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Ustündağ IO, Korkmaz M. Spectroscopic, kinetic and dosimetric features of the radical species produced after radiodegradation of solid triclosan. RADIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOPHYSICS 2009; 48:159-167. [PMID: 19219448 DOI: 10.1007/s00411-009-0210-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2008] [Accepted: 01/15/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, spectroscopic, kinetic and dosimetric features of the radicalic intermediates produced after gamma irradiation at room temperature of solid triclosan (2,4,4-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether; TCS) were investigated by means of electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR) at various temperatures. The same material was also irradiated with UV light, and an ESR spectrum very similar to that obtained for gamma-irradiated TCS, was recorded. The ESR spectrum of TCS is characterized by an unresolved doublet with resonance lines split into other doublets. An evaluation technique based on variations of four assigned peak-to-peak amplitudes and signal intensity was adopted, to monitor the evolution of the spectrum under different experimental conditions. Radicals of one type were proposed to be created upon irradiation exhibiting decays via intra-track and inter-track recombination reactions with activation energies of 43 +/- 2 and 139 +/- 6 kJ/mol, respectively. A radical exhibiting axial g anisotropy and interacting with two un-equivalent protons was found to describe the experimental spectrum well. The sensitivity of TCS to gamma radiation was high (G = 0.12) suggesting TCS to be a suitable dosimetric material in measuring normal and accidental radiation doses in the range of (1-25 kGy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilknur Ozkirim Ustündağ
- Physics Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
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252
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Leiker TJ, Abney SR, Goodbred SL, Rosen MR. Identification of methyl triclosan and halogenated analogues in male common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from Las Vegas Bay and semipermeable membrane devices from Las Vegas Wash, Nevada. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2009; 407:2102-14. [PMID: 19054547 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Revised: 11/03/2008] [Accepted: 11/09/2008] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Methyl triclosan and four halogenated analogues have been identified in extracts of individual whole-body male carp (Cyprinus carpio) tissue that were collected from Las Vegas Bay, Nevada, and Semipermeable Membrane Devices (SPMD) that were deployed in Las Vegas Wash, Nevada. Methyl triclosan is believed to be the microbially methylated product of the antibacterial agent triclosan (2, 4, 4'-trichloro-4-hydroxydiphenyl ether, Chemical Abstract Service Registry Number 3380-34-5, Irgasan DP300). The presence of methyl triclosan and four halogenated analogues was confirmed in SPMD extracts by comparing low- and high-resolution mass spectral data and Kovats retention indices of methyl triclosan with commercially obtained triclosan that was derivatized to the methyl ether with ethereal diazomethane. The four halogenated analogues of methyl triclosan detected in both whole-body tissue and SPMD extracts were tentatively identified by high resolution mass spectrometry. Methyl triclosan was detected in all 29 male common carp from Las Vegas Bay with a mean concentration of 596 microg kg(-1) wet weight (ww) which is more than an order of magnitude higher than previously reported concentrations in the literature. The halogenated analogs were detected less frequently (21%-76%) and at much lower concentrations (<51 microg kg(-1) ww). None of these compounds were detected in common carp from a Lake Mead reference site in Overton Arm, Nevada.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Leiker
- US Geological Survey, Box 25046, MS 407, Denver, CO 80225-0046, USA
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253
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Binelli A, Cogni D, Parolini M, Riva C, Provini A. In vivo experiments for the evaluation of genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of Triclosan in Zebra mussel hemocytes. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2009; 91:238-44. [PMID: 19117617 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2008] [Revised: 11/13/2008] [Accepted: 11/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we investigated the possible genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of the antibacterial agent Triclosan in hemocytes of the freshwater bivalve Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha). For this study, we used several biomarkers for in vivo experiments (96h of exposure) carried out at three possible environmental Triclosan concentrations (1, 2, 3nM). We used the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay, the micronucleus test (MN test) and the measure of the apoptotic frequency (Halo assay) to measure the genotoxic potential of Triclosan, and the neutral red retention assay (NRRA) as a measure of lysosomal membrane stability to identify general cellular stress. We observed significant increases in all of the genotoxic biomarkers examined as early as 24h after initial exposure, as well as a clear destabilization of lysosomal membranes (after 48h), indicating that this chemical is potentially dangerous for the entire aquatic biocoenosis. A comparison of these in vivo data with existing data from in vitro experiments allowed us to suggest possible mechanisms of action for Triclosan in this bivalve. Although further studies are needed to confirm the possible modes of action, our study is the first to report on the effects of this widespread antibiotic on freshwater invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Binelli
- Department of Biology, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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254
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Mottaleb MA, Usenko S, O’Donnell JG, Ramirez AJ, Brooks BW, Chambliss CK. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry screening methods for select UV filters, synthetic musks, alkylphenols, an antimicrobial agent, and an insect repellent in fish. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:815-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Revised: 11/12/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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255
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Chalew TE, Halden RU. Environmental Exposure of Aquatic and Terrestrial Biota to Triclosan and Triclocarban. JOURNAL - AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 2009; 45:4-13. [PMID: 20046971 PMCID: PMC2684649 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2008.00284.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
The synthetic biocides triclosan (5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol) and triclocarban (3,4,4'-trichlorocarbanilide) are routinely added to a wide array of antimicrobial personal care products and consumer articles. Both compounds can persist in the environment and exhibit toxicity toward a number of biological receptors. Recent reports of toxicological effects in wildlife, human cell cultures, and laboratory animals have heightened the interest in the occurrence of these biocide and related toxic effects. The present study aimed to summarize published environmental concentrations of biocides and contrast them with toxicity threshold values of susceptible organisms. Environmental occurrences and toxicity threshold values span more than six orders of magnitude in concentration. The highest biocide levels, measured in the mid parts-per-million range, were determined to occur in aquatic sediments and in municipal biosolids destined for land application. Crustacea and algae were identified as the most sensitive species, susceptible to adverse effects from biocide exposures in the parts-per-trillion range. An overlap of environmental concentrations and toxicity threshold values was noted for these more sensitive organisms, suggesting potential adverse ecological effects in aquatic environments. Affirmative evidence for this is lacking, however, since studies examining environmental occurrences of biocides vis-à-vis the health and diversity of aquatic species have not yet been conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia E Chalew
- Graduate Student, Center for Water and Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, U.S.A
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256
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Xie Z, Ebinghaus R, Flöser G, Caba A, Ruck W. Occurrence and distribution of triclosan in the German Bight (North Sea). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2008; 156:1190-1195. [PMID: 18490092 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2008.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2007] [Revised: 03/31/2008] [Accepted: 04/04/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The potential of triclosan (TCS) acting as an endocrine disruptor has led to growing concern about the presence of TCS in the environment. In this study, seawater samples were collected from the German Bight during sampling campaigns conducted with the German research ships Gauss and Ludwig Prandtl. TCS was determined both in the dissolved phase and in the suspended particulate matters with concentrations ranging 0.8-6870 pg L(-1) and <1-95 pg L(-1), respectively. High concentrations of TCS were present in the estuaries of the Elbe and the Weser, indicating significant input of TCS by the river discharge. The correlation coefficient (R(2)) between the dissolved concentration and salinity was 0.79 for the data obtained from the Gauss cruise, showing an obvious declining trend from the coast to the open sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Xie
- GKSS Research Centre Geesthacht, Institute for Coastal Research, Max-Planck Strasse 1, D-21502 Geesthacht, Germany.
