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Park BY, Lee BK, Burstyn I, Tabb LP, Keelan JA, Whitehouse AJO, Croen LA, Fallin MD, Hertz-Picciotto I, Montgomery O, Newschaffer CJ. Umbilical cord blood androgen levels and ASD-related phenotypes at 12 and 36 months in an enriched risk cohort study. Mol Autism 2017; 8:3. [PMID: 28163867 PMCID: PMC5282802 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-017-0118-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects more than 1% of children in the USA. The male-to-female prevalence ratio of roughly 4:1 in ASD is a well-recognized but poorly understood phenomenon. An explicit focus on potential etiologic pathways consistent with this sex difference, such as those involving prenatal androgen exposure, may help elucidate causes of ASD. Furthermore, the multi-threshold liability model suggests that the genetic mechanisms in females with ASD may be distinct and may modulate ASD risk in families with female ASD in the pedigree. Methods We examined umbilical cord blood from 137 children in the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI) cohort. EARLI is an ASD-enriched risk cohort with all children having an older sibling already diagnosed with ASD. Fetal testosterone (T), androstenedione (A4), and dehyroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels were measured in cord blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Robust linear regression models were used to determine associations between cord blood androgen levels and 12-month Autism Observation Scales for Infants (AOSI) scores and 36-month Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) scores adjusting for potential confounders. Results Increasing androgens were not associated with increasing 12-month AOSI score or 36-month total SRS score in either boys or girls. However, the association between T and autistic traits among subjects with a female older affected sibling was greater at 12 months (test of interaction, P = 0.008) and deficits in reciprocal social behavior at 36 months were also greater (test of interaction, P = 0.006) than in subjects whose older affected sibling was male. Conclusions While increased prenatal testosterone levels were not associated with autistic traits at 12 or 36 months, our findings of a positive association in infants whose older ASD-affected siblings were female suggests an androgen-related mechanism that may be dependent on, or related to, genetic liability factors present more often in families containing female ASD cases. However, this initial finding, based on a small subgroup of our sample, should be interpreted with considerable caution. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0118-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Y Park
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N Broadway HH884, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Brian K Lee
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel University School of Public Health, 3215 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, 3020 Market St. Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Igor Burstyn
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Drexel University School of Public Health, 3215 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, 3020 Market St. Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Loni P Tabb
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel University School of Public Health, 3215 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jeff A Keelan
- School of Women's and Infants' Health, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009 Australia
| | - Andrew J O Whitehouse
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, 100 Roberts Rd, Subiaco, WA 6009 Australia
| | - Lisa A Croen
- Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, 2000 Broadway, Oakland, CA 94612 USA
| | - Margaret D Fallin
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N Broadway HH884, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Irva Hertz-Picciotto
- The MIND (Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders) Institute, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave. Med-Sci 1C, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Owen Montgomery
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 219 N. Broad St, Philadelphia, PA 19107 USA
| | - Craig J Newschaffer
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Drexel University School of Public Health, 3215 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.,A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, 3020 Market St. Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
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202
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Kern JK, Geier DA, Homme KG, King PG, Bjørklund G, Chirumbolo S, Geier MR. Developmental neurotoxicants and the vulnerable male brain: a systematic review of suspected neurotoxicants that disproportionally affect males. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2017. [DOI: 10.21307/ane-2017-061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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203
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Øien RA, Hart L, Schjølberg S, Wall CA, Kim ES, Nordahl-Hansen A, Eisemann MR, Chawarska K, Volkmar FR, Shic F. Parent-Endorsed Sex Differences in Toddlers with and Without ASD: Utilizing the M-CHAT. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47:126-134. [PMID: 27757737 PMCID: PMC5222910 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-016-2945-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in typical development can provide context for understanding ASD. Baron-Cohen (Trends Cogn Sci 6(6):248-254, 2002) suggested ASD could be considered an extreme expression of normal male, compared to female, phenotypic profiles. In this paper, sex-specific M-CHAT scores from N = 53,728 18-month-old toddlers, including n = 185 (32 females) with ASD, were examined. Results suggest a nuanced view of the "extreme male brain theory of autism". At an item level, almost every male versus female disadvantage in the broader population was consistent with M-CHAT vulnerabilities in ASD. However, controlling for total M-CHAT failures, this male disadvantage was more equivocal and many classically ASD-associated features were found more common in non-ASD. Within ASD, females showed relative strengths in joint attention, but impairments in imitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roald A Øien
- Department of Psychology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, PB 6050, N-9037, Tromsø, Norway.
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Logan Hart
- Department of Psychology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, PB 6050, N-9037, Tromsø, Norway
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Carla A Wall
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Kim
- Center for Autism Research, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Martin R Eisemann
- Department of Psychology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, PB 6050, N-9037, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Katarzyna Chawarska
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Fred R Volkmar
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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204
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Duvekot J, van der Ende J, Verhulst FC, Slappendel G, van Daalen E, Maras A, Greaves-Lord K. Factors influencing the probability of a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in girls versus boys. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2016; 21:646-658. [PMID: 27940569 DOI: 10.1177/1362361316672178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In order to shed more light on why referred girls are less likely to be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder than boys, this study examined whether behavioral characteristics influence the probability of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis differently in girls versus boys derived from a multicenter sample of consecutively referred children aged 2.5-10 years. Based on information from the short version of the Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic Interview and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, 130 children (106 boys and 24 girls) received a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.) criteria and 101 children (61 boys and 40 girls) did not. Higher overall levels of parent-reported repetitive and restricted behavior symptoms were less predictive of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in girls than in boys (odds ratio interaction = 0.41, 95% confidence interval = 0.18-0.92, p = 0.03). In contrast, higher overall levels of parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems increased the probability of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis more in girls than in boys (odds ratio interaction = 2.44, 95% confidence interval = 1.13-5.29, p = 0.02). No differences were found between girls and boys in the prediction of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis by overall autistic impairment, sensory symptoms, and cognitive functioning. These findings provide insight into possible explanations for the assumed underidentification of autism spectrum disorder in girls in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorieke Duvekot
- 1 Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, The Netherlands.,2 Yulius Mental Health, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Geerte Slappendel
- 1 Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, The Netherlands.,2 Yulius Mental Health, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Kirstin Greaves-Lord
- 1 Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, The Netherlands.,2 Yulius Mental Health, The Netherlands
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205
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Werling DM. The role of sex-differential biology in risk for autism spectrum disorder. Biol Sex Differ 2016; 7:58. [PMID: 27891212 PMCID: PMC5112643 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-016-0112-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental condition that affects approximately four times as many males as females, a strong sex bias that has not yet been fully explained. Understanding the causes of this biased prevalence may highlight novel avenues for treatment development that could benefit patients with diverse genetic backgrounds, and the expertise of sex differences researchers will be invaluable in this endeavor. In this review, I aim to assess current evidence pertaining to the sex difference in ASD prevalence and to identify outstanding questions and remaining gaps in our understanding of how males come to be more frequently affected and/or diagnosed with ASD. Though males consistently outnumber females in ASD prevalence studies, prevalence estimates generated using different approaches report male/female ratios of variable magnitude that suggest that ascertainment or diagnostic biases may contribute to the male skew in ASD. Here, I present the different methods applied and implications of their findings. Additionally, even as prevalence estimations challenge the degree of male bias in ASD, support is growing for the long-proposed female protective effect model of ASD risk, and I review the relevant results from recurrence rate, quantitative trait, and genetic analyses. Lastly, I describe work investigating several sex-differential biological factors and pathways that may be responsible for females' protection and/or males' increased risk predicted by the female protective effect model, including sex steroid hormone exposure and regulation and sex-differential activity of certain neural cell types. However, much future work from both the ASD and sex differences research communities will be required to flesh out our understanding of how these factors act to influence the developing brain and modulate ASD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna M. Werling
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143 USA
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206
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Chahrour M, O'Roak BJ, Santini E, Samaco RC, Kleiman RJ, Manzini MC. Current Perspectives in Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Genes to Therapy. J Neurosci 2016; 36:11402-11410. [PMID: 27911742 PMCID: PMC5125207 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2335-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a constellation of neurodevelopmental presentations with high heritability and both phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity. To date, mutations in hundreds of genes have been associated to varying degrees with increased ASD risk. A better understanding of the functions of these genes and whether they fit together in functional groups or impact similar neuronal circuits is needed to develop rational treatment strategies. We will review current areas of emphasis in ASD research, starting from human genetics and exploring how mouse models of human mutations have helped identify specific molecular pathways (protein synthesis and degradation, chromatin remodeling, intracellular signaling), which are linked to alterations in circuit function and cognitive/social behavior. We will conclude by discussing how we can leverage the findings on molecular and cellular alterations found in ASD to develop therapies for neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chahrour
- Eugene McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390,
| | - Brian J O'Roak
- Department of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239
| | - Emanuela Santini
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Rodney C Samaco
