1
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Leung BK, Chieng B, Becchi S, Balleine BW. A ventral pallidal-thalamocortical circuit mediates the cognitive control of instrumental action. Curr Biol 2024; 34:3315-3326.e6. [PMID: 38936365 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Predictive learning can engage a selective form of cognitive control that biases choice between actions based on information about future outcomes that the learning provides. This influence has been hypothesized to depend on a feedback circuit in the brain through which the basal ganglia modulate activity in the prefrontal cortex; however, direct evidence for this functional circuit has proven elusive. Here, using an animal model of cognitive control, we found that the influence of predictive learning on decision making is mediated by an inhibitory feedback circuit linking the medial ventral pallidum and the mediodorsal thalamus, the activation of which causes disinhibition of the orbitofrontal cortex via reduced activation of inhibitory parvalbumin interneurons during choice. Thus, we found that, for this function, the mediodorsal thalamus serves as a pallidal-cortical relay through which predictive learning controls action selection, which has important implications for understanding cognitive control and its vicissitudes in various psychiatric disorders and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice K Leung
- Decision Neuroscience Lab, School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Billy Chieng
- Decision Neuroscience Lab, School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Serena Becchi
- Decision Neuroscience Lab, School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Bernard W Balleine
- Decision Neuroscience Lab, School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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2
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Kong MS, Ancell E, Witten DM, Zweifel LS. Valence and Salience Encoding in the Central Amygdala. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.05.602310. [PMID: 39005417 PMCID: PMC11245111 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.05.602310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
The central amygdala (CeA) has emerged as an important brain region for regulating both negative (fear and anxiety) and positive (reward) affective behaviors. The CeA has been proposed to encode affective information in the form of valence (whether the stimulus is good or bad) or salience (how significant is the stimulus), but the extent to which these two types of stimulus representation occur in the CeA is not known. Here, we used single cell calcium imaging in mice during appetitive and aversive conditioning and found that majority of CeA neurons (~65%) encode the valence of the unconditioned stimulus (US) with a smaller subset of cells (~15%) encoding the salience of the US. Valence and salience encoding of the conditioned stimulus (CS) was also observed, albeit to a lesser extent. These findings show that the CeA is a site of convergence for encoding oppositely valenced US information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Seon Kong
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
| | - Ethan Ancell
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
| | - Daniela M. Witten
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
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3
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Simon RC, Loveless MC, Yee JX, Goh B, Cho SG, Nasir Z, Hashikawa K, Stuber GD, Zweifel LS, Soden ME. Opto-seq reveals input-specific immediate-early gene induction in ventral tegmental area cell types. Neuron 2024:S0896-6273(24)00373-8. [PMID: 38901431 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is a critical node in circuits governing motivated behavior and is home to diverse populations of neurons that release dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, or combinations of these neurotransmitters. The VTA receives inputs from many brain regions, but a comprehensive understanding of input-specific activation of VTA neuronal subpopulations is lacking. To address this, we combined optogenetic stimulation of select VTA inputs with single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) and highly multiplexed in situ hybridization to identify distinct neuronal clusters and characterize their spatial distribution and activation patterns. Quantification of immediate-early gene (IEG) expression revealed that different inputs activated select VTA subpopulations, which demonstrated cell-type-specific transcriptional programs. Within dopaminergic subpopulations, IEG induction levels correlated with differential expression of ion channel genes. This new transcriptomics-guided circuit analysis reveals the diversity of VTA activation driven by distinct inputs and provides a resource for future analysis of VTA cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhiana C Simon
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Mary C Loveless
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Joshua X Yee
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Brandon Goh
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Su G Cho
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Zainab Nasir
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Koichi Hashikawa
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Garret D Stuber
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Marta E Soden
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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4
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Qiu J, Voliotis M, Bosch MA, Li XF, Zweifel LS, Tsaneva-Atanasova K, O’Byrne KT, Rønnekleiv OK, Kelly MJ. Estradiol elicits distinct firing patterns in arcuate nucleus kisspeptin neurons of females through altering ion channel conductances. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.20.581121. [PMID: 38915596 PMCID: PMC11195100 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.20.581121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
Hypothalamic kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons are vital for pubertal development and reproduction. Arcuate nucleus Kiss1 (Kiss1ARH) neurons are responsible for the pulsatile release of Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH). In females, the behavior of Kiss1ARH neurons, expressing Kiss1, Neurokinin B (NKB), and Dynorphin (Dyn), varies throughout the ovarian cycle. Studies indicate that 17β-estradiol (E2) reduces peptide expression but increases Vglut2 mRNA and glutamate neurotransmission in these neurons, suggesting a shift from peptidergic to glutamatergic signaling. To investigate this shift, we combined transcriptomics, electrophysiology, and mathematical modeling. Our results demonstrate that E2 treatment upregulates the mRNA expression of voltage-activated calcium channels, elevating the whole-cell calcium current and that contribute to high-frequency burst firing. Additionally, E2 treatment decreased the mRNA levels of Canonical Transient Receptor Potential (TPRC) 5 and G protein-coupled K+ (GIRK) channels. When TRPC5 channels in Kiss1ARH neurons were deleted using CRISPR, the slow excitatory postsynaptic potential (sEPSP) was eliminated. Our data enabled us to formulate a biophysically realistic mathematical model of the Kiss1ARH neuron, suggesting that E2 modifies ionic conductances in Kiss1ARH neurons, enabling the transition from high frequency synchronous firing through NKB-driven activation of TRPC5 channels to a short bursting mode facilitating glutamate release. In a low E2 milieu, synchronous firing of Kiss1ARH neurons drives pulsatile release of GnRH, while the transition to burst firing with high, preovulatory levels of E2 would facilitate the GnRH surge through its glutamatergic synaptic connection to preoptic Kiss1 neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Qiu
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Margaritis Voliotis
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Exeter, Stocker Rd, Exeter, EX4 4PY, UK
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Rd, Exeter, EX4 4PY, UK
| | - Martha A. Bosch
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Xiao Feng Li