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257
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Farré ML, Pérez S, Kantiani L, Barceló D. Fate and toxicity of emerging pollutants, their metabolites and transformation products in the aquatic environment. Trends Analyt Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2008.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 447] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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258
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Montes R, Rodríguez I, Rubí E, Cela R. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction applied to the simultaneous derivatization and concentration of triclosan and methyltriclosan in water samples. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1216:205-10. [PMID: 19084234 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2008] [Revised: 11/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A fast and novel sample preparation procedure for the determination of triclosan (TCS) and methyltriclosan (MTCS) in water samples is presented. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, using a ternary mixture consisting of a disperser, an extractant and N-methyl-N-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) as derivatization reagent, was used for the simultaneous derivatization, case of TCS, and concentration of both species in different water samples. Analytes were determined by gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Influence of different factors on the performance of the sample preparation process is thoroughly discussed. Under final working conditions, a mixture of 1 mL of methanol, 40 microL of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and the same volume of MTBSTFA was added to 10 mL of water in a conical bottom glass tube. After centrifugation, the settled phase was injected directly in the chromatographic system. TCS was quantitatively extracted and converted into the corresponding tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivative, whereas for MTCS an extraction yield around 90% was attained. Limits of quantification between 2 and 5 ng L(-1) and reproducibility values below 10% were achieved; moreover, the performance of the extraction process was scarcely affected by the type of water sample. Globally, these values are comparable, or even better, to those reported for other approaches applied to the determination of same compounds, with the advantage of a shorter sample preparation step. Analysis of surface and wastewater samples confirmed the ubiquitous presence of TCS in the aquatic environment at levels from 20 to 700 ng L(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- R Montes
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Instituto de Investigación y Análisis Alimentario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
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259
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Jackson J, Sutton R. Sources of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in urban wastewater, Oakland, CA. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2008; 405:153-60. [PMID: 18684489 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Revised: 06/16/2008] [Accepted: 06/20/2008] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been found in surface waters throughout the United States, and are known to enter waterways via discharge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Studies addressing EDCs in wastewater do not examine their specific sources upstream of WWTPs. Presented here are results of a pilot study of potential sources of selected EDCs within an urban wastewater service area. Twenty-one wastewater samples were collected from a range of sites, including 16 residential, commercial, or industrial samples, and five samples from influent and effluent streams at the WWTP. Samples were analyzed for the following known and suspected EDCs: five phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), triclosan, 4-nonylphenol (NP), and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), using well-established methods (EPA 625 and USGS O-1433-01). Twenty of 21 samples contained at least one EDC. Phthalates were widely detected; one or more phthalate compound was identified in 19 of 21 samples. Measurement of two phthalates in a field blank sample suggests that the accuracy of sample detections for these two compounds may be compromised by background contamination. Triclosan was detected in nine samples, BPA in five samples, and TCEP in four samples; NP was not detected. The results of this and future source-specific studies may be used to develop targeted pollution prevention strategies to reduce levels of EDCs in wastewater.
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260
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Ahn KC, Zhao B, Chen J, Cherednichenko G, Sanmarti E, Denison MS, Lasley B, Pessah IN, Kültz D, Chang DP, Gee SJ, Hammock BD. In vitro biologic activities of the antimicrobials triclocarban, its analogs, and triclosan in bioassay screens: receptor-based bioassay screens. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:1203-10. [PMID: 18795164 PMCID: PMC2535623 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Concerns have been raised about the biological and toxicologic effects of the antimicrobials triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS) in personal care products. Few studies have evaluated their biological activities in mammalian cells to assess their potential for adverse effects. OBJECTIVES In this study, we assessed the activity of TCC, its analogs, and TCS in in vitro nuclear-receptor-responsive and calcium signaling bioassays. MATERIALS AND METHODS We determined the biological activities of the compounds in in vitro, cell-based, and nuclear-receptor-responsive bioassays for receptors for aryl hydrocarbon (AhR), estrogen (ER), androgen (AR), and ryanodine (RyR1). RESULTS Some carbanilide compounds, including TCC (1-10 muM), enhanced estradiol (E(2))-dependent or testosterone-dependent activation of ER- and AR-responsive gene expression up to 2.5-fold but exhibited little or no agonistic activity alone. Some carbanilides and TCS exhibited weak agonistic and/or antagonistic activity in the AhR-responsive bioassay. TCS exhibited antagonistic activity in both ER- and AR-responsive bioassays. TCS (0.1-10 muM) significantly enhanced the binding of [(3)H]ryanodine to RyR1 and caused elevation of resting cytosolic [Ca(2+)] in primary skeletal myotubes, but carbanilides had no effect. CONCLUSIONS Carbanilides, including TCC, enhanced hormone-dependent induction of ER- and AR-dependent gene expression but had little agonist activity, suggesting a new mechanism of action of endocrine-disrupting compounds. TCS, structurally similar to noncoplanar ortho-substituted poly-chlorinated biphenyls, exhibited weak AhR activity but interacted with RyR1 and stimulated Ca(2+) mobilization. These observations have potential implications for human and animal health. Further investigations are needed into the biological and toxicologic effects of TCC, its analogs, and TCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki Chang Ahn
- Department of Entomology and Cancer Research Center
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Environmental Toxicology
| | | | - Gennady Cherednichenko
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Center for Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention
| | | | | | | | - Isaac N. Pessah
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Center for Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention
| | | | - Daniel P.Y. Chang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Bruce D. Hammock
- Department of Entomology and Cancer Research Center
- Address correspondence to B.D. Hammock, Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616 USA. Telephone: (530) 752-7519. Fax: (530) 752-1537. E-mail:
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261
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Chau WC, Wu JL, Cai Z. Investigation of levels and fate of triclosan in environmental waters from the analysis of gas chromatography coupled with ion trap mass spectrometry. CHEMOSPHERE 2008; 73:S13-S17. [PMID: 18440583 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.01.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry method was developed and optimized for the analysis of triclosan in water. Tandem mass spectrometry, along with an isotope dilution internal standard method, was used for the quantitative analysis of triclosan in water at low ng l(-1) levels. The efficiencies obtained from liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction were compared. Average recoveries by the SPE pre-concentration using a C(18) cartridge were determined as 84-90%. The limit of detection was 2 ng l(-1) for triclosan in water. The accuracy represented by relative analytical errors was -16% to -10%, and the precision by relative standard deviations was 3-15% (n=4). The method was successfully applied to analyze triclosan at concentrations between 4.1 ng l(-1) and 117 ng l(-1) in environmental water samples collected from rivers and coastal water in Hong Kong.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Chau
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
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262