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Program in Translational Biology and Molecular Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Robin J Kleiman
- Translational Neuroscience Center, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, and
| | - M Chiara Manzini
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037
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207
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Lai MC, Lerch JP, Floris DL, Ruigrok AN, Pohl A, Lombardo MV, Baron-Cohen S. Imaging sex/gender and autism in the brain: Etiological implications. J Neurosci Res 2016; 95:380-397. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Chuan Lai
- Child and Youth Mental Health Collaborative at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and the Hospital for Sick Children, Department of Psychiatry; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry; National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Jason P. Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Dorothea L. Floris
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- New York University Child Study Center; New York New York USA
| | - Amber N.V. Ruigrok
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
| | - Alexa Pohl
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
| | - Michael V. Lombardo
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology and Center of Applied Neuroscience; University of Cyprus; Nicosia Cyprus
| | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry; University of Cambridge; Cambridge United Kingdom
- CLASS Clinic, Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust; Cambridge United Kingdom
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208
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Mitra I, Tsang K, Ladd-Acosta C, Croen LA, Aldinger KA, Hendren RL, Traglia M, Lavillaureix A, Zaitlen N, Oldham MC, Levitt P, Nelson S, Amaral DG, Herz-Picciotto I, Fallin MD, Weiss LA. Pleiotropic Mechanisms Indicated for Sex Differences in Autism. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1006425. [PMID: 27846226 PMCID: PMC5147776 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual dimorphism in common disease is pervasive, including a dramatic male preponderance in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Potential genetic explanations include a liability threshold model requiring increased polymorphism risk in females, sex-limited X-chromosome contribution, gene-environment interaction driven by differences in hormonal milieu, risk influenced by genes sex-differentially expressed in early brain development, or contribution from general mechanisms of sexual dimorphism shared with secondary sex characteristics. Utilizing a large single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) dataset, we identify distinct sex-specific genome-wide significant loci. We investigate genetic hypotheses and find no evidence for increased genetic risk load in females, but evidence for sex heterogeneity on the X chromosome, and contribution of sex-heterogeneous SNPs for anthropometric traits to ASD risk. Thus, our results support pleiotropy between secondary sex characteristic determination and ASDs, providing a biological basis for sex differences in ASDs and implicating non brain-limited mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileena Mitra
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Kathryn Tsang
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Christine Ladd-Acosta
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lisa A. Croen
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, California, United States of America
| | - Kimberly A. Aldinger
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Robert L. Hendren
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Michela Traglia
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Alinoë Lavillaureix
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculty of Medicine, France
| | - Noah Zaitlen
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Michael C. Oldham
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Pat Levitt
- Program in Developmental Neurogenetics, Institute for the Developing Mind, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles and Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Stanley Nelson
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - David G. Amaral
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medicine and Medical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (M.I.N.D.) Institute, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - Irva Herz-Picciotto
- Department of Public Health Sciences and Medicine and Medical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (M.I.N.D.) Institute, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - M. Daniele Fallin
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Lauren A. Weiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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209
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Angelakos CC, Watson AJ, O'Brien WT, Krainock KS, Nickl-Jockschat T, Abel T. Hyperactivity and male-specific sleep deficits in the 16p11.2 deletion mouse model of autism. Autism Res 2016; 10:572-584. [PMID: 27739237 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Sleep disturbances and hyperactivity are prevalent in several neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Evidence from genome-wide association studies indicates that chromosomal copy number variations (CNVs) are associated with increased prevalence of these neurodevelopmental disorders. In particular, CNVs in chromosomal region 16p11.2 profoundly increase the risk for ASD and ADHD, disorders that are more common in males than females. We hypothesized that mice hemizygous for the 16p11.2 deletion (16p11.2 del/+) would exhibit sex-specific sleep and activity alterations. To test this hypothesis, we recorded activity patterns using infrared beam breaks in the home-cage of adult male and female 16p11.2 del/+ and wildtype (WT) littermates. In comparison to controls, we found that both male and female 16p11.2 del/+ mice exhibited robust home-cage hyperactivity. In additional experiments, sleep was assessed by polysomnography over a 24-hr period. 16p11.2 del/+ male, but not female mice, exhibited significantly more time awake and significantly less time in non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep during the 24-hr period than wildtype littermates. Analysis of bouts of sleep and wakefulness revealed that 16p11.2 del/+ males, but not females, spent a significantly greater proportion of wake time in long bouts of consolidated wakefulness (greater than 42 min in duration) compared to controls. These changes in hyperactivity, wake time, and wake time distribution in the males resemble sleep disturbances observed in human ASD and ADHD patients, suggesting that the 16p11.2 del/+ mouse model may be a useful genetic model for studying sleep and activity problems in human neurodevelopmental disorders. Autism Res 2016. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Autism Res 2017, 10: 572-584. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Angelakos
- Department of Neuroscience, Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
| | - Adam J Watson
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
| | - W Timothy O'Brien
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
| | - Kyle S Krainock
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
| | - Thomas Nickl-Jockschat
- Department of Psychiatry Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.,Jülich Aachen Research Alliance - Translational Brain Medicine, Jülich, Germany Germany and Aachen
| | - Ted Abel
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
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210
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Is the Risk of Autism in Younger Siblings of Affected Children Moderated by Sex, Race/Ethnicity, or Gestational Age? J Dev Behav Pediatr 2016; 37:603-9. [PMID: 27500597 DOI: 10.1097/dbp.0000000000000341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the recurrence risk of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in younger siblings of affected children and determine how it is modified by race/ethnicity and sex. METHOD Medical records of children born in a large health maintenance organization (Kaiser Permanent Southern California) hospitals from January 1, 2001, through December 31, 2010, and who remained in our system until 2 to 11 years of age were used to assess the risk of recurrence of ASD in younger siblings. Children born at <28 or >42 weeks gestation, multiple births, or those who were not active members for ≥3 months were excluded. ASD diagnosis was ascertained from DSM-IV codes, and the magnitude of the association was estimated using adjusted relative risks (aRRs). RESULTS Among eligible younger siblings, 592 (1.11%) had the diagnosis of ASD. The ASD rates were 11.30% and 0.92% for younger siblings of older affected and unaffected siblings, respectively (aRR: 14.27; 95% confidence interval, 11.41-17.83). This association remained after adjusting for potential confounding factors. Race/ethnicity- and gestational age-specific analyses revealed a positive association of similar magnitude across groups. Risk remained higher in younger boys than girls regardless of the sex of affected older siblings. CONCLUSION The findings of this study suggest that the risk of ASD in younger siblings is higher if the older sibling has ASD. The risk of ASD in younger siblings of older affected siblings was comparable across gestational age at birth and child's race/ethnicity groups. However, risk remains higher for boys. This study contributes to a better understanding of the influence of race/ethnicity, sex, and gestational age at birth in identifying children at higher risk of ASD.
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211
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Webb SJ, Garrison MM, Bernier R, McClintic AM, King BH, Mourad PD. Severity of ASD symptoms and their correlation with the presence of copy number variations and exposure to first trimester ultrasound. Autism Res 2016; 10:472-484. [PMID: 27582229 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Current research suggests that incidence and heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms may arise through a variety of exogenous and/or endogenous factors. While subject to routine clinical practice and generally considered safe, there exists speculation, though no human data, that diagnostic ultrasound may also contribute to ASD severity, supported by experimental evidence that exposure to ultrasound early in gestation could perturb brain development and alter behavior. Here we explored a modified triple hit hypothesis [Williams & Casanova, ] to assay for a possible relationship between the severity of ASD symptoms and (1) ultrasound exposure (2) during the first trimester of pregnancy in fetuses with a (3) genetic predisposition to ASD. We did so using retrospective analysis of data from the SSC (Simon's Simplex Collection) autism genetic repository funded by the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative. We found that male children with ASD, copy number variations (CNVs), and exposure to first trimester ultrasound had significantly decreased non-verbal IQ and increased repetitive behaviors relative to male children with ASD, with CNVs, and no ultrasound. These data suggest that heterogeneity in ASD symptoms may result, at least in part, from exposure to diagnostic ultrasound during early prenatal development of children with specific genetic vulnerabilities. These results also add weight to on-going concerns expressed by the FDA about non-medical use of diagnostic ultrasound during pregnancy. Autism Res 2017, 10: 472-484. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Jane Webb
- Center on Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington.,Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Neurological Surgery, Seattle, Washington
| | - Michelle M Garrison
- Center on Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington.,Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Neurological Surgery, Seattle, Washington
| | - Raphael Bernier
- Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Neurological Surgery, Seattle, Washington
| | - Abbi M McClintic
- Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Neurological Surgery, Seattle, Washington
| | - Bryan H King
- Center on Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Pierre D Mourad
- Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Neurological Surgery, Seattle, Washington.,Division of Engineering and Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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212
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Advancing the understanding of autism disease mechanisms through genetics. Nat Med 2016; 22:345-61. [PMID: 27050589 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 513] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Progress in understanding the genetic etiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has fueled remarkable advances in our understanding of its potential neurobiological mechanisms. Yet, at the same time, these findings highlight extraordinary causal diversity and complexity at many levels ranging from molecules to circuits and emphasize the gaps in our current knowledge. Here we review current understanding of the genetic architecture of ASD and integrate genetic evidence, neuropathology and studies in model systems with how they inform mechanistic models of ASD pathophysiology. Despite the challenges, these advances provide a solid foundation for the development of rational, targeted molecular therapies.