- Department of Women and Children’s Health, School of Life Course and Population Sciences, King’s College London, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Depatment of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Krasimira Tsaneva-Atanasova
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Exeter, Stocker Rd, Exeter, EX4 4PY, UK
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Rd, Exeter, EX4 4PY, UK
| | - Kevin T. O’Byrne
- Department of Women and Children’s Health, School of Life Course and Population Sciences, King’s College London, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Oline K. Rønnekleiv
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Martin J. Kelly
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
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5
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Warlow SM, Singhal SM, Hollon NG, Faget L, Dowlat DS, Zell V, Hunker AC, Zweifel LS, Hnasko TS. Mesoaccumbal glutamate neurons drive reward via glutamate release but aversion via dopamine co-release. Neuron 2024; 112:488-499.e5. [PMID: 38086374 PMCID: PMC10922836 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) projections to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) drive reward-related motivation. Although dopamine neurons are predominant, a substantial glutamatergic projection is also present, and a subset of these co-release both dopamine and glutamate. Optogenetic stimulation of VTA glutamate neurons not only supports self-stimulation but can also induce avoidance behavior, even in the same assay. Here, we parsed the selective contribution of glutamate or dopamine co-release from VTA glutamate neurons to reinforcement and avoidance. We expressed channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) in mouse VTA glutamate neurons in combination with CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt either the gene encoding vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) or tyrosine hydroxylase (Th). Selective disruption of VGLUT2 abolished optogenetic self-stimulation but left real-time place avoidance intact, whereas CRISPR-Cas9 deletion of Th preserved self-stimulation but abolished place avoidance. Our results demonstrate that glutamate release from VTA glutamate neurons is positively reinforcing but that dopamine release from VTA glutamate neurons can induce avoidance behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley M Warlow
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Sarthak M Singhal
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Nick G Hollon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Lauren Faget
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Dina S Dowlat
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Vivien Zell
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Avery C Hunker
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas S Hnasko
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.
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6
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Kim HR, Young CN. Circumventricular organ-hypothalamic circuit endoplasmic reticulum stress drives hepatic steatosis during obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2024; 32:59-69. [PMID: 37794528 DOI: 10.1002/oby.23895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), characterized by excess liver triglyceride accumulation (hepatic steatosis), leads to an increased risk for cardiometabolic diseases and obesity-related mortality. Emerging evidence points to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the central nervous system as critical in NAFLD pathogenesis. Here, we tested the contribution of ER stress in a circumventricular organ-hypothalamic circuit in NAFLD development during obesity. METHODS C57BL/6J male mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or normal chow. A combination of histological, viral tracing, intersectional viral targeting, and in vivo integrative physiological approaches were used to examine the role of ER stress in subfornical organ to hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus projecting neurons (SFO➔PVN) in NAFLD during diet-induced obesity. RESULTS Immunohistochemical analysis revealed marked unfolded protein response activation in the SFO, particularly in excitatory SFO➔PVN neurons of HFD-fed animals. Moreover, intersectional viral inhibition of ER stress in SFO➔PVN neurons resulted in a reduction in hepatomegaly, hepatic steatosis, and a blunted increase in body weight gain during diet-induced obesity, independent of changes in food intake, substrate partitioning, energy expenditure, and ambulatory activity. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that ER stress in an SFO➔PVN neural circuit contributes to hepatic steatosis during obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Rae Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Colin N Young
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
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7
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Juarez B, Kong MS, Jo YS, Elum JE, Yee JX, Ng-Evans S, Cline M, Hunker AC, Quinlan MA, Baird MA, Elerding AJ, Johnson M, Ban D, Mendez A, Goodwin NL, Soden ME, Zweifel LS. Temporal scaling of dopamine neuron firing and dopamine release by distinct ion channels shape behavior. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg8869. [PMID: 37566654 PMCID: PMC10421029 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg8869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine is broadly implicated in reinforcement learning, but how patterns of dopamine activity are generated is poorly resolved. Here, we demonstrate that two ion channels, Kv4.3 and BKCa1.1, regulate the pattern of dopamine neuron firing and dopamine release on different time scales to influence separate phases of reinforced behavior in mice. Inactivation of Kv4.3 in VTA dopamine neurons increases ex vivo pacemaker activity and excitability that is associated with increased in vivo firing rate and ramping dynamics before lever press in a learned instrumental paradigm. Loss of Kv4.3 enhances performance of the learned response and facilitates extinction. In contrast, loss of BKCa1.1 increases burst firing and phasic dopamine release that enhances learning of an instrumental response and enhances extinction burst lever pressing in early extinction that is associated with a greater change in activity between reinforced and unreinforced actions. These data demonstrate that disruption of intrinsic regulators of neuronal activity differentially affects dopamine dynamics during reinforcement and extinction learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Juarez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mi-Seon Kong
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yong S. Jo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jordan E. Elum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Joshua X. Yee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Scott Ng-Evans
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Marcella Cline
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Avery C. Hunker
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Meagan A. Quinlan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Madison A. Baird
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Mia Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Derek Ban
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Adriana Mendez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Marta E. Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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8