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Tsai SW, Shih MW, Pan YP. Determinations and residual characteristics of triclosan in household food detergents of Taiwan. CHEMOSPHERE 2008; 72:1250-1255. [PMID: 18556043 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2008] [Revised: 04/22/2008] [Accepted: 05/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether) is a widely used antibacterial agent. However, it was concerned recently that triclosan might act as an antibiotic and will cause resistant bacterial strains. Furthermore, possible formation of toxic chloroform was also reported when the triclosan contained in household dishwashing soaps reacted with the chlorinated water. To assess the associate risks from possible exposures, concentrations of triclosan in household food detergents of Taiwan were determined in this study. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detector at 280 nm was used to analyze the triclosan in samples. Factors that might affect the residual characteristics of triclosan from detergents on dishware and fruits, including the concentrations of detergents used, the temperature and immersion time for water before the cleaning processes, the temperatures of water used for the cleaning processes, and the materials of dishware made of, were evaluated under the orthogonal experiment design by the Taguchi method. By the analysis of variance, the orders of importance of different parameters were determined. The concentrations of triclosan detected in household food detergents were found to be 1.7 x 10(-2) -5.6 x 10(-1) (triclosan/detergent, mg g(-1)). For residual characteristics, the concentration of detergents used as well as the materials of dishware were found to be the significant factors that will affect the triclosan left on the dishware. On the other hand, the concentration of triclosan in the detergents was found to be the only factor that will affect the triclosan left on fruits. The maximum dose of triclosan exposures from the use of household food detergents in Taiwan was also estimated in the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Wei Tsai
- Institute of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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263
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Chemically surface-modified carbon nanoparticle carrier for phenolic pollutants: Extraction and electrochemical determination of benzophenone-3 and triclosan. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 616:28-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2008] [Revised: 04/02/2008] [Accepted: 04/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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264
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Delorenzo ME, Keller JM, Arthur CD, Finnegan MC, Harper HE, Winder VL, Zdankiewicz DL. Toxicity of the antimicrobial compound triclosan and formation of the metabolite methyl-triclosan in estuarine systems. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:224-32. [PMID: 18214910 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan, a commonly used antimicrobial compound, has been measured in aquatic systems worldwide. This study exposed marine species to triclosan to examine effects primarily on survival and to investigate the formation of the degradation product, methyl-triclosan, in the estuarine environment. Acute toxicity was assessed using the bacterium Vibrio fischeri, the phytoplankton species Dunaliella tertiolecta, and three life stages of the grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio. P. pugio larvae were more sensitive to triclosan than adult shrimp or embryos. Acute aqueous toxicity values (96 h LC50) were 305 microg/L for adult shrimp, 154 microg/L for larvae, and 651 microg/L for embryos. The presence of sediment decreased triclosan toxicity in adult shrimp (24 h LC50s were 620 microg/L with sediment, and 482 microg/L without sediment). The bacterium was more sensitive to triclosan than the grass shrimp, with a 15 min aqueous IC50 value of 53 microg/L and a 15 min spiked sediment IC50 value of 616 microg/kg. The phytoplankton species was the most sensitive species tested, with a 96 h EC50 value of 3.55 microg/L. Adult grass shrimp were found to accumulate methyl-triclosan after a 14-day exposure to 100 microg/L triclosan, indicating formation of this metabolite in a seawater environment and its potential to bioaccumulate in higher organisms. Triclosan was detected in limited surface water sampling of Charleston Harbor, SC at a maximum concentration of 0.001 microg/L, substantially lower than the determined toxicity values. These findings suggest triclosan poses low acute toxicity risk to estuarine organisms; however, the potential for chronic, sublethal, and metabolite effects should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Delorenzo
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, 219 Fort Johnson Rd., Charleston, SC 29412, USA. marie.delorenzo@ noaa.gov
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265
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Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL. Urinary concentrations of triclosan in the U.S. population: 2003-2004. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:303-7. [PMID: 18335095 PMCID: PMC2265044 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 392] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Triclosan is a synthetic chemical with broad antimicrobial activity that has been used extensively in consumer products, including personal care products, textiles, and plastic kitchenware. OBJECTIVES This study was designed to assess exposure to triclosan in a representative sample > or = 6 years of age of the U.S. general population from the 2003-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). METHODS We analyzed 2,517 urine samples using automated solid-phase extraction coupled to isotope dilution-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS We detected concentrations of total (free plus conjugated) triclosan in 74.6% of samples at concentrations of 2.4-3,790 microg/L. The geometric mean and 95th percentile concentrations were 13.0 microg/L (12.7 microg/g creatinine) and 459.0 microg/L (363.8 mug/g creatinine), respectively. We observed a curvilinear relation between age and adjusted least square geometric mean (LSGM) concentrations of triclosan. LSGM concentrations of triclosan were higher in people in the high household income than in people in low (p < 0.01) and medium (p = 0.04) income categories. CONCLUSIONS In about three-quarters of urine samples analyzed as part of NHANES 2003-2004, we detected concentrations of triclosan. Concentrations differed by age and socioeconomic status but not by race/ethnicity and sex. Specifically, the concentrations of triclosan appeared to be highest during the third decade of life and among people with the highest household incomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA.
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266
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Brun EM, Bonet E, Puchades R, Maquieira A. Selective enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for triclosan. Application to wastewater treatment plant effluents. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:1665-1672. [PMID: 18441818 DOI: 10.1021/es702300s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A sensitive and highly selective enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was developed for triclosan, one of the most common bactericides in personal care products, which is also considered as an emerging contaminant, given its presence in the effluents of sewage and wastewater treatment plants. From synthesized haptens, polyclonal rabbit antibodies against triclosan were raised. The best ELISA immunoassay was based on an antibody-coated format, yielding a detection limit of 0.03 microg L(-1), an I50 of 3.85 microg L(-1), and a dynamic range from 0.22 to 42.16 microg L(-1), with little or no cross-reactivity (< 10%) to similarly structured compounds, including its metabolite methyltriclosan (CR < 6%). The assay was applied as a screening method to quantify triclosan in surface water and in wastewaters. After C18 solid-phase extraction, nanogram per liter concentrations were determined in effluents of urban wastewater treatment plants. The satisfactory recoveries achieved as well as the agreement between immunochemical and chromatographic methods (GC-MS) indicate its potential for either screening or laboratory quantification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Brun
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Química Molecular Aplicada, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46071 Valencia, Spain
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267
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DeLorenzo ME, Fleming J. Individual and mixture effects of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products on the marine phytoplankton species Dunaliella tertiolecta. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2008; 54:203-10. [PMID: 17846821 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-007-9032-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) entering the environment may have detrimental effects on aquatic organisms. Simvastatin, clofibric acid, diclofenac, carbamazepine, fluoxetine, and triclosan represent some of the most commonly used and/or detected PPCPs in aquatic environments. This study analyzed the individual and mixture toxicity of these six PPCPs to the marine phytoplankton species Dunaliella tertiolecta using a standard 96-hour static algal bioassay protocol. All PPCPs tested had a significant effect on D. tertiolecta population cell density. However, of the six PPCPs tested, only triclosan yielded toxicity at typical environmental concentrations. The 96-hour EC(50) values for triclosan, fluoxetine, simvastatin, diclofenac, and clofibric acid were 3.55 microg/L, 169.81 microg/L, 22,800 microg/L, 185,690 microg/L, and 224,180 microg/L, respectively. An EC(50) value could not be determined for carbamazepine; however, the highest concentration tested (80,000 microg/L) reduced cell density by 42%. Both mixtures tested-simvastatin-clofibric acid and fluoxetine-triclosan-demonstrated additive toxicity. The presence of PPCP mixtures may decrease the toxicity threshold for phytoplankton populations. Detrimental effects on phytoplankton populations could ultimately impact nutrient cycling and food availability to higher trophic levels. The results of this study are a first step toward identifying the risk of PPCPs to estuarine organisms and may benefit environmental resource managers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie E DeLorenzo
- US Department of Commerce/NOAA, National Ocean Service, Coastal Center for Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC 29412, USA.