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213
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Lehnhardt FG, Falter CM, Gawronski A, Pfeiffer K, Tepest R, Franklin J, Vogeley K. Sex-Related Cognitive Profile in Autism Spectrum Disorders Diagnosed Late in Life: Implications for the Female Autistic Phenotype. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 46:139-154. [PMID: 26319250 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2558-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Females with high-functioning ASD are known to camouflage their autistic symptoms better than their male counterparts, making them prone to being under-ascertained and delayed in diagnostic assessment. Thus far the underlying cognitive processes that enable such successful socio-communicative adaptation are not well understood. The current results show sex-related differences in the cognitive profile of ASD individuals, which were diagnosed late in life exclusively. Higher verbal abilities were found in males (n = 69) as opposed to higher processing speed and better executive functions in females with ASD (n = 38). Since both sexes remained unidentified during childhood and adolescence, these results are suggestive for sex-distinctive cognitive strategies as an alternative to typically-developed reciprocal social behavior and social mimicry in high functioning ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz-Georg Lehnhardt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Christine Michaela Falter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany
| | - Astrid Gawronski
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kathleen Pfeiffer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ralf Tepest
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jeremy Franklin
- Institute of Medical Statistics, Computer Science and Epidemiology (IMSIE), University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kai Vogeley
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937, Cologne, Germany.,Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine - Cognitive Neurosciences (INM-3), Research Center Juelich, 52425, Juelich, Germany
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214
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Garg S, Heuvelman H, Huson S, Tobin H, Green J. Sex bias in autism spectrum disorder in neurofibromatosis type 1. J Neurodev Disord 2016; 8:26. [PMID: 27516813 PMCID: PMC4980803 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-016-9159-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite extensive literature, little is known about the mechanisms underlying sex bias in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study investigates the sex differences in ASD associated with neurofibromatosis type 1, a single-gene model of syndromic autism. Methods We analysed data from n = 194 children aged 4–16 years with neurofibromatosis type 1. Sex differences were evaluated across the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), verbal IQ, Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) and Conners questionnaires. Results There was 2.68:1 male:female ratio in children meeting ASD criteria on the deep phenotyping measures. On symptom profile, males with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) + ASD were more impaired on reciprocal social interaction and communication domains of the ADI-R but we found no differences on the restricted, repetitive behaviours (RRBs) domain of the ADI-R and no differences on the social on the ADOS. NF1 ASD males and females were comparable on verbal IQ, and the inattention/hyperactivity domains of the Conners questionnaire. Conclusions There is a significant male bias in the prevalence of ASD in NF1. The phenotypic profile of NF1 + ASD cases includes greater social communication impairment in males. We discuss the implications of our findings and the rationale for using NF1 as a model for investigating sex bias in idiopathic ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Garg
- Institute of Brain Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK ; Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL UK
| | - Hein Heuvelman
- Centre for Biostatistics, Institute for Population Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Susan Huson
- Genomic Medicine, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Institute of Human Development, The University of Manchester, Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Trust, St Mary's Hospital, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL UK
| | - Hannah Tobin
- Institute of Brain Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - Jonathan Green
- Institute of Brain Behaviour and Mental Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
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215
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Ypma RJ, Moseley RL, Holt RJ, Rughooputh N, Floris DL, Chura LR, Spencer MD, Baron-Cohen S, Suckling J, Bullmore ET, Rubinov M. Default Mode Hypoconnectivity Underlies a Sex-Related Autism Spectrum. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2016; 1:364-371. [PMID: 27430030 PMCID: PMC4936761 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background Females and males differ significantly in the prevalence and presentation of autism spectrum conditions. One theory of this effect postulates that autistic traits lie on a sex-related continuum in the general population, and autism represents the extreme male end of this spectrum. This theory predicts that any feature of autism in males should 1) be present in autistic females, 2) differentiate between the sexes in the typical population, and 3) correlate with autistic traits. We tested these three predictions for default mode network (DMN) hypoconnectivity during the resting state, one of the most robustly found neurobiological differences in autism. Methods We analyzed a primary dataset of adolescents (N = 121, 12–18 years of age) containing a relatively large number of females and a replication multisite dataset including children, adolescents, and adults (N = 980, 6–58 years of age). We quantified the average connectivity between DMN regions and tested for group differences and correlation with behavioral performance using robust regression. Results We found significant differences in DMN intraconnectivity between female controls and females with autism (p = .001 in the primary dataset; p = .009 in the replication dataset), and between female controls and male controls (p = .036 in the primary dataset; p = .002 in the replication dataset). We also found a significant correlation between DMN intraconnectivity and performance on a mentalizing task (p = .001) in the primary dataset. Conclusions Collectively, these findings provide the first evidence for DMN hypoconnectivity as a behaviorally relevant neuroimaging phenotype of the sex-related spectrum of autistic traits, of which autism represents the extreme case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolf J.F. Ypma
- Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry
- Hughes Hall
- Address correspondence to: Rolf J.F. Ypma, Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Sir William Hardy Building, Cambridge CB2 3EB. .Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Sir William Hardy BuildingCB2 3EBCambridge
| | - Rachel L. Moseley
- Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry
- Bournemouth University, Dorset
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Simon Baron-Cohen
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry
- CLASS Clinic, Cambridge
| | - John Suckling
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Experimental Psychology
- Cambridgeshire and Peterborough Foundation Trust, Cambridge
| | - Edward T. Bullmore
- Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Experimental Psychology
- Cambridgeshire and Peterborough Foundation Trust, Cambridge
- ImmunoPsychiatry, Alternative Discovery & Development, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, United Kingdom
| | - Mikail Rubinov
- Brain Mapping Unit, Department of Psychiatry
- ; Churchill College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia
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216
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Messinger DS, Young GS, Webb SJ, Ozonoff S, Bryson SE, Carter A, Carver L, Charman T, Chawarska K, Curtin S, Dobkins K, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hutman T, Iverson JM, Landa R, Nelson CA, Stone WL, Tager-Flusberg H, Zwaigenbaum L. Commentary: sex difference differences? A reply to Constantino. Mol Autism 2016; 7:31. [PMID: 27358719 PMCID: PMC4926305 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-016-0093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Messinger et al. found a 3.18 odds ratio of male to female ASD recurrence in 1241 prospectively followed high-risk (HR) siblings. Among high-risk siblings (with and without ASD), as well as among 583 low-risk controls, girls exhibited higher performance on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning, as well as lower restricted and repetitive behavior severity scores on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) than boys. That is, female-favoring sex differences in developmental performance and autism traits were evident among low-risk and non-ASD high-risk children, as well as those with ASD. Constantino (Mol Autism) suggests that sex differences in categorical ASD outcomes in Messinger et al. should be understood as a female protective effect. We are receptive to Constantino’s (Mol Autism) suggestion, and propose that quantitative sex differences in autism-related features are keys to understanding this female protective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sara Jane Webb
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, USA ; University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | | | - Susan E Bryson
- Izaak Walton Killam Health Centre, Halifax, Canada ; Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Alice Carter
- University of Massachusetts, Boston, Boston, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ted Hutman
- University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Rebecca Landa
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, USA ; John Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Charles A Nelson
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA ; Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, USA ; Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, USA
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217
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Vogel Ciernia A, LaSalle J. The landscape of DNA methylation amid a perfect storm of autism aetiologies. Nat Rev Neurosci 2016; 17:411-23. [PMID: 27150399 PMCID: PMC4966286 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence points to a complex interplay between genes and the environment in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including rare de novo mutations in chromatin genes such as methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) in Rett syndrome. Epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation act at this interface, reflecting the plasticity in metabolic and neurodevelopmentally regulated gene pathways. Genome-wide studies of gene sequences, gene pathways and DNA methylation are providing valuable mechanistic insights into ASD. The dynamic developmental landscape of DNA methylation is vulnerable to numerous genetic and environmental insults: therefore, understanding pathways that are central to this 'perfect storm' will be crucial to improving the diagnosis and treatment of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie Vogel Ciernia
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, MIND Institute, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Janine LaSalle
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, MIND Institute, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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218
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Dinsdale N, Mokkonen M, Crespi B. The ‘extreme female brain’: increased cognitive empathy as a dimension of psychopathology. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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219
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Taylor MJ, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, Anckarsäter H, Greven CU, Ronald A. Is There a Female Protective Effect Against Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Evidence From Two Representative Twin Samples. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016; 55:504-512.e2. [PMID: 27238069 PMCID: PMC4896985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is more frequent in males than in females. The "female protective effect" posits that females undergo greater exposure to etiological factors than males in order to develop ADHD, leading to the prediction that relatives of females with ADHD will display more ADHD behaviors. We thus tested whether cotwins of females displaying extreme ADHD traits would display more ADHD traits than cotwins of males displaying extreme ADHD traits. METHOD Parents of approximately 7,000 pairs of nonidentical twins in Sweden, and approximately 4,000 pairs of twins in England and Wales, completed dimensional assessments of ADHD traits. Probands were selected on the basis of scoring within the highest 10% of the distribution in each sample. Dimensional scores of cotwins of probands, as well as the categorical recurrence rate, were investigated by proband sex. RESULTS Cotwins of female probands displayed higher mean ADHD trait scores (mean = 0.62-0.79) than cotwins of male probands (mean = 0.38-0.55) in both samples. This trend was significant in the Swedish sample (p < .01) and when the 2 samples were merged into a single, larger sample (p < .001). When the samples were merged, there was also a significant association between proband sex and cotwin's categorical status, with more cotwins of female probands also being probands than cotwins of male probands. CONCLUSION These findings support a female protective effect against ADHD behaviors, suggesting that females require greater exposure to genetic and environmental factors associated with ADHD in order to develop the condition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Henrik Anckarsäter
- Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Corina U. Greven
- Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Karakter Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Center, Nijmegen; and King’s College London, Medical Research Council Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London
| | - Angelica Ronald
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London.
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220
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Howe YJ, O'Rourke JA, Yatchmink Y, Viscidi EW, Jones RN, Morrow EM. Female Autism Phenotypes Investigated at Different Levels of Language and Developmental Abilities. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 45:3537-49. [PMID: 26100851 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2501-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the differences in clinical symptoms between females and males with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) across three verbal ability groups (nonverbal, phrase and fluent speech), based on which Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule module was administered to 5723 individuals in four research datasets. In the Simons Simplex Collection and Autism Treatment Network, females with ASD and phrase or fluent speech had lower cognitive, adaptive, and social abilities than males. In the Autism Genetics Resource Exchange and the Autism Consortium, females with phrase or fluent speech had similar or better adaptive and social abilities than males. Females who were nonverbal had similar cognitive, adaptive, and social abilities as males. Population-based longitudinal studies of verbally fluent females with ASD are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamini J Howe
- Division of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Hasbro Children's/Rhode Island Hospital, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, MA, USA
| | - Julia A O'Rourke
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, MA, USA
- Laboratory of Computer Science, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yvette Yatchmink
- Division of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Hasbro Children's/Rhode Island Hospital, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Emma W Viscidi
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Department of Community Health/Epidemiology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
- Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Richard N Jones
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University Medical School, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Eric M Morrow
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University Medical School, Providence, RI, USA.
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry and Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
- Developmental Disorders Genetics Research Program, Emma Pendleton Bradley Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.