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Sun Y, Zweifel LS, Holmes TC, Xu X. Whole-brain input mapping of the lateral versus medial anterodorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in the mouse. Neurobiol Stress 2023; 23:100527. [PMID: 36861029 PMCID: PMC9969273 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2023.100527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The anterior portion of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) modulates fear and stress responses. The anterodorsal BNST (adBNST) can be anatomically subdivided further into the lateral and medial divisions. Although output projections of BNST subregions have been studied, the local and global input connections to these subregions remain poorly understood. To further understand BNST-centered circuit operations, we have applied new viral-genetic tracing and functional circuit mapping to determine detailed synaptic circuit inputs to lateral and medial subregions of adBNST in the mouse. Monosynaptic canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV2) and rabies virus-based retrograde tracers were injected in the adBNST subregions. The amygdalar complex, hypothalamus and hippocampal formation account for the majority of overall inputs to adBNST. However, lateral versus medial adBNST subregions have distinct patterns of long-range cortical and limbic brain inputs. The lateral adBNST has more input connections from prefrontal (prelimbic, infralimbic, cingulate) and insular cortices, anterior thalamus and ectorhinal/perirhinal cortices. In contrast, the medial adBNST received biased inputs from the medial amygdala, lateral septum, hypothalamus nuclei and ventral subiculum. We confirmed long-range functional inputs from the amydalohippocampal area and basolateral amygdala to the adBNST using ChR2-assisted circuit mapping. Selected novel BNST inputs are also validated with the AAV axonal tracing data from the Allen Institute Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas. Together, these results provide a comprehensive map of the differential afferent inputs to lateral and medial adBNST subregions, and offer new insight into the functional operations of BNST circuitry for stress and anxiety-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjun Sun
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-1275, USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Todd C. Holmes
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-4560, USA
- Center for Neural Circuit Mapping, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-1275, USA
| | - Xiangmin Xu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-1275, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-2715, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-2715, USA
- Department of Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-3435, USA
- Center for Neural Circuit Mapping, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-1275, USA
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9
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Soden ME, Yee JX, Cuevas B, Rastani A, Elum J, Zweifel LS. Distinct Encoding of Reward and Aversion by Peptidergic BNST Inputs to the VTA. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:918839. [PMID: 35860212 PMCID: PMC9289195 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.918839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides play an important role in modulating mesolimbic system function. However, while synaptic inputs to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have been extensively mapped, the sources of many neuropeptides are not well resolved. Here, we mapped the anatomical locations of three neuropeptide inputs to the VTA: neurotensin (NTS), corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), and neurokinin B (NkB). Among numerous labeled inputs we identified the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) as a major source of all three peptides, containing similar numbers of NTS, CRF, and NkB VTA projection neurons. Approximately 50% of BNST to VTA inputs co-expressed two or more of the peptides examined. Consistent with this expression pattern, analysis of calcium dynamics in the terminals of these inputs in the VTA revealed both common and distinct patterns of activation during appetitive and aversive conditioning. These data demonstrate additional diversification of the mesolimbic dopamine system through partially overlapping neuropeptidergic inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta E. Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Joshua X. Yee
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Beatriz Cuevas
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Ariana Rastani
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Jordan Elum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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10
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Yee JX, Rastani A, Soden ME. The potassium channel auxiliary subunit Kvβ2 ( Kcnab2) regulates Kv1 channels and dopamine neuron firing. J Neurophysiol 2022; 128:62-72. [PMID: 35788155 PMCID: PMC9273274 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00194.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ion channel complexes typically consist of both pore-forming subunits and auxiliary subunits that do not directly conduct current but can regulate trafficking or alter channel properties. Isolating the role of these auxiliary subunits in neurons has proved difficult due to a lack of specific pharmacological agents and the potential for developmental compensation in constitutive knockout models. Here, we use cell-type-specific viral-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis to target the potassium channel auxiliary subunit Kvβ2 (Kcnab2) in dopamine neurons in the adult mouse brain. We find that mutagenesis of Kcnab2 reduces surface expression of Kv1.2, the primary Kv1 pore-forming subunit expressed in dopamine neurons, and shifts the voltage dependence of inactivation of potassium channel currents toward more hyperpolarized potentials. Loss of Kcnab2 broadens the action potential waveform in spontaneously firing dopamine neurons recorded in slice, reduces the afterhyperpolarization amplitude, and increases spike timing irregularity and excitability, all of which is consistent with a reduction in potassium channel current. Similar effects were observed with mutagenesis of the pore-forming subunit Kv1.2 (Kcna2). These results identify Kv1 currents as important contributors to dopamine neuron firing and demonstrate a role for Kvβ2 subunits in regulating the trafficking and gating properties of these ion channels. Furthermore, they demonstrate the utility of CRISPR-mediated mutagenesis in the study of previously difficult to isolate ion channel subunits.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Here, we utilize CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis in dopamine neurons in mice to target the gene encoding Kvβ2, an auxiliary subunit that forms a part of Kv1 channel complexes. We find that the absence of Kvβ2 alters action potential properties by reducing surface expression of pore-forming subunits and shifting the voltage dependence of channel inactivation. This work establishes a new function for Kvβ2 subunits and Kv1 complexes in regulating dopamine neuron activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua X. Yee
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Ariana Rastani
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Marta E. Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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11
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Posner MI, Weible AP, Voelker P, Rothbart MK, Niell CM. Decision Making as a Learned Skill in Mice and Humans. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:834701. [PMID: 35360159 PMCID: PMC8963179 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.834701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention is a necessary component in many forms of human and animal learning. Numerous studies have described how attention and memory interact when confronted with a choice point during skill learning. In both animal and human studies, pathways have been found that connect the executive and orienting networks of attention to the hippocampus. The anterior cingulate cortex, part of the executive attention network, is linked to the hippocampus via the nucleus reuniens of the thalamus. The parietal cortex, part of the orienting attention network, accesses the hippocampus via the entorhinal cortex. These studies have led to specific predictions concerning the functional role of each pathway in connecting the cortex to the hippocampus. Here, we review some of the predictions arising from these studies. We then discuss potential methods for manipulating the two pathways and assessing the directionality of their functional connection using viral expression techniques in mice. New studies may allow testing of a behavioral model specifying how the two pathways work together during skill learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael I. Posner