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268
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Farré M, Asperger D, Kantiani L, González S, Petrovic M, Barceló D. Assessment of the acute toxicity of triclosan and methyl triclosan in wastewater based on the bioluminescence inhibition of Vibrio fischeri. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 390:1999-2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1779-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 11/24/2007] [Accepted: 11/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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269
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Occurrence of Transformation Products in the Environment. THE HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/698_2_011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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270
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Analysis of Emerging Contaminants of Municipal and Industrial Origin. THE HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-74795-6_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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271
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Pietrogrande MC, Basaglia G. GC-MS analytical methods for the determination of personal-care products in water matrices. Trends Analyt Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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272
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Chu S, Metcalfe CD. Simultaneous determination of triclocarban and triclosan in municipal biosolids by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1164:212-8. [PMID: 17692856 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2007] [Revised: 07/05/2007] [Accepted: 07/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and accurate method was developed for the simultaneous determination of triclosan and triclocarban in sludge and treated biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The methods involved extraction by pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), followed by sample clean-up on a Oasis HLB solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge and analysis by liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Accurate quantification was achieved by isotope dilution using stable isotopes of triclosan and triclocarban as internal standards. Matrix effects (ME) in samples of spiked biosolids (n=5) were evaluated by a standard addition method, and these analyses indicated mean ME values of 79.7+/-6.7 and 100.5+/-8.4% for triclosan and triclocarban, respectively; indicating that the sample clean-up method effectively removed interferences. The mean recoveries from the spiked biosolids sample were 97.7+/-6.2 and 98.3+/-5 for triclosan and triclocarban, respectively, and the limits of detection (LOD) were 1.5 and 0.2 ng/g (d.w.) for triclosan and triclocarban, respectively. The method was applied to the analysis of triclosan and triclocarban in samples of activated sludge and treated biosolids collected from three WWTPs in Ontario, Canada. These preliminary results indicate that triclosan and triclocarban co-occur in municipal sludge and treated biosolids at concentrations ranging from 0.62 to 11.55 microg/g dry weight for triclosan, and from 2.17 to 5.97 microg/g dry weight for triclocarban.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaogang Chu
- Worsfold Water Quality Center, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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273
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Esteve-Turrillas FA, Pastor A, Yusà V, de la Guardia M. Using semi-permeable membrane devices as passive samplers. Trends Analyt Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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274
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Hao C, Zhao X, Yang P. GC-MS and HPLC-MS analysis of bioactive pharmaceuticals and personal-care products in environmental matrices. Trends Analyt Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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275
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Suarez S, Dodd MC, Omil F, von Gunten U. Kinetics of triclosan oxidation by aqueous ozone and consequent loss of antibacterial activity: relevance to municipal wastewater ozonation. WATER RESEARCH 2007; 41:2481-90. [PMID: 17467034 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2007.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2006] [Revised: 02/20/2007] [Accepted: 02/25/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Oxidation of the antimicrobial agent triclosan by aqueous ozone (O(3)) was investigated to determine associated reaction kinetics, reaction site(s), and consequent changes in antibacterial activity of triclosan. Specific second-order rate constants, k(O(3)), were determined for reaction of O(3) with each of triclosan's acid-base species. The value of k(O(3)) determined for neutral triclosan was 1.3(+/-0.1)x10(3)M(-1)s(-1), while that measured for anionic triclosan was 5.1(+/-0.1)x10(8)M(-1)s(-1). Consequently, triclosan reacts very rapidly with O(3) at circumneutral pH (the pH-dependent, apparent second-order rate constant, K(app,O(3)) , is 3.8x10(7)M(-1)s(-1) at pH 7). The pH-dependence of K(app,O(3)) and comparison of triclosan reactivity toward O(3) with that of other phenolic compounds indicates that O(3) reacts initially with triclosan at the latter's phenol moiety. k(O(3)) values for neutral and anionic triclosan were successfully related to phenol ring substituent effects via Brown-Okamoto correlation with other substituted phenols, consistent with electrophilic attack of the triclosan phenol ring. Biological assay of O(3)-treated triclosan solutions indicates that reaction with O(3) yields efficient elimination of triclosan's antibacterial activity. In order to evaluate the applicability of these observations to actual wastewaters, triclosan oxidation was also investigated during ozonation of effluent samples from two conventional wastewater treatment plants. Nearly 100% triclosan depletion was achieved for a 4 mg/L(8.3x10(-5)mol/L)O(3) dose applied to a wastewater containing 7.5 mg/L of DOC, and approximately 58% triclosan depletion for dosage of 6 mg/L(1.3x10(-4)mol/L)O(3) to a wastewater containing 12.4 mg/L of DOC. At O(3) doses greater than 1mg/L(2.1x10(-5)mol/L), hydroxyl radical reactions accounted for <35% of observed triclosan losses in these wastewaters, indicating that triclosan oxidation was due primarily to the direct triclosan-O(3) reaction. Thus, ozonation appears to present an effective means of eliminating triclosan's antibacterial activity during wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Suarez
- School of Engineering, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
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276
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Shelver WL, Kamp LM, Church JL, Rubio FM. Measurement of triclosan in water using a magnetic particle enzyme immunoassay. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2007; 55:3758-63. [PMID: 17455947 DOI: 10.1021/jf0632841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
A sensitive magnetic particle-based immunoassay to determine triclosan [5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol] in drinking water and wastewater was developed. Rabbit antiserum was produced by immunizing the rabbit with 6-[5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenoxy]hexanoic acid-keyhole limpet hemocyanin. Horseradish peroxidase was conjugated with 4-[3-bromo-4-(2,4-dibromophenoxy)phenoxy]butyric acid via N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC). The triclosan antibody was coupled to magnetic particles via the NHS/EDC reaction. The antibodies were able to recognize some structurally related polybrominated biphenyl ethers but did not recognize various common pollutants that were less similar to the hapten. The ELISA could detect triclosan in standard solution (25% methanol/H2O v/v) at 20 ppt and its metabolite, methyl-triclosan, at 15 ppt. Water samples from different treatment stages were prepared to contain 25% methanol and analyzed directly without any sample extraction or preconcentration. The results showed that recoveries were >80% and the % CV was <10%, demonstrating the assay was both accurate and precise. Application of the triclosan ELISA to water treatment plants showed that tap water at various purification stages had low concentrations of triclosan (<20 ppt) and required an increased sample size for appropriate detection and measurement. Application of ELISA to the wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) demonstrated high concentrations of triclosan (in general, >3000 ppt in water entering the WWTP) with the levels decreasing as the water proceeded through the processing plant (<500 ppt at outflow sewage). The ELISA measurement was shown to be equivalent to the more specific GC-MS analysis on a number of wastewater treatment samples with a high degree of correlation, with the exception of a few samples with very high triclosan concentrations (>5000 ppt). Measurement of methyl-triclosan (in WWTP) using GC-MS demonstrated the levels of this compound to be low. In summary, a rapid, sensitive, accurate, and precise magnetic particle-based immunoassay has been developed for triclosan analysis, which can serve as a cost-effective monitoring tool for various water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weilin L Shelver
- Biosciences Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1605 Albrecht Boulevard, Fargo, North Dakota 58105, USA.
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277
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Sirés I, Oturan N, Oturan MA, Rodríguez RM, Garrido JA, Brillas E. Electro-Fenton degradation of antimicrobials triclosan and triclocarban. Electrochim Acta 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2007.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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278
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Heatwole KK, McCray JE. Modeling potential vadose-zone transport of nitrogen from onsite wastewater systems at the development scale. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2007; 91:184-201. [PMID: 17187893 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2006.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 08/02/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Water in the urban front-range corridor of Colorado has become an increasingly critical resource as the state faces both supply issues as well as anthropogenic degradation of water quality in several aquifers used for drinking water. A proposed development (up to 1100 homes over two quarter-quarter sections) at Todd Creek, Colorado, a suburb of Westminster located about 20 miles northeast of Denver, is considering use of onsite wastewater systems (OWS) to treat and remove domestic wastewater. Local health and environmental agencies have concerns for potential impacts to local water quality. Nitrogen treatment in the vadose zone and subsequent transport to ground water at a development scale is the focus of this investigation. The numerical model HYDRUS 1D was used, with input based on site-specific data and several transport parameters estimated from statistical distribution, to simulate nitrate concentrations reaching ground water. The model predictions were highly sensitive to mass-loading of nitrogen from OWS and the denitrification rate coefficient. The mass loading is relatively certain for the large number of proposed OWS. However, reasonable values for the denitrification rate coefficients vary over three orders of magnitude. Using the median value from a cumulative frequency distribution function, based on rates obtained from the literature, resulted in simulated output nitrate concentrations that were less than 1% of regulatory maximum concentrations. Reasonable rates at the lower end of the reported range, corresponding to lower 95% confidence interval estimates, result in simulated nitrate concentrations reaching groundwater above regulatory limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirkley K Heatwole
- Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, 1500 Illinois Street, Golden, CO 80401, USA
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279
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Canesi L, Ciacci C, Lorusso LC, Betti M, Gallo G, Pojana G, Marcomini A. Effects of Triclosan on Mytilus galloprovincialis hemocyte function and digestive gland enzyme activities: possible modes of action on non target organisms. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2007; 145:464-72. [PMID: 17347055 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2007.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2006] [Revised: 01/29/2007] [Accepted: 02/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are a class of emerging environmental pollutants with the potential of affecting various aquatic organisms through unexpected modes of action. Triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether) (TCS), is a common antibacterial agent that is found in significant amounts in the aquatic environment. In this work, the possible effects and modes of action of TCS were investigated in the marine bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam. In mussel immune cells, the hemocytes, in vitro short-term exposure to TCS in the low microM range reduced lysosomal membrane stability (LMS) and induced extracellular release of lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes. The effects on LMS were mediated by activation of ERK MAPKs (Extracellularly Regulated Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases) and PKC (protein kinase C) alpha and betaII isoforms, as demonstrated by both specific kinase inhibitors and Western blotting with specific anti-phospho-antibodies. The effects of TCS were confirmed in vivo, in the hemocytes of mussels injected with different concentrations of TCS (corresponding to 0.29, 2.9 and 29 ng/g dry weight) and sampled at 24 h post-injection. The possible in vivo effects of TCS were also evaluated on the activity of different enzymes in the digestive gland, the tissue mainly involved in accumulation and metabolism of organic contaminants in mussels. Significant increases were observed in the activity of the glycolytic enzymes PFK (phosphofructokinase) and PK (pyruvate kinase), as well as of GST (GSH transferase) and GSR (GSSG reductase), whereas a decrease in catalase activity was observed. The results demonstrate that in mussels TCS can act on kinase-mediated cell signalling, lysosomal membranes and redox balance in different systems/organs. Although further studies are needed in order to evaluate possible consequences of environmental exposure to TCS on mussel health, the results represent the first data on the possible modes of action of this widespread antibacterial in aquatic invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Canesi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Genova, Corso Europa 26, 16132, Italy.