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221
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Han J, Walters JTR, Kirov G, Pocklington A, Escott-Price V, Owen MJ, Holmans P, O’Donovan MC, Rees E. Gender differences in CNV burden do not confound schizophrenia CNV associations. Sci Rep 2016; 6:25986. [PMID: 27185616 PMCID: PMC4869015 DOI: 10.1038/srep25986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared with the general population, an excess of rare copy number variants (CNVs) has been identified in people with schizophrenia. Females with neurodevelopmental disorders and in the general population have been reported to carry more large, rare CNVs than males. Given that many schizophrenia datasets do not have equal gender ratios in cases and controls, sex differences in CNV burden might have impacted on estimates of case-related CNV burden and also on associations to individual loci. In a sample of 13,276 cases and 17,863 controls, we observed a small but significant excess of large (≥500 Kb), rare (<1%) CNVs in females compared with males in both cases and controls (OR = 1.17, P = 0.0012 for controls; OR = 1.11, P = 0.045 for cases). The burden of 11 schizophrenia-associated CNVs was significantly higher in female cases compared with male cases (OR = 1.38, P = 0.0055), but after accounting for the rates of CNVs in controls, we found no significant gender difference in the risk conferred by these loci. Controlling for gender had a negligible effect on the significance of association between specific CNVs and schizophrenia. The female excess of large CNVs in both cases and controls suggests a female protective mechanism exists for deleterious CNVs that may extend beyond neurodevelopmental phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Han
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - James T. R. Walters
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - George Kirov
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Andrew Pocklington
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Valentina Escott-Price
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Michael J. Owen
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Peter Holmans
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Michael C. O’Donovan
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Elliott Rees
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
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222
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Janecka M, Manduca A, Servadio M, Trezza V, Smith R, Mill J, Schalkwyk LC, Reichenberg A, Fernandes C. Effects of advanced paternal age on trajectories of social behavior in offspring. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2016; 14:443-53. [PMID: 26096767 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Our study is the first investigation of the effects of advanced paternal age (APA) on the developmental trajectory of social behavior in rodent offspring. Given the strong epidemiological association between APA and sexually dimorphic neurodevelopmental disorders that are characterized by abnormalities in social behavior (autism, schizophrenia), we assessed sociability in male and female inbred mice (C57BL/6J) across postnatal development (N = 104) in relation to paternal age. We found differences in early social behavior in both male and female offspring of older breeders, with differences in this social domain persisting into adulthood in males only. We showed that these social deficits were not present in the fathers of these offspring, confirming a de novo origin of an altered social trajectory in the offspring generation. Our results, highly novel in rodent research, support the epidemiological observations in humans and provide evidence for a causal link between APA, age-related changes in the paternal sperm DNA and neurodevelopmental disorders in their offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Janecka
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry MRC Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - A Manduca
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - M Servadio
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - V Trezza
- Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - R Smith
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry MRC Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - J Mill
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry MRC Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,University of Exeter Medical School, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - L C Schalkwyk
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry MRC Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - A Reichenberg
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - C Fernandes
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry MRC Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
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223
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Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a devastating neurodevelopmental disorder with high prevalence in the population and a pronounced male preponderance. ASD has a strong genetic basis, but until recently, a large fraction of the genetic factors contributing to liability was still unknown. Over the past 3 years, high-throughput next-generation sequencing on large cohorts has exposed a heterogeneous and complex genetic landscape and has revealed novel risk genes. Here, we provide an overview of the recent advances on the ASD genetic architecture, with an emphasis on the estimates of heritability, the contribution of common variants, and the role of inherited and de novo rare variation. We also examine the genetic components of the reported gender bias. Finally, we discuss the emerging findings from sequencing studies and how they illuminate crucial aspects of ASD pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia De Rubeis
- Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, 10029, NY, USA
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224
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Ziats MN, Rennert OM. The Evolving Diagnostic and Genetic Landscapes of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Genet 2016; 7:65. [PMID: 27200076 PMCID: PMC4844926 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2016.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a heterogeneous set of neurodevelopmental syndromes defined by impairments in verbal and non-verbal communication, restricted social interaction, and the presence of stereotyped patterns of behavior. The prevalence of ASD is rising, and the diagnostic criteria and clinical perspectives on the disorder continue to evolve in parallel. Although the majority of individuals with ASD will not have an identifiable genetic cause, almost 25% of cases have identifiable causative DNA variants. The rapidly improving ability to identify genetic mutations because of advances in next generation sequencing, coupled with previous epidemiological studies demonstrating high heritability of ASD, have led to many recent attempts to identify causative genetic mutations underlying the ASD phenotype. However, although hundreds of mutations have been identified to date, they are either rare variants affecting only a handful of ASD patients, or are common variants in the general population conferring only a small risk for ASD. Furthermore, the genes implicated thus far are heterogeneous in their structure and function, hampering attempts to understand shared molecular mechanisms among all ASD patients; an understanding that is crucial for the development of targeted diagnostics and therapies. However, new work is beginning to suggest that the heterogeneous set of genes implicated in ASD may ultimately converge on a few common pathways. In this review, we discuss the parallel evolution of our diagnostic and genetic understanding of autism spectrum disorders, and highlight recent attempts to infer common biology underlying this complicated syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark N. Ziats
- Laboratory of Clinical and Developmental Genomics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of CambridgeCambridgeshire, UK
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of MedicineHouston, TX, USA
| | - Owen M. Rennert
- Laboratory of Clinical and Developmental Genomics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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225
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Tropeano M, Howley D, Gazzellone MJ, Wilson CE, Ahn JW, Stavropoulos DJ, Murphy CM, Eis PS, Hatchwell E, Dobson RJB, Robertson D, Holder M, Irving M, Josifova D, Nehammer A, Ryten M, Spain D, Pitts M, Bramham J, Asherson P, Curran S, Vassos E, Breen G, Flinter F, Ogilvie CM, Collier DA, Scherer SW, McAlonan GM, Murphy DG. Microduplications at the pseudoautosomal SHOX locus in autism spectrum disorders and related neurodevelopmental conditions. J Med Genet 2016; 53:536-47. [PMID: 27073233 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2015-103621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pseudoautosomal short stature homeobox-containing (SHOX) gene encodes a homeodomain transcription factor involved in cell-cycle and growth regulation. SHOX/SHOX enhancers deletions cause short stature and skeletal abnormalities in a female-dominant fashion; duplications appear to be rare. Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), are complex disorders with high heritability and skewed sex ratio; several rare (<1% frequency) CNVs have been implicated in risk. METHODS We analysed data from a discovery series of 90 adult ASD cases, who underwent clinical genetic testing by array-comparative genomic hybridisation (CGH). Twenty-seven individuals harboured CNV abnormalities, including two unrelated females with microduplications affecting SHOX. To determine the prevalence of SHOX duplications and delineate their associated phenotypic spectrum, we subsequently examined array-CGH data from a follow-up sample of 26 574 patients, including 18 857 with NDD (3541 with ASD). RESULTS We found a significant enrichment of SHOX microduplications in the NDD cases (p=0.00036; OR 2.21) and, particularly, in those with ASD (p=9.18×10(-7); OR 3.63) compared with 12 594 population-based controls. SHOX duplications affecting the upstream or downstream enhancers were enriched only in females with NDD (p=0.0043; OR 2.69/p=0.00020; OR 7.20), but not in males (p=0.404; OR 1.38/p=0.096; OR 2.21). CONCLUSIONS Microduplications at the SHOX locus are a low penetrance risk factor for ASD/NDD, with increased risk in both sexes. However, a concomitant duplication of SHOX enhancers may be required to trigger a NDD in females. Since specific SHOX isoforms are exclusively expressed in the developing foetal brain, this may reflect the pathogenic effect of altered SHOX protein dosage on neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Tropeano
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Deirdre Howley
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Matthew J Gazzellone
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - C Ellie Wilson
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK Individual Differences, Language and Cognition Lab, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Joo Wook Ahn
- Department of Cytogenetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Dimitri J Stavropoulos
- Genome Diagnostics, Department of Pediatric Laboratory Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Clodagh M Murphy
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Peggy S Eis
- Population Diagnostics, Inc., Melville, New York, USA
| | - Eli Hatchwell
- Population Diagnostics, Inc., Melville, New York, USA
| | - Richard J B Dobson
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Dene Robertson
- Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Muriel Holder
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Melita Irving
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Dragana Josifova
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Annelise Nehammer
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Mina Ryten
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Debbie Spain
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Mark Pitts
- Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Jessica Bramham
- UCD School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Philip Asherson
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sarah Curran
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Evangelos Vassos
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Gerome Breen
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Frances Flinter
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | | | - David A Collier
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Discovery Neuroscience Research, Eli Lilly and Company Ltd, Erl Wood Manor, Windlesham, Surrey, UK
| | - Stephen W Scherer
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Department of Molecular Genetics, McLaughlin Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Grainne M McAlonan
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Declan G Murphy
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Adult Autism Spectrum and ADHD Services, Behavioural and Developmental Psychiatry, Clinical Academic Group, King's Health Partners, London, UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
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Kok FM, Groen Y, Becke M, Fuermaier ABM, Tucha O. Self-Reported Empathy in Adult Women with Autism Spectrum Disorders - A Systematic Mini Review. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151568. [PMID: 26998928 PMCID: PMC4801394 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION There is limited research on Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in females. Although the empathy construct has been examined thoroughly in autism, little attention has been paid to empathy in adult women with this condition or to gender differences within the disorder. OBJECTIVE Self-reported empathy in adult women with ASD was examined and compared to that of typically developed men and women as well as to men with this condition. METHODS Online databases were searched for articles investigating self-reported empathy among adult women with ASD. Only six studies comparing women to men were identified. RESULTS All studies found women with an ASD to report lower levels of empathy than typically developed women, and typically developed men, but similar levels to men with this condition. CONCLUSION The self-reported empathic ability of women diagnosed with ASD resembles that of their male counterparts most closely; they show a hypermasculinisation in empathy. This is particularly surprising considering the large gender difference in empathy in the general population. DISCUSSION One of the limitations of this review is that the current diagnostic criteria for ASD are oriented towards male-specific behaviour and fail to integrate gender specific characteristics. Hence, women diagnosed with ASD are likely to be at the male end of the continuum. The suggested hypermasculinisation of women on the spectrum, as evident from this review, may therefore be exaggerated due to a selection bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francien M. Kok
- Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Yvonne Groen
- Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Miriam Becke
- Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anselm B. M. Fuermaier
- Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Oliver Tucha
- Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Alaerts K, Swinnen SP, Wenderoth N. Sex differences in autism: a resting-state fMRI investigation of functional brain connectivity in males and females. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2016; 11:1002-16. [PMID: 26989195 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsw027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are far more prevalent in males than in females. Little is known however about the differential neural expression of ASD in males and females. We used a resting-state fMRI-dataset comprising 42 males/42 females with ASD and 75 male/75 female typical-controls to examine whether autism-related alterations in intrinsic functional connectivity are similar or different in males and females, and particularly whether alterations reflect 'neural masculinization', as predicted by the Extreme Male Brain theory. Males and females showed a differential neural expression of ASD, characterized by highly consistent patterns of hypo-connectivity in males with ASD (compared to typical males), and hyper-connectivity in females with ASD (compared to typical females). Interestingly, patterns of hyper-connectivity in females with ASD reflected a shift towards the (high) connectivity levels seen in typical males (neural masculinization), whereas patterns of hypo-connectivity observed in males with ASD reflected a shift towards the (low) typical feminine connectivity patterns (neural feminization). Our data support the notion that ASD is a disorder of sexual differentiation rather than a disorder characterized by masculinization in both genders. Future work is needed to identify underlying factors such as sex hormonal alterations that drive these sex-specific neural expressions of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaat Alaerts
- KU Leuven, Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control & Neuroplasticity Research Group, Leuven, Belgium KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Neuromotor Rehabilitation Research Group
| | - Stephan P Swinnen
- KU Leuven, Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control & Neuroplasticity Research Group, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicole Wenderoth
- ETH Zurich, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Neural Control of Movement Lab, Zurich, Switzerland
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Chawarska K, Macari S, Powell K, DiNicola L, Shic F. Enhanced Social Attention in Female Infant Siblings at Risk for Autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016; 55:188-95.e1. [PMID: 26903252 PMCID: PMC5812780 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sexual dimorphism in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a well-recognized but poorly understood phenomenon. Females are four times less likely to be diagnosed with ASD than males and, when diagnosed, are more likely to exhibit comorbid anxiety symptoms. One of the key phenotypic features of ASD is atypical attention to socially relevant stimuli. Eye-tracking studies indicate atypical patterns of spontaneous social orienting during the prodromal and early syndromic stages of ASD. However, there have been no studies evaluating sex differences in early social orienting and their potential contribution to later outcomes. METHOD We examined sex differences in social orienting in 6-, 9-, and 12-month-old infants at high genetic risk for ASD (n = 101) and in low-risk controls (n = 61), focusing on neurobehavioral measures of function across a spectrum of autism risk. RESULTS Results suggest that, between 6 and 12 months of age, a period highly consequential for the development of nonverbal social engagement competencies, high-risk females show enhanced attention to social targets, including faces, compared to both high-risk males and low-risk males and females. Greater attention to social targets in high-risk infants was associated with less severe social impairments at 2 years. CONCLUSION The results suggest an alternative expression of autism risk in females, which manifests in infancy as increased attention toward socially relevant stimuli. This increased attention may serve as a female protective factor against ASD by providing increased access to social experiences in early development.