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
- *Correspondence: Michael I. Posner,
| | - Aldis P. Weible
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
| | - Pascale Voelker
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
| | - Mary K. Rothbart
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
| | - Cristopher M. Niell
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
- Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
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12
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Zingg B, Dong HW, Tao HW, Zhang LI. Application of AAV1 for Anterograde Transsynaptic Circuit Mapping and Input-Dependent Neuronal Cataloging. Curr Protoc 2022; 2:e339. [PMID: 35044725 PMCID: PMC8852298 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Viruses that spread transsynaptically provide a powerful means to study interconnected circuits in the brain. Here we describe the use of adeno-associated virus, serotype 1 (AAV1), as a tool to achieve robust, anterograde transsynaptic spread in a variety of unidirectional pathways. A protocol for performing intracranial AAV1 injections in mice is presented, along with additional guidance for planning experiments, sourcing materials, and optimizing the approach to achieve the most successful outcomes. By following the methods presented here, researchers will be able to reveal postsynaptically connected neurons downstream of a given AAV1 injection site and access these input-defined cells for subsequent mapping, recording, and manipulation to characterize their anatomical and functional properties. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol: Stereotaxic injection of AAV1 for anterograde transsynaptic spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Zingg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Hong-Wei Dong
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Huizhong Whit Tao
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Li I. Zhang
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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13
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Autism-associated mutations in K V7 channels induce gating pore current. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2112666118. [PMID: 34728568 PMCID: PMC8609342 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2112666118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) adversely impacts >1% of children in the United States, causing social interaction deficits, repetitive behaviors, and communication disorders. Genetic analysis of ASD has advanced dramatically through genome sequencing, which has identified >500 genes with mutations in ASD. Mutations that alter arginine gating charges in the voltage sensor of the voltage-gated potassium (KV) channel KV7 (KCNQ) are among those frequently associated with ASD. We hypothesized that these gating charge mutations would induce gating pore current (also termed ω-current) by causing an ionic leak through the mutant voltage sensor. Unexpectedly, we found that wild-type KV7 conducts outward gating pore current through its native voltage sensor at positive membrane potentials, owing to a glutamine in the third gating charge position. In bacterial and human KV7 channels, gating charge mutations at the R1 and R2 positions cause inward gating pore current through the resting voltage sensor at negative membrane potentials, whereas mutation at R4 causes outward gating pore current through the activated voltage sensor at positive potentials. Remarkably, expression of the KV7.3/R2C ASD-associated mutation in vivo in midbrain dopamine neurons of mice disrupts action potential generation and repetitive firing. Overall, our results reveal native and mutant gating pore current in KV7 channels and implicate altered control of action potential generation by gating pore current through mutant KV7 channels as a potential pathogenic mechanism in autism.
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14
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A midbrain dynorphin circuit promotes threat generalization. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4388-4396.e5. [PMID: 34388372 PMCID: PMC8511093 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Discrimination between predictive and non-predictive threat stimuli decreases as threat intensity increases. The central mechanisms that mediate the transition from discriminatory to generalized threat responding remain poorly resolved. Here, we identify the stress- and dysphoria-associated kappa opioid receptor (KOR) and its ligand dynorphin (Dyn), acting in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), as a key substrate for regulating threat generalization. We identify several dynorphinergic inputs to the VTA and demonstrate that projections from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) both contribute to anxiety-like behavior but differentially affect threat generalization. These data demonstrate that conditioned threat discrimination has an inverted "U" relationship with threat intensity and establish a role for KOR/Dyn signaling in the midbrain for promoting threat generalization.
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15
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Stincic TL, Bosch MA, Hunker AC, Juarez B, Connors AM, Zweifel LS, Rønnekleiv OK, Kelly MJ. CRISPR knockdown of Kcnq3 attenuates the M-current and increases excitability of NPY/AgRP neurons to alter energy balance. Mol Metab 2021; 49:101218. [PMID: 33766732 PMCID: PMC8093934 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Arcuate nucleus neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide (NPY/AgRP) neurons drive ingestive behavior. The M-current, a subthreshold non-inactivating potassium current, plays a critical role in regulating NPY/AgRP neuronal excitability. Fasting decreases while 17β-estradiol increases the M-current by regulating the mRNA expression of Kcnq2, 3, and 5 (Kv7.2, 3, and 5) channel subunits. Incorporating KCNQ3 into heteromeric channels has been considered essential to generate a robust M-current. Therefore, we investigated the behavioral and physiological effects of selective Kcnq3 deletion from NPY/AgRP neurons. METHODS We used a single adeno-associated viral vector containing a recombinase-dependent Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 with a single-guide RNA to selectively delete Kcnq3 in NPY/AgRP neurons. Single-cell quantitative measurements of mRNA expression and whole-cell patch clamp experiments were conducted to validate the selective knockdown. Body weight, food intake, and locomotor activity were measured in male mice to assess disruptions in energy balance. RESULTS The virus reduced the expression of Kcnq3 mRNA without affecting Kcnq2 or Kcnq5. The M-current was attenuated, causing NPY/AgRP neurons to be more depolarized, exhibit a higher input resistance, and require less depolarizing current to fire action potentials, indicative of increased excitability. Although the resulting decrease in the M-current did not overtly alter ingestive behavior, it significantly reduced the locomotor activity as measured by open-field testing. Control mice on a high-fat diet exhibited an enhanced M-current and increased Kcnq2 and Kcnq3 expression, but the M-current remained significantly attenuated in KCNQ3 knockdown animals. CONCLUSIONS The M-current plays a critical role in modulating the intrinsic excitability of NPY/AgRP neurons that is essential for maintaining energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd L Stincic
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
| | - Martha A Bosch
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Avery C Hunker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Barbara Juarez
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Ashley M Connors
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Oline K Rønnekleiv
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA
| | - Martin J Kelly
- Department of Chemical Physiology and Biochemistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA.