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280
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Fiss EM, Rule KL, Vikesland PJ. Formation of chloroform and other chlorinated byproducts by chlorination of triclosan-containing antibacterial products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2007; 41:2387-94. [PMID: 17438791 DOI: 10.1021/es062227l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan is a widely used antibacterial agent found in many personal hygiene products. Although it has previously been established that pure triclosan and free chlorine readily react, interactions between triclosan-containing consumer products and free chlorine have not previously been analyzed in great depth. Sixteen double-blinded solutions including both triclosan-containing (1.14-3.12 mg triclosan/g product) and triclosan-free products were contacted with free chlorine at pH 7. Products detected included (chlorophenoxy) phenols, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, and chloroform. The daughter product yields were found to be highly variable and were dependent on the antimicrobial product investigated, the free chlorine to triclosan ratio, and the temperature at which the study was conducted. Lowering the temperature from 40 to 30 degrees C resulted in a decreased average chloroform yield from 0.50 to 0.37 mol chloroform/mol triclosan consumed after 1 min of reaction time for an initial free chlorine concentration of 4.0 mg/L as Cl2. At 40 degrees C the average molar chloroform yields decreased to 0.29 and <0.1 when the initial free chlorine concentration was decreased to either 2.0 or 1.0 mg/L as Cl2, respectively. Field experiments, in which Atlanta, GA and Danville, VA tap waters were augmented with various soap products, exhibited results varying from the laboratory experiments in that different productyields were observed. These differences are attributed to the chlorine demand of constituents in the tap water. A simple exposure model suggests that exposure to chloroform can be significant under some conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Matthew Fiss
- The Charles E. Via, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
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281
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Zhao RS, Yuan JP, Li HF, Wang X, Jiang T, Lin JM. Nonequilibrium hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction with in situ derivatization for the measurement of triclosan in aqueous samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 387:2911-5. [PMID: 17377785 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1151-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2006] [Revised: 01/15/2007] [Accepted: 01/24/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME), a relatively new sample preparation technique, has attracted much interest in the field of environmental analysis. In the current study, a novel method based on hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction with in situ derivatization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the measurement of triclosan in aqueous samples is described. Hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction conditions such as the type of extraction solvent, the stirring rate, the volume of derivatizing reagent, and the extraction time were investigated. When the conditions had been optimized, the linear range was found to be 0.05-100 microg l(-1) for triclosan, and the limit of detection to be 0.02 microg l(-1). Tap water and surface water samples collected from our laboratory and Wohushan reservoir, respectively, were successfully analyzed using the proposed method. The recoveries from the spiked water samples were 83.6 and 114.1%, respectively; and the relative standard deviation (RSD) at the 1.0 microg l(-1) level was 6.9%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ru-Song Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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282
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Song S, Song QJ, Chen Z. Online phototransformation-flow injection chemiluminescence determination of triclosan. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 387:2917-22. [PMID: 17294174 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1130-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2006] [Revised: 01/10/2007] [Accepted: 01/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A highly selective and sensitive chemiluminescence method for the determination of triclosan is proposed. The method is based on the phototransformation of triclosan to a light-emitting precursor in the presence of fluorescein in alkaline medium and the chemiluminescence reaction is then triggered by strong base or oxidants such as N-bromosuccinimide. Based on this reaction an online phototransformation-flow injection manifold was developed, in which the photoreactor comprises a 150-cm-long x 0.8-mm-i.d. piece of PTFE tubing coiled around a 25-W fluorescent lamp, and the phototransformed products were then injected into a carrier stream of borate buffer. After mixing with the oxidant stream the produced light was detected by a photomultiplier. A wide calibration range from 8.0 x 10(-8) to 1.0 x 10(-4) mol L(-1) was obtained under the optimized conditions, and the detection limit was as low as 5.0 x 10(-8) mol L(-1). The whole process of analysis, including the online phototransformation and subsequent chemiluminescence detection, could be completed in 6 min. Most of the foreign substances tested showed high tolerance levels, and the proposed method was directly applied to the determination of triclosan in toothpaste samples without any pre-separation procedure. Figure Schematic representation of the phototransformation of triclosan and subsequent chemiluminescence reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujuan Song
- School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Southern Yangtze University, Wuxi 214122, China
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283
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Ying GG, Kookana RS. Triclosan in wastewaters and biosolids from Australian wastewater treatment plants. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2007; 33:199-205. [PMID: 17055058 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2006.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2006] [Revised: 09/06/2006] [Accepted: 09/12/2006] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial agent widely used in many personal care products. This study investigated the occurrence of TCS in effluents, biosolids and surface waters, and its fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The aqueous concentrations of TCS in nineteen effluents from Australian WWTPs ranged from 23 ng/L to 434 ng/L with a median concentration of 108 ng/L, while its concentrations in nineteen biosolids ranged from 0.09 mg/kg to 16.79 mg/kg on dry weight basis with a median concentration of 2.32 mg/kg. The removal rates for TCS in five selected WWTPs were found to range between 72% and 93%. Biological degradation was believed to be the predominant removal mechanism for TCS in the WWTPs. However, adsorption onto sludge also played a significant role in the removal of TCS in the WWTPs. TCS at concentrations up to 75 ng/L was detected in surface waters (outfall, upstream, and downstream) from five rivers receiving effluent discharge from WWTPs. Preliminary risk assessment based on the worst-case scenario showed that the TCS concentrations in surface waters might lead to risks to aquatic organisms such as algae. Based on the TCS levels in the biosolids, application of biosolids on agricultural land may also cause adverse effects in the soil environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Guo Ying
- Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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284
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Winkler G, Thompson A, Fischer R, Krebs P, Griffin P, Cartmell E. Mass Flow Balances of Triclosan in Small Rural Wastewater Treatment Plants and the Impact of Biomass Parameters on the Removal. Eng Life Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/elsc.200620158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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285
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Aranami K, Readman JW. Photolytic degradation of triclosan in freshwater and seawater. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 66:1052-6. [PMID: 16930676 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2005] [Revised: 06/23/2006] [Accepted: 07/07/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
A 12-days photolysis experiment of triclosan, a widely used bactericide, was performed in freshwater and seawater under a low intensity artificial white light source. Photodegradation of triclosan was observed in both the freshwater and seawater samples. Assuming a first-order reaction, half-lives of triclosan in the freshwater and seawater were approximately 8 and 4 days, respectively. 2,8-Dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (DCDD) was detected in both the freshwater and seawater samples after 3 days of irradiation. The photodegradation of triclosan and the production of DCDD suggest that triclosan could be less stable and DCDD might be more stable in seawater than freshwater. As a result, DCDD produced from triclosan survives for a longer time in seawater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazushi Aranami
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0053, Japan.