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Bishop SL, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Sanders SJ. Attention Finally Being Paid to Girls at Risk of Autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2016; 55:159-60. [PMID: 26903248 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2015.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele
- Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Columbia University; the New York State Psychiatric Institute; and the Center for Autism and the Developing Brain, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York.
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Gene expression in human brain implicates sexually dimorphic pathways in autism spectrum disorders. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10717. [PMID: 26892004 PMCID: PMC4762891 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is more prevalent in males, and the mechanisms behind this sex-differential risk are not fully understood. Two competing, but not mutually exclusive, hypotheses are that ASD risk genes are sex-differentially regulated, or alternatively, that they interact with characteristic sexually dimorphic pathways. Here we characterized sexually dimorphic gene expression in multiple data sets from neurotypical adult and prenatal human neocortical tissue, and evaluated ASD risk genes for evidence of sex-biased expression. We find no evidence for systematic sex-differential expression of ASD risk genes. Instead, we observe that genes expressed at higher levels in males are significantly enriched for genes upregulated in post-mortem autistic brain, including astrocyte and microglia markers. This suggests that it is not sex-differential regulation of ASD risk genes, but rather naturally occurring sexually dimorphic processes, potentially including neuron–glial interactions, that modulate the impact of risk variants and contribute to the sex-skewed prevalence of ASD. Autism spectrum disorder is approximately 4.5 times more likely to occur in boys than girls. Here, Werling, Geschwind and Parikshak characterized sexually dimorphic gene expression in the non-diseased, post-mortem, adult and prenatal human brain, and show genes expressed at higher levels in males are significantly enriched for genes upregulated in autistic brain.
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Park HR, Lee JM, Moon HE, Lee DS, Kim BN, Kim J, Kim DG, Paek SH. A Short Review on the Current Understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Exp Neurobiol 2016; 25:1-13. [PMID: 26924928 PMCID: PMC4766109 DOI: 10.5607/en.2016.25.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a deficit in social behaviors and nonverbal interactions such as reduced eye contact, facial expression, and body gestures in the first 3 years of life. It is not a single disorder, and it is broadly considered to be a multi-factorial disorder resulting from genetic and non-genetic risk factors and their interaction. Genetic studies of ASD have identified mutations that interfere with typical neurodevelopment in utero through childhood. These complexes of genes have been involved in synaptogenesis and axon motility. Recent developments in neuroimaging studies have provided many important insights into the pathological changes that occur in the brain of patients with ASD in vivo. Especially, the role of amygdala, a major component of the limbic system and the affective loop of the cortico-striatothalamo-cortical circuit, in cognition and ASD has been proved in numerous neuropathological and neuroimaging studies. Besides the amygdala, the nucleus accumbens is also considered as the key structure which is related with the social reward response in ASD. Although educational and behavioral treatments have been the mainstay of the management of ASD, pharmacological and interventional treatments have also shown some benefit in subjects with ASD. Also, there have been reports about few patients who experienced improvement after deep brain stimulation, one of the interventional treatments. The key architecture of ASD development which could be a target for treatment is still an uncharted territory. Further work is needed to broaden the horizons on the understanding of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Ran Park
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Jae Meen Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Hyo Eun Moon
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Dong Soo Lee
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Bung-Nyun Kim
- Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Jinhyun Kim
- Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea
| | - Dong Gyu Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Sun Ha Paek
- Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea
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Eriksson JM, Lundström S, Lichtenstein P, Bejerot S, Eriksson E. Effect of co-twin gender on neurodevelopmental symptoms: a twin register study. Mol Autism 2016; 7:8. [PMID: 26793297 PMCID: PMC4719693 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-016-0074-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are neurodevelopmental disorders thought to have both genetic and environmental causes. It has been hypothesized that exposure to elevated levels of prenatal testosterone is associated with elevated traits of ASD and ADHD. Assuming that testosterone levels from a dizygotic male twin fetus may lead to enhanced testosterone exposure of its co-twins, we aimed to test the prenatal testosterone hypothesis by comparing same-sex with opposite-sex dizygotic twins with respect to neurodevelopmental symptoms. METHODS Neuropsychiatric traits were assessed in a population-based twin cohort from the Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS). Parental interviews were conducted for 16,312 dizygotic twins, 9 and 12 years old, with the Autism-Tics, ADHD, and other Comorbidities inventory (A-TAC). RESULTS Girls with a female co-twin had an increased risk of reaching the cut-off score for ADHD compared with girls with a male co-twin. Both boys and girls with a female co-twin displayed a larger number of traits related to attention deficit and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors than those with a male twin. In girls, this also extended to social interaction and the combined measures for ASD and ADHD, however, with small effect sizes. CONCLUSIONS Our results are reverse to what would have been expected from the prenatal testosterone hypothesis but consistent with a previous study of ASD and ADHD traits in dizygotic twins. The seemingly protective effect for girls of having a twin brother may be an effect of parent report bias, but may also be an unexpected effect of sharing the intrauterine environment with a male co-twin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonna Maria Eriksson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, KIND, Gävleg 22, SE-113 30, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sebastian Lundström
- Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden ; Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Susanne Bejerot
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, KIND, Gävleg 22, SE-113 30, Stockholm, Sweden ; School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Elias Eriksson
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Postorino V, Fatta LM, De Peppo L, Giovagnoli G, Armando M, Vicari S, Mazzone L. Longitudinal comparison between male and female preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 45:2046-55. [PMID: 25633919 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2366-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have highlighted a strong male bias in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), however few studies have examined gender differences in autism symptoms, and available findings are inconsistent. The aim of the present study is to investigate the longitudinal gender differences in developmental profiles of 30 female and 30 male age-matched preschool children with ASD. All the children underwent a comprehensive evaluation at T0 and at T1. Our results have shown no significant interaction between time and gender for predicting autism symptoms, developmental quotient, parental stress, children's adaptive skills and behavior problems. Shedding light on the developmental trajectories in ASD could help clinicians to recognize children with ASD at an earlier age and contribute to the development of appropriate treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Postorino
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Neuroscience, I.R.C.C.S. Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, Piazza S. Onofrio, 4, 00165, Rome, Italy
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Summaries of plenary, symposia, and oral sessions at the XXII World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics, Copenhagen, Denmark, 12-16 October 2014. Psychiatr Genet 2015; 26:1-47. [PMID: 26565519 DOI: 10.1097/ypg.0000000000000112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The XXII World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics, sponsored by the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics, took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 12-16 October 2014. A total of 883 participants gathered to discuss the latest findings in the field. The following report was written by student and postdoctoral attendees. Each was assigned one or more sessions as a rapporteur. This manuscript represents topics covered in most, but not all of the oral presentations during the conference, and contains some of the major notable new findings reported.
