigates the effect of a 12-month nutritional intervention on longitudinal changes in myelination, cognition, and behavior. Eighty-one full-term, neurotypical infants were randomized into an investigational (N = 42) or a control group (N = 39), receiving higher versus lower levels of a blend of nutrients. Non-randomized breastfed infants (N = 108) served as a reference group. Main outcomes were myelination (MRI), neurodevelopment (Bayley-III), social-emotional development (ASQ:SE-2), infant and toddler behavior (IBQ-R and TBAQ), and infant sleep (BISQ) during the first 2 years of life. The full analysis set comprised N = 67 infants from the randomized groups, with 81 myelin-sensitive MRI sequences. Significantly higher myelination was observed in the investigational compared to the control group at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months of life, as well as significantly higher gray matter volume at 24 months, a reduced number of night awakenings at 6 months, increased day sleep at 12 months, and reduced social fearfulness at 24 months. The results suggest that brain development may be modifiable with brain- and age-relevant nutritional approaches in healthy infants and young children, which may be foundational for later learning outcomes.

Relations between Video Game Engagement and Social Development in Children: The Mediating Role of Executive Function and Age-Related Moderation

The global proliferation of video games, particularly among children, has led to growing concerns about the potential impact on children's social development. Executive function is a cognitive ability that plays a crucial role in children's social development, but a child's age constrains its development. To examine the association between video game engagement and children's social development while considering the mediating role of executive function and the moderating role of age, a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 431 parents. The results revealed a negative relation between video game engagement and social development in children, with executive function found to mediate this relation fully. Additionally, the negative association between video game engagement and executive function became more pronounced as children grew older. In light of these findings, it is advisable to adopt proactive strategies to limit excessive video game use, consider the developmental characteristics of children at different ages, and prioritize the promotion of executive function to facilitate social development among children.

Nonverbal Executive Functioning in Relation to Vocabulary and Morphosyntax in Preschool Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

PURPOSE

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is characterized by persistent and unexplained difficulties in language development. Accumulating evidence shows that children with DLD also present with deficits in other cognitive domains, such as executive functioning (EF). There is an ongoing debate on whether exclusively verbal EF abilities are impaired in children with DLD or whether nonverbal EF is also impaired, and whether these EF impairments are related to their language difficulties. The aims of this study were to (a) compare nonverbal performance of preschoolers with DLD and typically developing (TD) peers, (b) examine how nonverbal EF and language abilities are related, and (c) investigate whether a diagnosis of DLD moderates the relationship between EF and language abilities.

METHOD

A total of 143 children (nDLD = 65, nTD = 78) participated. All children were between 3 and 6.5 years old and were monolingual Dutch. We assessed nonverbal EF with a visual selective attention task, a visuospatial short-term and working memory task, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. Vocabulary and morphosyntax were each measured with two standardized language tests. We created latent variables for EF, vocabulary, and morphosyntax.

RESULTS

Analyses showed that children with DLD were outperformed by their TD peers on all nonverbal EF tasks. Nonverbal EF abilities were related to morphosyntactic abilities in both groups, whereas a relationship between vocabulary and EF skills was found in the TD group only. These relationships were not significantly moderated by a diagnosis of DLD.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence for nonverbal EF impairments in preschool children with DLD. Moreover, nonverbal EF and morphosyntactic abilities were significantly related in these children. These findings may have implications for intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24121287.

Association of physical activity and fitness with executive function among preschoolers

It is well-documented in the literature that high levels of regular physical activity (PA), low levels of sedentary behavior (SB), and high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated with superior cognitive functioning, especially with regard to older populations. However, concerning other age groups (e.g., preschoolers) the available evidence documenting such a positive relationship is relatively scarce. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the association of time spent in different PA intensity zones and CRF with executive functions (EFs) in preschool-age children. To this end, preschoolers (n = 127) aged 3 to 6 years were recruited from 9 kindergarten classes in 2 districts of Shenzhen, China. The amount and the intensity of PA were assessed via accelerometry, and the CRF level was quantified by the 20-meter shuttle run test. EFs including inhibitory control and working memory were assessed using the one-on-one iPad-based Early Year Toolbox. Results suggested that children who had a higher CRF level ("impulse control" scores: β = 0.34, p < .001; "Go" accuracy: β = 0.31, p < .001; "No-Go" accuracy: β =0.28, < .001) and spentmore time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) ("impulse control" scores: β = 0.50, p < .001; No-Go" accuracy: β = 0.52, p < .001) had higher scores on inhibitory control tasks, and those who had a higher CRF level had higher scores on a working memory task (β = 0.24, p < .05). The findings are discussed in light of the positive roles of MVPA and CRF for promoting EFs, but also consider the disproportionate association of PA and CRF with working memory relative to inhibition.