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286
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Reducing Toxic Exposures. Integr Med (Encinitas) 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-2954-0.50112-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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287
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Borgmann U, Bennie DT, Ball AL, Palabrica V. Effect of a mixture of seven pharmaceuticals on Hyalella azteca over multiple generations. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 66:1278-83. [PMID: 16942787 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2006] [Revised: 06/22/2006] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
A mixture of seven common pharmaceutical agents (acetaminophen, diclofenac, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, naproxen, salicylic acid, and triclosan) was tested for its effects on the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca over three generations. The target concentration of each chemical (100ngl(-1)) was representative of the upper range observed for these substances in Canadian fresh waters, except in the immediate vicinity of effluent discharges. No statistically significant effects were observed on survival, mating, body size or reproduction. The sex ratio changed slightly to 17% more males. The seven pharmaceuticals tested do not appear to be substances of major concern for Hyalella in most Canadian fresh waters, but significant impacts might be observed in areas closer to effluent discharges.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Borgmann
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, Canada L7R 4A6.
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288
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Veldhoen N, Skirrow RC, Osachoff H, Wigmore H, Clapson DJ, Gunderson MP, Van Aggelen G, Helbing CC. The bactericidal agent triclosan modulates thyroid hormone-associated gene expression and disrupts postembryonic anuran development. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2006; 80:217-27. [PMID: 17011055 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2006.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Revised: 08/17/2006] [Accepted: 08/30/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We investigated whether exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of the bactericidal agent, triclosan, induces changes in the thyroid hormone-mediated process of metamorphosis of the North American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana and alters the expression profile of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) alpha and beta, basic transcription element binding protein (BTEB) and proliferating nuclear cell antigen (PCNA) gene transcripts. Premetamorphic tadpoles were immersed in environmentally relevant concentrations of triclosan and injected with 1 x 10(-11)mol/g body weight 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) or vehicle control. Morphometric measurements and steady-state mRNA levels obtained by quantitative polymerase chain reaction were determined. mRNA abundance was also examined in Xenopus laevis XTC-2 cells treated with triclosan and/or 10nM T3. Tadpoles pretreated with triclosan concentrations as low as 0.15+/-0.03 microg/L for 4 days showed increased hindlimb development and a decrease in total body weight following T3 administration. Triclosan exposure also resulted in decreased T3-mediated TRbeta mRNA expression in the tadpole tail fin and increased levels of PCNA transcript in the brain within 48 h of T3 treatment whereas TRalpha was unaffected [corrected] Triclosan alone altered thyroid hormone receptor alpha transcript levels in the brain of premetamorphic tadpoles and induced a transient weight loss. In XTC-2 cells, exposure to T3 plus nominal concentrations of triclosan as low as 0.03 microg/L for 24h resulted in altered thyroid hormone receptor mRNA expression. Exposure to low levels of triclosan disrupts thyroid hormone-associated gene expression and can alter the rate of thyroid hormone-mediated postembryonic anuran development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nik Veldhoen
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, P.O. Box 3055, Stn. CSC, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P6, Canada
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289
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Conn KE, Barber LB, Brown GK, Siegrist RL. Occurrence and fate of organic contaminants during onsite wastewater treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:7358-66. [PMID: 17180989 DOI: 10.1021/es0605117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Onsite wastewater treatment systems serve approximately 25% of the U.S. population. However, little is known regarding the occurrence and fate of organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs), including endocrine disrupting compounds, during onsite treatment. A range of OWCs including surfactant metabolites, steroids, stimulants, metal-chelating agents, disinfectants, antimicrobial agents, and pharmaceutical compounds was quantified in wastewater from 30 onsite treatment systems in Summit and Jefferson Counties, CO. The onsite systems represent a range of residential and nonresidential sources. Eighty eight percent of the 24 target compounds were detected in one or more samples, and several compounds were detected in every wastewater sampled. The wastewater matrices were complex and showed unique differences between source types due to differences in water and consumer product use. Nonresidential sources generally had more OWCs at higher concentrations than residential sources. Additional aerobic biofilter-based treatment beyond the traditional anaerobic tank-based treatment enhanced removal for many OWCs. Removal mechanisms included volatilization, biotransformation, and sorption with efficiencies from <1% to >99% depending on treatment type and physicochemical properties of the compound. Even with high removal rates during confined unit onsite treatment, OWCs are discharged to soil dispersal units at loadings up to 20 mg/m2/d, emphasizing the importance of understanding removal mechanisms and efficiencies in onsite treatment systems that discharge to the soil and water environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen E Conn
- Environmental Science and Engineering Division, Colorado School of Mines, 206 Coolbaugh Hall, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
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290
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Cuderman P, Heath E. Determination of UV filters and antimicrobial agents in environmental water samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 387:1343-50. [PMID: 17136341 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0927-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2006] [Revised: 10/06/2006] [Accepted: 10/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Although there is increasing concern about residues from personal care products entering the aquatic environment and their potential to accumulate to levels that pose a health threat to humans and wildlife, we still know little about the extent and magnitude of their presence in the aquatic environment. In this study we describe a procedure for isolation, and subsequent determination, of compounds commonly added to personal care products. The compounds of interest include UV filters with the commercial name Eusolex (homosalate, 4-methylbenzylidenecamphor, benzophenone-3, octocrylene, butylmethoxydibenzoylmethane, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate) and two common anti-microbial agents, clorophene and triclosan. Water samples were filtered, acidified, and extracted by use of solid-phase extraction. Extracted compounds were then derivatised before analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. By use of our method we obtained limits of detection of 13-266 ng L(-1) for UV filters, and 10-186 ng L(-1) for triclosan and clorophene. Recoveries were 82-98% for deionised water and 50-98% for natural water (seawater, pool water, lake water, and river water). Samples collected in Slovenia included seventeen recreational waters (seawater, pool water, lake water, and river water; August 2004) and four wastewaters (January 2005). The most abundant UV filter was benzophenone-3 (11-400 ng L(-1)). Of the two anti-microbial agents studied, trace amounts, only, of triclosan were present in the river Kolpa (68 ng L(-1)) and in an hospital effluent (122 ng L(-1)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Cuderman
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva cesta 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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291
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Sanchez-Prado L, Llompart M, Lores M, García-Jares C, Bayona JM, Cela R. Monitoring the photochemical degradation of triclosan in wastewater by UV light and sunlight using solid-phase microextraction. CHEMOSPHERE 2006; 65:1338-47. [PMID: 16735047 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/06/2006] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Photo solid-phase microextraction (photo-SPME) is applied for the first time to study the photochemical behavior of an emerging pollutant, triclosan, in real contaminated wastewater samples using a solar simulator. In this study, water samples are extracted by SPME and then, the fiber coating is irradiated for a selected time. This on-fiber procedure, so-called photo-SPME, followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry makes it possible to study photodegradation kinetics and the generation of byproducts. Several photoproducts were identified in the real samples including the 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, dichlorophenols and a compound tentatively identified as other DCDD congener or a dichlorohydroxydibenzofuran. Accordingly, it was possible to postulate main photodegradation mechanisms. Photo-SPME demonstrated slower kinetics in wastewater than in spiked ultrapure water probably due to the presence of dissolved organic matter. This technique was extensively compared with conventional aqueous photodegradation showing high similarity. The influence of pH on the triclosan photolysis and on the triclosan-dioxin conversion was also investigated in wastewater. Photodegradation of triclosan and formation of 2,8-DCDD occurred independently of sample pH. This study represents an advance in the use of photo-SPME to understand the photochemical fate of environmental organic pollutants and demonstrates its clear advantages with real samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Sanchez-Prado
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Química, Instituto de Investigación y Análisis Alimentario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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292