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Cheslack-Postava K, Susser E, Liu K, Bearman PS. Can Sibling Sex Ratios Be Used as a Valid Test for the Prenatal Androgen Hypothesis of Autism Spectrum Disorders? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141338. [PMID: 26495967 PMCID: PMC4619748 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sibling sex ratios have been applied as an indirect test of a hypothesized association between prenatal testosterone levels and risk for autism, a developmental disorder disproportionately affecting males. Differences in sibling sex ratios between those with and without autism would provide evidence of a shared risk factor for autism and offspring sex. Conclusions related to prenatal testosterone, however, require additional assumptions. Here, we used directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) to clarify the elements required for a valid test of the hypothesis that sibling sex ratios differ between children with and without autism. We then conducted such a test using a large, population-based sample of children. METHODS Over 1.1 million subjects, born in California from 1992-2007, and identified through birth records, were included. The association between autism diagnosis, determined using the administrative database of the California Department of Developmental Services, and the sex of the subsequent sibling was examined using generalized estimating equations. Sources of potential bias identified using DAGs were addressed. RESULTS Among male children with autism, 52.2% of next-born siblings were brothers, versus 51.0% for unaffected males. For females with autism, 50.2% of following siblings were brothers versus 51.2% among control females. The relative risk of a subsequent male sibling associated with autism diagnosis was 1.02 (95% confidence interval: 0.99, 1.04). CONCLUSIONS In a large, population-based sample we failed to find evidence suggesting an excess of brothers among children with autism while controlling for several threats to validity. This test cannot rule out a role of any given exposure, including prenatal testosterone, in either risk of autism or offspring sex ratio, but suggests against a common cause of both.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keely Cheslack-Postava
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ezra Susser
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kayuet Liu
- Department of Sociology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Peter S. Bearman
- Interdisciplinary Center for Innovative Theory and Empirics, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Frazier TW, Youngstrom EA, Hardan AY, Georgiades S, Constantino JN, Eng C. Quantitative autism symptom patterns recapitulate differential mechanisms of genetic transmission in single and multiple incidence families. Mol Autism 2015; 6:58. [PMID: 26512313 PMCID: PMC4623917 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0050-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have demonstrated aggregation of autistic traits in undiagnosed family members of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which has significant implications for ASD risk in their offspring. This study capitalizes upon a large, quantitatively characterized clinical-epidemiologic family sample to establish the extent to which family transmission pattern and sex modulate ASD trait aggregation. METHODS Data were analyzed from 5515 siblings (2657 non-ASD and 2858 ASD) included in the Interactive Autism Network. Autism symptom levels were measured using the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) and by computing Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5) symptom scores based on items from the SRS and Social Communication Questionnaire. Generalized estimating equation models evaluated the influence of family incidence types (single versus multiple incidence families; male-only ASD-affected families versus families with female ASD-affected children), diagnostic group (non-ASD children with and without a history of language delay with autistic speech and ASD-affected children), and sibling sex on ASD symptom levels. RESULTS Non-ASD children manifested elevated ASD symptom burden when they were members of multiple incidence families-this effect was accentuated for male children in female ASD-containing families-or when they had a history of language delay with autistic qualities of speech. In this sample, ASD-affected children from multiple incidence families had lower symptom levels than their counterparts in single incidence families. Recurrence risk for ASD was higher for children from female ASD-containing families than for children from male-only families. CONCLUSIONS Sex and patterns of family transmission modulate the risk of autism symptom burden in undiagnosed siblings of ASD-affected children. Identification of these symptoms/traits and their molecular genetic causes may have significant implications for genetic counseling and for understanding inherited liabilities that confer risk for ASD in successive generations. Autism symptom elevations were more dramatic in non-ASD children from multiple incidence families and those with a history of language delay and autistic qualities of speech, identifying sub-groups at substantially greater transmission risk. Higher symptom burden and greater recurrence in children from female ASD-containing families indicate that familial aggregation patterns are further qualified by sex-specific thresholds, supportive of the notion that females require a higher burden of deleterious liability to cross into categorical ASD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Frazier
- Center for Autism (CRS10), Pediatric Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 2801 Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, Cleveland, OH 44104 USA
| | - Eric A Youngstrom
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 235 E. Cameron Avenue, Davie Hall CB #3270, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3520 USA
| | - Antonio Y Hardan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Stanford University, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA 94305-5717 USA
| | - Stelios Georgiades
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, Offord Centre for Child Studies, McMaster University, 555 Sanatorium Rd, Hamilton, ON L9C 2B1 Canada
| | - John N Constantino
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University of St. Louis, 660 S. Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Charis Eng
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Taussig Cancer Institute, and Stanley Shalom Zielony Institute of Nursing Excellence, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195 USA
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Brief Report: Parent-Reported Problems Related to Communication, Behavior and Interests in Children with Autistic Disorder and Their Impact on Quality of Life. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 46:328-331. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2577-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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238
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Cederlöf M, Thornton LM, Baker J, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, Rück C, Bulik CM, Mataix-Cols D. Etiological overlap between obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia nervosa: a longitudinal cohort, multigenerational family and twin study. World Psychiatry 2015; 14:333-8. [PMID: 26407789 PMCID: PMC4592656 DOI: 10.1002/wps.20251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) often co-occurs with anorexia nervosa (AN), a comorbid profile that complicates the clinical management of both conditions. This population-based study aimed to examine patterns of comorbidity, longitudinal risks, shared familial risks and shared genetic factors between OCD and AN at the population level. Participants were individuals with a diagnosis of OCD (N=19,814) or AN (N=8,462) in the Swedish National Patient Register between January 1992 and December 2009; their first-, second- and third-degree relatives; and population-matched (1:10 ratio) unaffected comparison individuals and their relatives. Female twins from the population-based Swedish Twin Register (N=8,550) were also included. Females with OCD had a 16-fold increased risk of having a comorbid diagnosis of AN, whereas males with OCD had a 37-fold increased risk. Longitudinal analyses showed that individuals first diagnosed with OCD had an increased risk for a later diagnosis of AN (risk ratio, RR=3.6), whereas individuals first diagnosed with AN had an even greater risk for a later diagnosis of OCD (RR=9.6). These longitudinal risks were about twice as high for males than for females. First- and second-degree relatives of probands with OCD had an increased risk for AN, and the magnitude of this risk tended to increase with the degree of genetic relatedness. Bivariate twin models revealed a moderate but significant degree of genetic overlap between self-reported OCD and AN diagnoses (ra =0.52, 95% CI: 0.26-0.81), but most of the genetic variance was disorder-specific. The moderately high genetic correlation supports the idea that this frequently observed comorbid pattern is at least in part due to shared genetic factors, though disorder-specific factors are more important. These results have implications for current gene-searching efforts and for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Cederlöf
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - Laura M Thornton
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jessica Baker
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrik Larsson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - Christian Rück
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatric Research and Education, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County CouncilStockholm, Sweden
| | - Cynthia M Bulik
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden,Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA,Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David Mataix-Cols
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatric Research and Education, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County CouncilStockholm, Sweden
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239
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Childhood neurodevelopmental problems and adolescent bully victimization: population-based, prospective twin study in Sweden. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015; 24:1049-59. [PMID: 25567653 DOI: 10.1007/s00787-014-0658-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Bully victimization is a common problem among children with neurodevelopmental disorders, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Previous research was mostly cross-sectional and seldom accounted for co-morbid psychopathology, which makes it difficult to draw conclusions about causality and specificity of any association. Using a genetically informative prospective design, we investigated the association between various neurodevelopmental problems (NDPs) in childhood and bully victimization in adolescence, and the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to this association. We obtained parent-reports of NDPs at age 9/12 years and self-reported bully victimization at age 15 for 3,921 children participating in the The Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS). Structural equation modelling was used to control for NDP co-morbidity and bully victimization at baseline. Cholesky decomposition was used to analyse genetic and environmental contributions to observed associations. Because most of the NDPs were associated to later bully victimization, a common effect of all NDPs was summarized into a general NDP factor. Controlling for this general factor, only problems with social interaction and motor control uniquely predicted subsequent bully victimization in girls. General and unique associations were influenced by both genetic and unique environmental factors. NDPs in general and social interaction and motor problems in particular predicted later bully victimization. The longitudinal design and twin analyses indicated that these associations might be causal. Knowledge of these vulnerabilities may be important when designing risk assessment and prevention strategies.