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16
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Carlson ES, Hunker AC, Sandberg SG, Locke TM, Geller JM, Schindler AG, Thomas SA, Darvas M, Phillips PEM, Zweifel LS. Catecholaminergic Innervation of the Lateral Nucleus of the Cerebellum Modulates Cognitive Behaviors. J Neurosci 2021; 41:3512-3530. [PMID: 33536201 PMCID: PMC8051686 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2406-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum processes neural signals related to rewarding and aversive stimuli, suggesting that the cerebellum supports nonmotor functions in cognitive and emotional domains. Catecholamines are a class of neuromodulatory neurotransmitters well known for encoding such salient stimuli. Catecholaminergic modulation of classical cerebellar functions have been demonstrated. However, a role for cerebellar catecholamines in modulating cerebellar nonmotor functions is unknown. Using biochemical methods in male mice, we comprehensively mapped TH+ fibers throughout the entire cerebellum and known precerebellar nuclei. Using electrochemical (fast scan cyclic voltammetry), and viral/genetic methods to selectively delete Th in fibers innervating the lateral cerebellar nucleus (LCN), we interrogated sources and functional roles of catecholamines innervating the LCN, which is known for its role in supporting cognition. The LCN has the most TH+ fibers in cerebellum, as well as the most change in rostrocaudal expression among the cerebellar nuclei. Norepinephrine is the major catecholamine measured in LCN. Distinct catecholaminergic projections to LCN arise only from locus coeruleus, and a subset of Purkinje cells that are positive for staining of TH. LC stimulation was sufficient to produce catecholamine release in LCN. Deletion of Th in fibers innervating LCN (LCN-Th-cKO) resulted in impaired sensorimotor integration, associative fear learning, response inhibition, and working memory in LCN-Th-cKO mice. Strikingly, selective inhibition of excitatory LCN output neurons with inhibitory designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs led to facilitation of learning on the same working memory task impaired in LCN-Th-cKO mice. Collectively, these data demonstrate a role for LCN catecholamines in cognitive behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Here, we report on interrogating sources and functional roles of catecholamines innervating the lateral nucleus of the cerebellum (LCN). We map and quantify expression of TH, the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, in the entire cerebellar system, including several precerebellar nuclei. We used cyclic voltammetry and pharmacology to demonstrate sufficiency of LC stimulation to produce catecholamine release in LCN. We used advanced viral techniques to map and selectively KO catecholaminergic neurotransmission to the LCN, and characterized significant cognitive deficits related to this manipulation. Finally, we show that inhibition of excitatory LCN neurons with designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs, designed to mimic Gi-coupled catecholamine GPCR signaling, results in facilitation of a working memory task impaired in LCN-specific TH KO mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik S Carlson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington 98108
| | - Avery C Hunker
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Stefan G Sandberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Timothy M Locke
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Julianne M Geller
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington 98108
| | - Abigail G Schindler
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington 98108
| | - Steven A Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Martin Darvas
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Paul E M Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
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17
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Hunker AC, Soden ME, Krayushkina D, Heymann G, Awatramani R, Zweifel LS. Conditional Single Vector CRISPR/SaCas9 Viruses for Efficient Mutagenesis in the Adult Mouse Nervous System. Cell Rep 2021; 30:4303-4316.e6. [PMID: 32209486 PMCID: PMC7212805 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice engineered for conditional, cell type-specific gene inactivation have dominated the field of mouse genetics because of the high efficiency of Cre-loxP-mediated recombination. Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9 technologies have provided alternatives for rapid gene mutagenesis for loss-of-function (LOF) analysis. Whether these strategies can be streamlined for rapid genetic analysis with the efficiencies comparable with those of conventional genetic approaches has yet to be established. We show that a single adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector containing a recombinase-dependent Staphylococcus aureus Cas9 (SaCas9) and a single guide RNA (sgRNA) are as efficient as conventional conditional gene knockout and can be adapted for use in either Cre- or Flp-driver mouse lines. The efficacy of this approach is demonstrated for the analysis of GABAergic, glutamatergic, and monoaminergic neurotransmission. Using this strategy, we reveal insight into the role of GABAergic regulation of midbrain GABA-producing neurons in psychomotor activation. Hunker et al. generate single adeno-associated viral vectors for conditional gene mutagenesis in the adult mouse nervous system with efficiencies equivalent to those of conventional gene inactivation strategies. On the basis of this efficacy, they provide a resource of Cre- and Flp-dependent constructs for targeting catecholamine, glutamate, and GABA neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery C Hunker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Marta E Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Dasha Krayushkina
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Gabriel Heymann
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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18
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Kenwood MM, Kalin NH. Nonhuman Primate Models to Explore Mechanisms Underlying Early-Life Temperamental Anxiety. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 89:659-671. [PMID: 33229035 PMCID: PMC7952470 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders, causing significant suffering and disability. Behavioral inhibition is a temperament that is linked to an increased risk for the later development of anxiety disorders and other stress-related psychopathology, and understanding the neural systems underlying this dispositional risk could provide insight into novel treatment targets for anxiety disorders. Nonhuman primates (NHPs) have anxiety-related temperaments that are similar to those of humans with behavioral inhibition, facilitating the design of translational models related to human psychopathology. Characterization of our NHP model of behavioral inhibition, which we term anxious temperament (AT), reveals that it is trait-like. Exploration of the neural substrates of AT in NHPs has revealed a distributed neural circuit that is linked to individual differences in AT, which includes the dorsal amygdala. AT-related metabolism in the dorsal amygdala, including the central nucleus, is stable across time and can be detected even in safe contexts, suggesting that AT has trait-like neural signatures within the brain. The use of lesioning and novel chemogenetic methods allows for mechanistic perturbation of the amygdala to determine its causal contribution to AT. Studies characterizing the molecular bases for individual differences in AT in the dorsal amygdala, which take advantage of novel methods for probing cellular and molecular systems, suggest involvement of neurotrophic systems, which point to the importance of neuroplasticity in AT. These novel methods, when used in combination with translational NHP models such as AT, promise to provide insights into the brain systems underlying the early risk for anxiety disorder development.