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Peck AM. Analytical methods for the determination of persistent ingredients of personal care products in environmental matrices. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:907-39. [PMID: 17047946 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0728-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2006] [Revised: 07/30/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Concern about the environmental fate and potential effects of synthetic organic chemicals used in soaps, lotions, toothpaste, and other personal care products continues to increase. This review describes procedures used for the analysis of five classes of these compounds-synthetic musk fragrances, antimicrobials, ultraviolet filters, insect repellents, and parabens-in water, sediment, sewage sludge, air, and aquatic biota. The primary focus is on sample extraction and preparation methods for these compounds. Instrumental methods commonly used for these compounds are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Peck
- Analytical Chemistry Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Hollings Marine Laboratory, 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC, 29412, USA
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293
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Lishman L, Smyth SA, Sarafin K, Kleywegt S, Toito J, Peart T, Lee B, Servos M, Beland M, Seto P. Occurrence and reductions of pharmaceuticals and personal care products and estrogens by municipal wastewater treatment plants in Ontario, Canada. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2006; 367:544-58. [PMID: 16697441 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2005] [Revised: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 03/17/2006] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Over the last ten years there have been reports of pharmaceuticals and personal care product (PPCP) residuals in municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. The principle goal of this study was specifically to expand and in some cases establish a Canadian database for the presence of selected acidic drugs, triclosan, polycyclic musks, and selected estrogens in MWWTP influent and effluent. The impact of treatment configuration (e.g. lagoons, conventional activated sludge (CAS), and CAS followed by media filtration (CAS+filtration)) was also examined. For CAS systems, the most prevalent treatment type, the effect of operating temperature and SRT was evaluated. Selected PPCPs included ten acidic pharmaceuticals (i.e. a group of pharmaceuticals that are extractable at a pH of 2 or less), triclosan, five polycyclic musks and two estrogens. The pharmaceuticals and musks were selected on the basis of levels of use in Canada; reported aquatic toxicity effects; and the ability to analyze for the compounds at low levels. Twelve MWWTPs discharging into the Thames River, the second largest river in southwestern Ontario, were surveyed. The only common characteristic of acidic drugs is their extraction pH as they differ in their intended biological function and chemical structure. Many organics degraded by WWTP processes benefit from warm temperatures and long SRTs so the impact of these variables warranted additional attention. Influent concentrations and reductions for acidic drugs reported by this study were compared to other Canadian studies, when available, and European investigations. The data of this study seems consistent with other reports. Ten acidic drugs were considered by this study. Three were consistently present at non-quantifiable levels (e.g. CLF, FNP and FNF). Additionally, one analyte, SYL, presented results that were so inconsistent that the values were not analysed. The remaining six acidic pharmaceuticals were placed into three categories. IBU and NPX members of the first category had consistently high reductions. At the level of reduction achieved (i.e. median reduction of greater than 93%) and any effect of treatment type or operating characteristics would be subtle and non-discernable given the analytical noise. In the second group are KTP and IND, and definitive comments are difficult to make on the impact of treatment type and operational considerations due to a sparse data set (i.e. many influent values were at non-quantifiable concentrations). Median reductions were in the 23% to 44% range. In the last category are GMF and DCF which have median reductions of 66% and -34%, respectively. Several negative reduction values in the data set (i.e. twelve of twenty six sampling events) suggest that DCF may be deconjugated under certain conditions. This warrants further evaluation when analytical methods for measuring human metabolites of DCF are available. For both GMF and DCF, reduction does not appear to be strongly influenced by SRTs up to 15 days, while SRTs over 30 days were associated with more frequent non-quantifiable effluent levels of DCF. This would suggest that better treatment would be provided by lagoons and CAS systems with extended aeration. Preliminary data suggests that temperature does not play a strong role in the reduction of these compounds. Triclosan (TCL) was detected at concentrations of 0.01-4.01 microg/L in influent samples and 0.01-0.324 microg/L in effluent samples. Reduction of TCL ranged from 74% to 98%. Lagoon treatment seems to be the best TCL reduction as it was present in the influent and effluent at quantifiable and non-quantifiable concentrations, respectively, on nine of nine sampling occasions. Influent and reduction values of five polycyclic musks (e.g. ADBI, AHMI, ATII, HHCB, and AHTN) were examined over the course of this study. AHMI was predominantly present at non-quantifiable concentrations. HHCB and AHTN were present at the highest concentrations. A comparison between Canadian values and those of European studies indicate that in general polycyclic musk concentrations in Canadian MWWTP effluents are 5-10 times lower. More extensive European and Canadian databases would be useful in confirming this initial observation. Median reductions for the five remaining musks range between 37% and 65% in CAS systems. CAS+filtration systems would be expected to have higher reductions if musks were bound to the effluent solids. This trend is not apparent but this may be due to the small size of the data set. In lagoon systems, musk reduction for HHCB and AHTN are approximately 98-99%. For ADBI and ATII musk, there are no numerical reduction values as most often the effluent concentration was non-quantifiable. In some instances, both the influent and effluent concentrations were non-quantifiable. The hormones 17-beta-estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1) were detected at concentrations of 0.006 to 0.014 and 0.016 to 0.049 microg/L, respectively. E2 was not detected in any effluent samples (<0.005 microg/L) whereas E1 was detected in effluent samples from CAS treatment plants (median of 0.008 microg/L), and in one sample from lagoons. These data demonstrate that there are detectable levels of PPCPs entering Canadian waterways at trace levels, and that only some of these compounds are being reduced in a significant proportion by municipal wastewater treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Lishman
- Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute, 867 Lakeshore Road, P. O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6.
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294
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Schwarzenbach RP, Escher BI, Fenner K, Hofstetter TB, Johnson CA, von Gunten U, Wehrli B. The Challenge of Micropollutants in Aquatic Systems. Science 2006; 313:1072-7. [PMID: 16931750 DOI: 10.1126/science.1127291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1775] [Impact Index Per Article: 98.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The increasing worldwide contamination of freshwater systems with thousands of industrial and natural chemical compounds is one of the key environmental problems facing humanity. Although most of these compounds are present at low concentrations, many of them raise considerable toxicological concerns, particularly when present as components of complex mixtures. Here we review three scientific challenges in addressing water-quality problems caused by such micropollutants. First, tools to assess the impact of these pollutants on aquatic life and human health must be further developed and refined. Second, cost-effective and appropriate remediation and water-treatment technologies must be explored and implemented. Third, usage and disposal strategies, coupled with the search for environmentally more benign products and processes, should aim to minimize introduction of critical pollutants into the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- René P Schwarzenbach
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dubendorf, Switzerland.
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295
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Inaba K, Doi T, Isobe N, Yamamoto T. Formation of bromo-substituted triclosan during chlorination by chlorine in the presence of trace levels of bromide. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:2931-7. [PMID: 16844186 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2006] [Revised: 05/23/2006] [Accepted: 05/24/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The side reactions of triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether, TC) and chlorine in the presence of sodium chloride were investigated. In the absence of sodium chloride, three chloro-derivatives of TC, 2',3,4,4'-tetrachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3-Cl-TC), 2',4,4',5-tetrachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (5-Cl-TC), and 2',3,4,4',5-pentachloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3,5-Cl(2)-TC) were formed, whereas in the presence of sodium chloride, 3-bromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3-Br-TC), 5-bromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (5-Br-TC), (3 or 5)-bromo-2',4,4',(5 or 3)-chloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether ((3,5)-(BrCl)-TC), and 3,5-dibromo-2',4,4'-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl ether (3,5-Br(2)-TC) were additionally formed. Radiochemical neutron activation analysis indicated that 1g of commercially available sodium chloride contained 73 microg of bromide and the bromide ion was determined to be the source of the side reactions. The rate of decrease of TC due to reaction with chlorine was greatly accelerated by the presence of bromide ion in the system: the rate with only 1 x 10(-5) M bromide ion was three times the rate in the absence of bromide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuho Inaba
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan.