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240
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Polyak A, Rosenfeld JA, Girirajan S. An assessment of sex bias in neurodevelopmental disorders. Genome Med 2015; 7:94. [PMID: 26307204 PMCID: PMC4549901 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-015-0216-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and intellectual disability have a sex bias skewed towards boys; however, systematic assessment of this bias is complicated by the presence of significant genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity of these disorders. Methods To assess the extent and characteristics of sex bias, we analyzed the frequency of comorbid features, the magnitude of genetic load, and the existence of family history within 32,155 individuals ascertained clinically for autism or intellectual disability/developmental delay (ID/DD), including a subset of 8,373 individuals carrying rare copy-number variants (CNVs). Results We find that girls were more likely than boys to show comorbid features within both autism (P = 2.9 × 10−6, OR = 1.34) and ID/DD (P = 7.2 × 10−4, OR = 1.08) cohorts. The frequency of comorbid features in ID/DD was higher in boys (1q21.1 deletion, 15q11.2q13.1 duplication) or girls (15q13.3 deletion, 16p11.2 deletion) carrying specific CNVs associated with variable expressivity while such differences were the smallest for syndromic CNVs (Smith-Magenis syndrome, DiGeorge syndrome). The extent of the male sex bias also varied according to the specific comorbid feature, being most extreme for autism with psychiatric comorbidities and least extreme for autism comorbid with epilepsy. The sex ratio was also specific to certain CNVs, from an 8:1 male:female ratio observed among autistic individuals carrying the 22q11.2 duplication to 1.3:1 male:female ratio in those carrying the 16p11.2 deletion. Girls carried a higher burden of large CNVs compared to boys for autism or ID/DD, and this difference diminished when severe comorbidities were considered. Affected boys showed a higher frequency of neuropsychiatric family histories such as autism (P = 0.01) or specific learning disability (P = 0.03), while affected girls showed a higher frequency of developmental family histories such as growth abnormalities (P = 0.02). Conclusions The sex bias within neurodevelopmental disorders is influenced by the presence of specific comorbidities, specific CNVs, mutational burden, and pre-existing family history of neurodevelopmental phenotypes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13073-015-0216-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Polyak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Jill A Rosenfeld
- Signature Genomic Laboratories, PerkinElmer, Inc., Spokane, WA, 99207, USA. .,Present address: Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Santhosh Girirajan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA. .,The Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA. .,Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, 205A Huck Life Sciences Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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241
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Startin CM, Fiorentini C, de Haan M, Skuse DH. Variation in the X-linked EFHC2 gene is associated with social cognitive abilities in males. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131604. [PMID: 26107779 PMCID: PMC4481314 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Females outperform males on many social cognitive tasks. X-linked genes may contribute to this sex difference. Males possess one X chromosome, while females possess two X chromosomes. Functional variations in X-linked genes are therefore likely to impact more on males than females. Previous studies of X-monosomic women with Turner syndrome suggest a genetic association with facial fear recognition abilities at Xp11.3, specifically at a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP rs7055196) within the EFHC2 gene. Based on a strong hypothesis, we investigated an association between variation at SNP rs7055196 and facial fear recognition and theory of mind abilities in males. As predicted, males possessing the G allele had significantly poorer facial fear detection accuracy and theory of mind abilities than males possessing the A allele (with SNP variant accounting for up to 4.6% of variance). Variation in the X-linked EFHC2 gene at SNP rs7055196 is therefore associated with social cognitive abilities in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla M. Startin
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Chiara Fiorentini
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, School of Psychology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Michelle de Haan
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David H. Skuse
- Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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242
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Halladay AK, Bishop S, Constantino JN, Daniels AM, Koenig K, Palmer K, Messinger D, Pelphrey K, Sanders SJ, Singer AT, Taylor JL, Szatmari P. Sex and gender differences in autism spectrum disorder: summarizing evidence gaps and identifying emerging areas of priority. Mol Autism 2015. [PMID: 26075049 DOI: 10.1186/s13229‐015‐0019‐y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most consistent findings in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research is a higher rate of ASD diagnosis in males than females. Despite this, remarkably little research has focused on the reasons for this disparity. Better understanding of this sex difference could lead to major advancements in the prevention or treatment of ASD in both males and females. In October of 2014, Autism Speaks and the Autism Science Foundation co-organized a meeting that brought together almost 60 clinicians, researchers, parents, and self-identified autistic individuals. Discussion at the meeting is summarized here with recommendations on directions of future research endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alycia K Halladay
- Autism Science Foundation, 28 W 39th Street #502, New York, NY 10018 USA ; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers University, 41B Gordon Road, Piscataway, 08854 New Brunswick, NJ USA
| | - Somer Bishop
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, 401 Parnassus Ave, LangPorter, 94143 San Francisco, CA USA
| | - John N Constantino
- William Greenleaf Eliot Division of Child Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8134, 63110 St. Louis, MO USA
| | - Amy M Daniels
- Autism Speaks, 1 E 33rd St 4th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Katheen Koenig
- Initiative for Girls and Women with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Yale Child Study Center, PO Box 207900, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, CT 06520-7900 USA
| | - Kate Palmer
- Global and Regional Asperger, Syndrome Partnership, Inc., 419 Lafayette Street, New York, NY 10003 USA
| | - Daniel Messinger
- Department of Psychology and Pediatrics, University of Miami, Flipse Building, P.O. Box 249229, Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751 USA
| | - Kevin Pelphrey
- Child Neuroscience Laboratory, Yale Child Study Center, PO Box 207900, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, CT 06520-7900 USA
| | - Stephan J Sanders
- UCSF School of Medicine, Psychiatry, 1550 4th St Bldg 19B, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | | | - Julie Lounds Taylor
- Pediatrics and Special Education, Vanderbilt Kennedy Center Investigator, PMB 40-230 Appleton Pl., Nashville, TN 37203 USA
| | - Peter Szatmari
- The Hospital for Sick Children and Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4 Canada ; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4 Canada
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243
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Halladay AK, Bishop S, Constantino JN, Daniels AM, Koenig K, Palmer K, Messinger D, Pelphrey K, Sanders SJ, Singer AT, Taylor JL, Szatmari P. Sex and gender differences in autism spectrum disorder: summarizing evidence gaps and identifying emerging areas of priority. Mol Autism 2015; 6:36. [PMID: 26075049 PMCID: PMC4465158 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0019-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most consistent findings in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research is a higher rate of ASD diagnosis in males than females. Despite this, remarkably little research has focused on the reasons for this disparity. Better understanding of this sex difference could lead to major advancements in the prevention or treatment of ASD in both males and females. In October of 2014, Autism Speaks and the Autism Science Foundation co-organized a meeting that brought together almost 60 clinicians, researchers, parents, and self-identified autistic individuals. Discussion at the meeting is summarized here with recommendations on directions of future research endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alycia K Halladay
- Autism Science Foundation, 28 W 39th Street #502, New York, NY 10018 USA ; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers University, 41B Gordon Road, Piscataway, 08854 New Brunswick, NJ USA
| | - Somer Bishop
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, 401 Parnassus Ave, LangPorter, 94143 San Francisco, CA USA
| | - John N Constantino
- William Greenleaf Eliot Division of Child Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8134, 63110 St. Louis, MO USA
| | - Amy M Daniels
- Autism Speaks, 1 E 33rd St 4th Floor, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Katheen Koenig
- Initiative for Girls and Women with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Yale Child Study Center, PO Box 207900, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, CT 06520-7900 USA
| | - Kate Palmer
- Global and Regional Asperger, Syndrome Partnership, Inc., 419 Lafayette Street, New York, NY 10003 USA
| | - Daniel Messinger
- Department of Psychology and Pediatrics, University of Miami, Flipse Building, P.O. Box 249229, Coral Gables, FL 33124-0751 USA
| | - Kevin Pelphrey
- Child Neuroscience Laboratory, Yale Child Study Center, PO Box 207900, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, CT 06520-7900 USA
| | - Stephan J Sanders
- UCSF School of Medicine, Psychiatry, 1550 4th St Bldg 19B, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | | | - Julie Lounds Taylor
- Pediatrics and Special Education, Vanderbilt Kennedy Center Investigator, PMB 40-230 Appleton Pl., Nashville, TN 37203 USA
| | - Peter Szatmari
- The Hospital for Sick Children and Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4 Canada ; Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4 Canada
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244
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Grant KA, Sandman CA, Wing DA, Dmitrieva J, Davis EP. Prenatal Programming of Postnatal Susceptibility to Memory Impairments: A Developmental Double Jeopardy. Psychol Sci 2015; 26:1054-62. [PMID: 26063439 DOI: 10.1177/0956797615580299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the study reported here, we examined the effects of fetal exposure to a synthetic stress hormone (synthetic glucocorticoids) on children's susceptibility to postnatal sociodemographic adversity. We recruited children who were born healthy and at term. Twenty-six had been treated with steroid hormones (glucocorticoids) during the prenatal period, and 85 had not. Only children exposed to both prenatal stress hormones and postnatal sociodemographic adversity showed impaired performance on standardized tests of memory function. The association was specific to long-term memory. General intellectual functioning and expressive language were not affected by fetal glucocorticoid exposure. Results were independent of maternal intelligence and maternal depression at the time of the study. These findings are consistent with a vulnerability-stress model: Prenatal exposure to synthetic stress hormones is associated with increased susceptibility to subsequent adversity, with consequences for cognitive functioning that persist 6 to 10 years after birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry-Ann Grant
- Women and Children's Health and Well-Being Project, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine
| | - Curt A Sandman
- Women and Children's Health and Well-Being Project, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine
| | - Deborah A Wing
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of California, Irvine
| | | | - Elysia Poggi Davis
- Women and Children's Health and Well-Being Project, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine Department of Psychology, University of Denver
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245
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Masuya Y, Okamoto Y, Inohara K, Matsumura Y, Fujioka T, Wada Y, Kosaka H. Sex-different abnormalities in the right second to fourth digit ratio in Japanese individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Mol Autism 2015; 6:34. [PMID: 26060570 PMCID: PMC4460687 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0028-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) is higher in men than in women. The extreme male brain theory proposes that excessive prenatal testosterone activity could be a risk factor for ASDs. However, it is unclear whether prenatal sex hormone activity is a risk factor for women. The ratio of the length of the second to fourth digits (2D:4D) is considered to be a biomarker of the prenatal ratio of testosterone to estrogen. Therefore, this study compared the 2D:4D ratios of women with and without ASDs to determine if prenatal sex hormone activity could be a risk factor for ASDs in women. Methods The study included 35 Japanese men with ASDs, 17 Japanese women with ASDs, 59 typically developed (TD) Japanese men, and 57 TD Japanese women. We measured digit lengths and compared the 2D:4D ratios among the four groups. We also examined the relationship between the 2D:4D ratio and the autism-spectrum quotient score of each group. Results In our cohort, men with ASDs tended to have lower right-hand 2D:4D ratios relative to TD men. In contrast, the right 2D:4D ratios in women with ASDs were higher compared to those of TD women. No significant correlations were found between the 2D:4D ratios and the autism-spectrum quotient scores in any group. The higher right 2D:4D ratios in women could not be explained by age or full-scale intelligent quotients. This group difference was not found for the left 2D:4D or right–left 2D:4D ratios. Conclusions We found a reverse direction of abnormality in the right 2D:4D ratio for men and women with ASDs. It has been posited that high prenatal testosterone levels lead to a lower 2D:4D ratio. However, a recent animal study showed that testosterone injection to dam leads to a higher right 2D:4D ratio especially for female offspring, which might be mediated by abnormal adipose accumulation in the fingertip. Therefore, the present findings suggest that high prenatal testosterone could be a risk factor both for Japanese men and women with ASDs, elucidating one potential etiology of ASDs in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Masuya
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
| | - Yuko Okamoto
- Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Division of Developmental Higher Brain Functions, Department of Child Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University and University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
| | - Keisuke Inohara
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Department of Informatics, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, 182-8585 Japan
| | - Yukiko Matsumura
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
| | - Toru Fujioka
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
| | - Yuji Wada
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Division of Developmental Higher Brain Functions, Department of Child Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University and University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