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19
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κ Opioid Receptor-Dynorphin Signaling in the Central Amygdala Regulates Conditioned Threat Discrimination and Anxiety. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0370-20.2020. [PMID: 33323398 PMCID: PMC7877472 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0370-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides within the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) potently modulate neuronal excitability and have been shown to regulate conditioned threat discrimination and anxiety. Here, we investigated the role of κ opioid receptor (KOR) and its endogenous ligand dynorphin in the CeA for regulation of conditioned threat discrimination and anxiety-like behavior in mice. We demonstrate that reduced KOR expression through genetic inactivation of the KOR encoding gene, Oprk1, in the CeA results in increased anxiety-like behavior and impaired conditioned threat discrimination. In contrast, reduction of dynorphin through genetic inactivation of the dynorphin encoding gene, Pdyn, in the CeA has no effect on anxiety or conditioned threat discrimination. However, inactivation of Pdyn from multiple sources, intrinsic and extrinsic to the CeA phenocopies Oprk1 inactivation. These findings suggest that dynorphin inputs to the CeA signal through KOR to promote threat discrimination and dampen anxiety.
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20
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Jarvie BC, Chen JY, King HO, Palmiter RD. Satb2 neurons in the parabrachial nucleus mediate taste perception. Nat Commun 2021. [PMID: 33431851 DOI: 10.1038/s41467‐020‐20100‐8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural circuitry mediating taste has been mapped out from the periphery to the cortex, but genetic identity of taste-responsive neurons has remained elusive. Here, we describe a population of neurons in the gustatory region of the parabrachial nucleus that express the transcription factor Satb2 and project to taste-associated regions, including the gustatory thalamus and insular cortex. Using calcium imaging in awake, freely licking mice, we show that Satb2 neurons respond to the five basic taste modalities. Optogenetic activation of these neurons enhances taste preferences, whereas chronic inactivation decreases the magnitude of taste preferences in both brief- and long-access taste tests. Simultaneous inactivation of Satb2 and calcitonin gene-related peptide neurons in the PBN abolishes responses to aversive tastes. These data suggest that taste information in the parabrachial nucleus is conveyed by multiple populations of neurons, including both Satb2 and calcitonin gene-related peptide neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke C Jarvie
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jane Y Chen
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Hunter O King
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Richard D Palmiter
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA. .,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA. .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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21
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Jarvie BC, Chen JY, King HO, Palmiter RD. Satb2 neurons in the parabrachial nucleus mediate taste perception. Nat Commun 2021; 12:224. [PMID: 33431851 PMCID: PMC7801645 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20100-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural circuitry mediating taste has been mapped out from the periphery to the cortex, but genetic identity of taste-responsive neurons has remained elusive. Here, we describe a population of neurons in the gustatory region of the parabrachial nucleus that express the transcription factor Satb2 and project to taste-associated regions, including the gustatory thalamus and insular cortex. Using calcium imaging in awake, freely licking mice, we show that Satb2 neurons respond to the five basic taste modalities. Optogenetic activation of these neurons enhances taste preferences, whereas chronic inactivation decreases the magnitude of taste preferences in both brief- and long-access taste tests. Simultaneous inactivation of Satb2 and calcitonin gene-related peptide neurons in the PBN abolishes responses to aversive tastes. These data suggest that taste information in the parabrachial nucleus is conveyed by multiple populations of neurons, including both Satb2 and calcitonin gene-related peptide neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke C Jarvie
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jane Y Chen
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Hunter O King
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Richard D Palmiter
- Departments of Biochemistry and Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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22
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Whitesell JD, Liska A, Coletta L, Hirokawa KE, Bohn P, Williford A, Groblewski PA, Graddis N, Kuan L, Knox JE, Ho A, Wakeman W, Nicovich PR, Nguyen TN, van Velthoven CTJ, Garren E, Fong O, Naeemi M, Henry AM, Dee N, Smith KA, Levi B, Feng D, Ng L, Tasic B, Zeng H, Mihalas S, Gozzi A, Harris JA. Regional, Layer, and Cell-Type-Specific Connectivity of the Mouse Default Mode Network. Neuron 2020; 109:545-559.e8. [PMID: 33290731 PMCID: PMC8150331 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionarily conserved default mode network (DMN) is a distributed set of brain regions coactivated during resting states that is vulnerable to brain disorders. How disease affects the DMN is unknown, but detailed anatomical descriptions could provide clues. Mice offer an opportunity to investigate structural connectivity of the DMN across spatial scales with cell-type resolution. We co-registered maps from functional magnetic resonance imaging and axonal tracing experiments into the 3D Allen mouse brain reference atlas. We find that the mouse DMN consists of preferentially interconnected cortical regions. As a population, DMN layer 2/3 (L2/3) neurons project almost exclusively to other DMN regions, whereas L5 neurons project in and out of the DMN. In the retrosplenial cortex, a core DMN region, we identify two L5 projection types differentiated by in- or out-DMN targets, laminar position, and gene expression. These results provide a multi-scale description of the anatomical correlates of the mouse DMN. Mouse resting-state default mode network anatomy described at high resolution in 3D Systematic axon tracing shows cortical DMN regions are preferentially interconnected Layer 2/3 DMN neurons project mostly in the DMN; layer 5 neurons project in and out Retrosplenial cortex contains distinct types of in- and out-DMN projection neurons
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Liska
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @ UniTn, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; DeepMind, London EC4A 3TW, UK
| | - Ludovico Coletta
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @ UniTn, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | | | - Phillip Bohn
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Ali Williford
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | | | - Nile Graddis
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Leonard Kuan
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Joseph E Knox
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Anh Ho
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Wayne Wakeman