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296
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Greyshock AE, Vikesland PJ. Triclosan reactivity in chloraminated waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:2615-22. [PMID: 16683600 DOI: 10.1021/es051952d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan, widely employed as an antimicrobial additive in many household personal care products, has recently been detected in wastewater treatment plant effluents and in source waters used for drinking water supplies. Chloramines used either as alternative disinfectants in drinking water treatment or formed during chlorination of nonnitrified wastewater effluents have the potential to react with triclosan. This study examined triclosan reactivity in chloraminated waters over the pH range of 6.5-10.5. Experimental and modeling results show that monochloramine directly reacts with the phenolate form of triclosan; however, the reaction is relatively slow as evinced by the second-order rate constant k(ArO)-NH2Cl = 0.025 M(-1) s(-1). Kinetic modeling indicates that for pH values less than 9.5, reactions between triclosan and two monochloramine autodecomposition intermediates, hypochlorous acid (k(ArO)-HOC = 5.4 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)) and dichloramine (k(ArO)-NHCl2 = 60 M(-1) s(-1)), are responsible for a significant percentage of the observed triclosan decay. The products of these reactions include three chlorinated triclosan byproducts as well as 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. Low levels of chloroform were detected after 1 week at pH values of 6.5 and 7.5. The slow reactivity of triclosan in the presence of chloramines explains the recalcitrance of this species in nonnitrified wastewater effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee E Greyshock
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, USA
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297
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Heim S, Hucke A, Schwarzbauer J, Littke R, Mangini A. Geochronology of anthropogenic contaminants in a dated sediment core of the Rhine River (Germany): emission sources and risk assessment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/aheh.200500609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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298
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Sánchez-Prado L, Llompart M, Lores M, Fernández-Alvarez M, García-Jares C, Cela R. Further research on the photo-SPME of triclosan. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 384:1548-57. [PMID: 16520937 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0311-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2005] [Revised: 12/22/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study the photoinduced degradation of triclosan has been investigated by photo-solid-phase microextraction (photo-SPME). In photo-SPME, photodegradation is carried out on the SPME fibre containing the target compound. Triclosan was extracted from aqueous solutions by use of polydimethylsiloxane SPME fibres and these were subsequently exposed to UV irradiation (power 8 W, wavelength 254 nm) for different times (from 2 to 60 min). The photodegradation kinetics of triclosan were investigated, the photoproducts generated were tentatively identified, and the photochemical behaviour of these products was studied by use of this on-fibre approach followed by gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis. Eight photoproducts were tentatively identified, including chlorinated phenols, chlorohydroxydiphenyl ethers, 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, and a possible dichlorodibenzodioxin isomer or dichlorohydroxydibenzofuran. The main photodegradation mechanisms were postulated and photodegradation pathways proposed. The effect of pH on triclosan degradation and on triclosan-to-dioxin conversion was also investigated. Triclosan degradation occurred, and generation of 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin was confirmed, throughout the pH range studied (from 3 to 9).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Sánchez-Prado
- Departamento de Quimica Analitica, Nutricion y Bromatologia. Facultad de Quimica, Instituto de Investigacion y Analisis Alimentario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Avda. das Ciencias s/n, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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299
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Barber LB, Murphy SF, Verplanck PL, Sandstrom MW, Taylor HE, Furlong ET. Chemical loading into surface water along a hydrological, biogeochemical, and land use gradient: a holistic watershed approach. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:475-86. [PMID: 16468392 DOI: 10.1021/es051270q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Identifying the sources and impacts of organic and inorganic contaminants at the watershed scale is a complex challenge because of the multitude of processes occurring in time and space. Investigation of geochemical transformations requires a systematic evaluation of hydrologic, landscape, and anthropogenic factors. The 1160 km2 Boulder Creek Watershed in the Colorado Front Range encompasses a gradient of geology, ecotypes, climate, and urbanization. Streamflow originates primarily as snowmelt and shows substantial annual variation. Water samples were collected along a 70-km transect during spring-runoff and base-flow conditions, and analyzed for major elements, trace elements, bulk organics, organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs), and pesticides. Major-element and trace-element concentrations were low in the headwaters, increased through the urban corridor, and had a step increase downstream from the first major wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Boron, gadolinium, and lithium were useful inorganic tracers of anthropogenic inputs. Effluent from the WWTP accounted for as much as 75% of the flow in Boulder Creek and was the largest chemical input. Under both hydrological conditions, OWCs and pesticides were detected in Boulder Creek downstream from the WWTP outfall as well as in the headwater region, and loads of anthropogenic-derived contaminants increased as basin population density increased. This report documents a suite of potential endocrine-disrupting chemicals in a reach of stream with native fish populations showing indication of endocrine disruption.
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300
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Jacobs MN, Nolan GT, Hood SR. Lignans, bacteriocides and organochlorine compounds activate the human pregnane X receptor (PXR). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005; 209:123-33. [PMID: 15885729 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2005.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2004] [Revised: 03/23/2005] [Accepted: 03/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The pregnane X receptor (PXR) mediates the induction of enzymes involved in steroid metabolism and xenobiotic detoxification. The receptor is expressed in liver and intestinal tissues and is activated by a wide range of compounds. The ability of a diverse range of dietary compounds to activate PXR-mediated transcription was assayed in HuH7 cells following transient transfection with human PXR (hPXR). The compounds investigated included phytochemicals such as lignans and phytoestrogens, organochlorine dietary contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and triclosan and selected steroid, drug and herbal compounds. The hPXR activation at the top concentrations tested (10 microM) relative to the positive control 10 microM rifampicin ranged from 1.3% (trans-resveratrol) to 152% (ICI 182780). Hydroxylated compounds were marginally more potent than the parent compounds (tamoxifen activation was 74.6% whereas 4 hydroxytamoxifen activation was 84.2%) or significantly greater (vitamin D3 activation was 1.6%, while hydroxylated vitamin D3 activation was 55.6%). Enterolactone, the metabolite of common dietary lignans, was a medium activator of PXR (35.6%), compared to the lower activation of a parent lignan, secoisolariciresinol (20%). Two non-hydroxylated PCB congeners (PCB 118 and 153), which present a larger fraction of the PCB contamination of fatty foods, activated hPXR by 26.6% and 17%, respectively. The pesticide trans-nonachlor activation was 53.8%, while the widely used bacteriocide triclosan was a medium activator of hPXR at 46.2%. The responsiveness of PXR to activation by lignan metabolites suggests that dietary intake of these compounds may affect the metabolism of drugs that are CYP3A substrates. Additionally, the evidence that organochlorine chemicals, particularly the ubiquitous triclosan, activate hPXR suggests that these environmental chemicals may, in part, exhibit their endocrine disruptor activities by altering PXR-regulated steroid hormone metabolism with potential adverse health effects in exposed individuals.
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MESH Headings
- Alkaline Phosphatase/metabolism
- Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/enzymology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/genetics
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cytochrome P-450 CYP3A
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme Inhibitors
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System/genetics
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System/metabolism
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Humans
- Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated/pharmacology
- Kinetics
- Lignans/pharmacology
- Liver Neoplasms/enzymology
- Liver Neoplasms/genetics
- Liver Neoplasms/metabolism
- Phytoestrogens/pharmacology
- Pregnane X Receptor
- Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, Steroid/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Steroid/genetics
- Receptors, Steroid/metabolism
- Retinoid X Receptors/metabolism
- Rifampin/pharmacology
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam N Jacobs
- Molecular Toxicology Group, School of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, University of Surrey Guildford GU2 7XH, UK.
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