| | - Hirotaka Kosaka
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan ; Division of Developmental Higher Brain Functions, Department of Child Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University and University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193 Japan
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246
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Mottron L, Duret P, Mueller S, Moore RD, Forgeot d'Arc B, Jacquemont S, Xiong L. Sex differences in brain plasticity: a new hypothesis for sex ratio bias in autism. Mol Autism 2015; 6:33. [PMID: 26052415 PMCID: PMC4456778 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Several observations support the hypothesis that differences in synaptic and regional cerebral plasticity between the sexes account for the high ratio of males to females in autism. First, males are more susceptible than females to perturbations in genes involved in synaptic plasticity. Second, sex-related differences in non-autistic brain structure and function are observed in highly variable regions, namely, the heteromodal associative cortices, and overlap with structural particularities and enhanced activity of perceptual associative regions in autistic individuals. Finally, functional cortical reallocations following brain lesions in non-autistic adults (for example, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis) are sex-dependent. Interactions between genetic sex and hormones may therefore result in higher synaptic and consecutively regional plasticity in perceptual brain areas in males than in females. The onset of autism may largely involve mutations altering synaptic plasticity that create a plastic reaction affecting the most variable and sexually dimorphic brain regions. The sex ratio bias in autism may arise because males have a lower threshold than females for the development of this plastic reaction following a genetic or environmental event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mottron
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Pauline Duret
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Département de Biologie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, CEDEX 07 France
| | - Sophia Mueller
- Institute of Clinical Radiology, University Hospitals, Munich, Germany.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129 USA.,Harvard University, Center for Brain Science, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Robert D Moore
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Health Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.,College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA
| | - Baudouin Forgeot d'Arc
- Centre d'excellence en Troubles envahissants du dévelopement de l'Université de Montréal (CETEDUM), Montréal, Canada.,Hôpital Rivière-des-Prairies, Département de Psychiatrie, Montréal, Canada.,Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Sebastien Jacquemont
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Centre de recherche, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte Justine, Montréal, Canada.,Service of Medical Genetics, University Hospital of Lausanne, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, 1011 Switzerland
| | - Lan Xiong
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Québec, Canada
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247
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Messinger DS, Young GS, Webb SJ, Ozonoff S, Bryson SE, Carter A, Carver L, Charman T, Chawarska K, Curtin S, Dobkins K, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hutman T, Iverson JM, Landa R, Nelson CA, Stone WL, Tager-Flusberg H, Zwaigenbaum L. Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study. Mol Autism 2015; 6:32. [PMID: 26045943 PMCID: PMC4455973 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-015-0027-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increased male prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may be mirrored by the early emergence of sex differences in ASD symptoms and cognitive functioning. The female protective effect hypothesis posits that ASD recurrence and symptoms will be higher among relatives of female probands. This study examined sex differences and sex of proband differences in ASD outcome and in the development of ASD symptoms and cognitive functioning among the high-risk younger siblings of ASD probands and low-risk children. METHODS Prior to 18 months of age, 1824 infants (1241 high-risk siblings, 583 low-risk) from 15 sites were recruited. Hierarchical generalized linear model (HGLM) analyses of younger sibling and proband sex differences in ASD recurrence among high-risk siblings were followed by HGLM analyses of sex differences and group differences (high-risk ASD, high-risk non-ASD, and low-risk) on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) subscales (Expressive and Receptive Language, Fine Motor, and Visual Reception) at 18, 24, and 36 months and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) domain scores (social affect (SA) and restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRB)) at 24 and 36 months. RESULTS Of 1241 high-risk siblings, 252 had ASD outcomes. Male recurrence was 26.7 % and female recurrence 10.3 %, with a 3.18 odds ratio. The HR-ASD group had lower MSEL subscale scores and higher RRB and SA scores than the HR non-ASD group, which had lower MSEL subscale scores and higher RRB scores than the LR group. Regardless of group, males obtained lower MSEL subscale scores, and higher ADOS RRB scores, than females. There were, however, no significant interactions between sex and group on either the MSEL or ADOS. Proband sex did not affect ASD outcome, MSEL subscale, or ADOS domain scores. CONCLUSIONS A 3.2:1 male:female odds ratio emerged among a large sample of prospectively followed high-risk siblings. Sex differences in cognitive performance and repetitive behaviors were apparent not only in high-risk children with ASD, but also in high-risk children without ASD and in low-risk children. Sex differences in young children with ASD do not appear to be ASD-specific but instead reflect typically occurring sex differences seen in children without ASD. Results did not support a female protective effect hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sara Jane Webb
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA USA ; University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | | | - Susan E Bryson
- Izaak Walton Killam Health Centre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ted Hutman
- University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | | | - Rebecca Landa
- Kennedy Krieger Institute and John Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Charles A Nelson
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA ; Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, UK ; Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA USA
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248
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Martin J, Hamshere ML, Stergiakouli E, O'Donovan MC, Thapar A. Neurocognitive abilities in the general population and composite genetic risk scores for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2015; 56:648-56. [PMID: 25280069 PMCID: PMC4431584 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The genetic architecture of ADHD is complex, with rare and common variants involved. Common genetic variants (as indexed by a composite risk score) associated with clinical ADHD significantly predict ADHD and autistic-like behavioural traits in children from the general population, suggesting that ADHD lies at the extreme of normal trait variation. ADHD and other neurodevelopmental disorders share neurocognitive difficulties in several domains (e.g. impaired cognitive ability and executive functions). We hypothesised that ADHD composite genetic risk scores derived from clinical ADHD cases would also contribute to variation in neurocognitive abilities in the general population. METHODS Children (N = 6,832) from a UK population cohort, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), underwent neurocognitive testing. Parent-reported measures of their children's ADHD and autistic-like traits were used to construct a behavioural latent variable of 'neurodevelopmental traits'. Composite genetic risk scores for ADHD were calculated for ALSPAC children based on findings from an independent ADHD case-control genome-wide association study. Structural equation modelling was used to assess associations between ADHD composite genetic risk scores and IQ, working memory, inhibitory control and facial emotion recognition, as well as the latent 'neurodevelopmental trait' measure. RESULTS The results confirmed that neurocognitive and neurodevelopmental traits are correlated in children in the general population. Composite genetic risk scores for ADHD were independently associated with lower IQ (β = -.05, p < .001) and working memory performance (β = -.034, p = .013), even after accounting for the relationship with latent neurodevelopmental behavioural trait scores. No associations were found between composite genetic risk scores and inhibitory control or emotion recognition (p > .05). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that common genetic variants relevant to clinically diagnosed ADHD have pleiotropic effects on neurocognitive traits as well as behavioural dimensions in the general population. This further suggests that the well-recognised association between cognition and neurodevelopmental behavioural traits is underpinned at a biological level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Martin
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff UniversityCardiff, UK,Correspondence Joanna Martin and Anita Thapar, MRC CNGG, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK; Emails: ;
| | - Marian L Hamshere
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff UniversityCardiff, UK
| | | | - Michael C O'Donovan
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff UniversityCardiff, UK
| | - Anita Thapar
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff UniversityCardiff, UK,Correspondence Joanna Martin and Anita Thapar, MRC CNGG, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK; Emails: ;
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249
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Ross LA, Del Bene VA, Molholm S, Frey HP, Foxe JJ. Sex differences in multisensory speech processing in both typically developing children and those on the autism spectrum. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:185. [PMID: 26074757 PMCID: PMC4445312 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous work has revealed sizeable deficits in the abilities of children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to integrate auditory and visual speech signals, with clear implications for social communication in this population. There is a strong male preponderance in ASD, with approximately four affected males for every female. The presence of sex differences in ASD symptoms suggests a sexual dimorphism in the ASD phenotype, and raises the question of whether this dimorphism extends to ASD traits in the neurotypical population. Here, we investigated possible sexual dimorphism in multisensory speech integration in both ASD and neurotypical individuals. METHODS We assessed whether males and females differed in their ability to benefit from visual speech when target words were presented under varying levels of signal-to-noise, in samples of neurotypical children and adults, and in children diagnosed with an ASD. RESULTS In typically developing (TD) children and children with ASD, females (n = 47 and n = 15, respectively) were significantly superior in their ability to recognize words under audiovisual listening conditions compared to males (n = 55 and n = 58, respectively). This sex difference was absent in our sample of neurotypical adults (n = 28 females; n = 28 males). CONCLUSIONS We propose that the development of audiovisual integration is delayed in male relative to female children, a delay that is also observed in ASD. In neurotypicals, these sex differences disappear in early adulthood when females approach their performance maximum and males "catch up." Our findings underline the importance of considering sex differences in the search for autism endophenotypes and strongly encourage increased efforts to study the underrepresented population of females within ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars A. Ross
- The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical CenterBronx, NY, USA
- The Gordon F. Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi UniversityGarden City, NY, USA
| | - Victor A. Del Bene
- The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical CenterBronx, NY, USA
- Ferkauf Graduate School of Psychology, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronx, NY, USA
| | - Sophie Molholm
- The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical CenterBronx, NY, USA
- The Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Rose F. Kennedy Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronx, NY, USA
| | - Hans-Peter Frey
- The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical CenterBronx, NY, USA
- Division of Neurocritical Care, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical CenterNew York, NY, USA
| | - John J. Foxe
- The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical CenterBronx, NY, USA
- The Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Rose F. Kennedy Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronx, NY, USA
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Do women with eating disorders who have social and flexibility difficulties really have autism? A case series. Mol Autism 2015; 6:6. [PMID: 26056560 PMCID: PMC4459459 DOI: 10.1186/2040-2392-6-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many women with eating disorders (EDs) have social impairments and difficulties with flexibility. It is unclear to what extent these are manifestations of an underlying autism spectrum disorder (ASD); or whether they are instead the consequence of starvation, anxiety, low mood or obsessive compulsive disorder, all of which are highly prevalent in EDs. The resolution of this clinically and theoretically important uncertainty will require the use of gold-standard ASD assessment measures. To date these have not been employed in ED research. This case series is the first report of a well-validated, direct-observational measure of ASD, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), being administered to women with EDs. We aimed to learn about the feasibility of the ADOS in this population, and to contribute to debates about whether a sub-group with EDs really have ASD. Methods Ten women (mean age = 26.4 years, range = 19 to 38 years) who had a suspected ASD due to social and flexibility difficulties and were receiving treatment for ED (seven anorexia, two ED not otherwise specified, one bulimia) at a specialist service (four inpatient, six outpatient) received an ADOS Module 4 assessment. Results All 10 participants completed all activities of the ADOS Module 4. Five scored in the ASD range on the ADOS diagnostic algorithm. An additional two were judged likely to have ASD, even though they scored below the ADOS’s diagnostic threshold. This was on the basis of clinical observation, participant self-report and parent report. The seven women who we estimated to have ASD all reported autistic difficulties prior to the onset of their ED. They commonly described longstanding non-autistic neurodevelopmental problems, including dyslexia, dyspraxia and epilepsy. Only one had a childhood diagnosis of ASD. Conclusions A substantial proportion of women with EDs who present with social and flexibility difficulties may have an unrecognised ASD, indicated by a constellation of autistic difficulties that appears to predate the onset of their eating problems. The ADOS is a useful component of an ASD assessment for adult women with ED.
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