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | | | | | | | - Emma Garren
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Olivia Fong
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Maitham Naeemi
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Alex M Henry
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Nick Dee
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | | | - Boaz Levi
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - David Feng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Lydia Ng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Bosiljka Tasic
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Hongkui Zeng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Stefan Mihalas
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Alessandro Gozzi
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @ UniTn, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Julie A Harris
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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23
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Abstract
AAV-CRISPR/Cas9 permits gene mutagenesis in the adult CNS. Current methods determining In Vivo on-target mutagenesis have been limited by the ability to isolate virally transduced cells. This protocol optimizes a workflow for the design, cloning, and validation of sgRNAs delivered by AAVs In Vivo that can be applied to any target gene in the CNS of rat or mouse model systems and can be adapted to Cre or Flp driver lines using AAV-FLEX-SaCas9-sgRNA or AAV-FLEXfrt-SaCas9-sgRNA, respectively. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Hunker et al. (2020).
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery C. Hunker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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24
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Heymann G, Jo YS, Reichard KL, McFarland N, Chavkin C, Palmiter RD, Soden ME, Zweifel LS. Synergy of Distinct Dopamine Projection Populations in Behavioral Reinforcement. Neuron 2020; 105:909-920.e5. [PMID: 31879163 PMCID: PMC7060117 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) regulate reward association and motivation. It remains unclear whether there are distinct dopamine populations to mediate these functions. Using mouse genetics, we isolated two populations of dopamine-producing VTA neurons with divergent projections to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) core and shell. Inhibition of VTA-core-projecting neurons disrupted Pavlovian reward learning, and activation of these cells promoted the acquisition of an instrumental response. VTA-shell-projecting neurons did not regulate Pavlovian reward learning and could not facilitate acquisition of an instrumental response, but their activation could drive robust responding in a previously learned instrumental task. Both populations are activated simultaneously by cues, actions, and rewards, and this co-activation is required for robust reinforcement of behavior. Thus, there are functionally distinct dopamine populations in the VTA for promoting motivation and reward association, which operate on the same timescale to optimize behavioral reinforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Heymann
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Yong Sang Jo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.,Department of Psychology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kathryn L. Reichard
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Naomi McFarland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Charles Chavkin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Richard D. Palmiter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Marta E. Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.,correspondence:
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25
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Jo YS, Namboodiri VMK, Stuber GD, Zweifel LS. Persistent activation of central amygdala CRF neurons helps drive the immediate fear extinction deficit. Nat Commun 2020; 11:422. [PMID: 31969571 PMCID: PMC6976644 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear extinction is an active learning process whereby previously established conditioned responses to a conditioned stimulus are suppressed. Paradoxically, when extinction training is performed immediately following fear acquisition, the extinction memory is weakened. Here, we demonstrate that corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)-expressing neurons in the central amygdala (CeA) antagonize the extinction memory following immediate extinction training. CeA-CRF neurons transition from responding to the unconditioned stimulus to the conditioned stimulus during the acquisition of a fear memory that persists during immediate extinction training, but diminishes during delayed extinction training. Inhibition of CeA-CRF neurons during immediate extinction training is sufficient to promote enhanced extinction memories, and activation of these neurons following delay extinction training is sufficient to reinstate a previously extinguished fear memory. These results demonstrate CeA-CRF neurons are an important substrate for the persistence of fear and have broad implications for the neural basis of persistent negative affective behavioral states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong S. Jo
- 0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA ,0000 0001 0840 2678grid.222754.4Department of Psychology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841 Republic of Korea
| | - Vijay Mohan K. Namboodiri
- 0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - Garret D. Stuber
- 0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA ,0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- 0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA ,0000000122986657grid.34477.33Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
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Activation of Kappa Opioid Receptor Regulates the Hypothermic Response to Calorie Restriction and Limits Body Weight Loss. Curr Biol 2019; 29:4291-4299.e4. [PMID: 31786059 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mammals maintain a nearly constant core body temperature (Tb) by balancing heat production and heat dissipation. This comes at a high metabolic cost that is sustainable if adequate calorie intake is maintained. When nutrients are scarce or experimentally reduced such as during calorie restriction (CR), endotherms can reduce energy expenditure by lowering Tb [1-6]. This adaptive response conserves energy, limiting the loss of body weight due to low calorie intake [7-10]. Here we show that this response is regulated by the kappa opioid receptor (KOR). CR is associated with increased hypothalamic levels of the endogenous opioid Leu-enkephalin, which is derived from the KOR agonist precursor dynorphin [11]. Pharmacological inhibition of KOR, but not of the delta or the mu opioid receptor subtypes, fully blocked CR-induced hypothermia and increased weight loss during CR independent of calorie intake. Similar results were seen with DIO mice subjected to CR. In contrast, inhibiting KOR did not change Tb in animals fed ad libitum (AL). Chemogenetic inhibition of KOR neurons in the hypothalamic preoptic area reduced the CR-induced hypothermia, whereas chemogenetic activation of prodynorphin-expressing neurons in the arcuate or the parabrachial nucleus lowered Tb. These data indicate that KOR signaling is a pivotal regulator of energy homeostasis and can affect body weight during dieting by modulating Tb and energy expenditure.
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Hippocampal deletion of Na V1.1 channels in mice causes thermal seizures and cognitive deficit characteristic of Dravet Syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:16571-16576. [PMID: 31346088 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1906833116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dravet Syndrome is a severe childhood epileptic disorder caused by haploinsufficiency of the SCN1A gene encoding brain voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1. Symptoms include treatment-refractory epilepsy, cognitive impairment, autistic-like behavior, and premature death. The specific loci of NaV1.1 function in the brain that underlie these global deficits remain unknown. Here we specifically deleted Scn1a in the hippocampus using the Cre-Lox method in weanling mice. Local gene deletion caused selective reduction of inhibitory neurotransmission measured in dentate granule cells. Mice with local NaV1.1 reduction had thermally evoked seizures and spatial learning deficits, but they did not have abnormalities of locomotor activity or social interaction. Our results show that local gene deletion in the hippocampus can induce two of the most severe dysfunctions of Dravet Syndrome: Epilepsy and cognitive deficit. Considering these results, the hippocampus may be a potential target for future gene therapy for Dravet Syndrome.
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Sanz E, Bean JC, Carey DP, Quintana A, McKnight GS. RiboTag: Ribosomal Tagging Strategy to Analyze Cell-Type-Specific mRNA Expression In Vivo. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NEUROSCIENCE 2019; 88:e77. [PMID: 31216392 PMCID: PMC6615552 DOI: 10.1002/cpns.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ribosome tagging has become a very useful in vivo approach for analyzing gene expression and mRNA translation in specific cell types that are difficult and time consuming to isolate by conventional methods. The approach is based on selectively expressing a hemagglutinin A (HA)-tagged ribosomal protein in a target cell type and then using antibodies against HA to purify the polysomes and associated mRNAs from the target cell. The original approach makes use of a mouse line (RiboTag) harboring a modified allele of Rpl22 (Rpl22-HA) that is induced by the action of Cre recombinase. The Rpl22-HA gene can also be introduced into the animal by stereotaxic injection of an AAV-DIO-Rpl22-HA that is then activated in Cre-expressing cells. Both methods for tagging ribosomes facilitate the immunoprecipitation of ribosome-bound mRNAs and their analysis by qRT-PCR or RNA-Seq. This protocol will discuss the technical procedures and describe important considerations relevant to the analysis of the data. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisenda Sanz
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology and Neuroscience Institute, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jonathan C Bean
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Daniel P Carey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Albert Quintana
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology and Neuroscience Institute, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - G Stanley McKnight
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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29
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Kisspeptin Neurons in the Arcuate Nucleus of the Hypothalamus Orchestrate Circadian Rhythms and Metabolism. Curr Biol 2019; 29:592-604.e4. [PMID: 30744968 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Successful reproduction in female mammals is precisely timed and must be able to withstand the metabolic demand of pregnancy and lactation. We show that kisspeptin-expressing neurons in the arcuate hypothalamus (Kiss1ARH) of female mice control the daily timing of food intake, along with the circadian regulation of locomotor activity, sleep, and core body temperature. Toxin-induced silencing of Kiss1ARH neurons shifts wakefulness and food consumption to the light phase and induces weight gain. Toxin-silenced mice are less physically active and have attenuated temperature rhythms. Because the rhythm of the master clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) appears to be intact, we hypothesize that Kiss1ARH neurons signal to neurons downstream of the master clock to modulate the output of the SCN. We conclude that, in addition to their well-established role in regulating fertility, Kiss1ARH neurons are a critical component of the hypothalamic circadian oscillator network that times overt rhythms of physiology and behavior.
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30
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Conner JM, Bain GL, Dulin JN. Intraspinal and Intracortical Delivery of AAV Vectors for Intersectional Circuit Tracing in Non-transgenic Species. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1950:165-176. [PMID: 30783973 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9139-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The mapping of long-range axonal projections is a rapidly growing endeavor in the field of neuroscience. Recent advances in the development of adeno-associated viral vectors that can achieve efficient retrograde transport now enable the characterization and manipulation of specific neuronal subpopulations using Cre-dependent, intersectional approaches. Importantly, these approaches can be applied to non-transgenic animals, making it possible to carry out detailed anatomical studies across a variety of species including nonhuman primates. In this chapter, we demonstrate the utility of such intersectional strategies by describing methods for targeting viral constructs to distinct subsets of corticospinal motor neurons based on their projections to specific spinal cord segments.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Conner
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Greg L Bain
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Jennifer N Dulin
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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31
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Jo YS, Heymann G, Zweifel LS. Dopamine Neurons Reflect the Uncertainty in Fear Generalization. Neuron 2018; 100:916-925.e3. [PMID: 30318411 PMCID: PMC6226002 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Generalized fear is a maladaptive behavior in which non-threatening stimuli elicit a fearful response. Here, we demonstrate that discrimination between predictive and non-predictive threat stimuli is highly sensitive to probabilistic discounting and increasing threat intensity in mice. We find that dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) encode both the negative valence of threat-predictive cues and the certainty of threat prediction. As fear generalization emerges, the dopamine neurons that are activated by a threat predictive cue (CS+) decrease the amplitude of activation and an equivalent signal emerges to a non-predictive cue (CS-). Temporally precise enhancement of dopamine neurons during threat conditioning to high threat levels or uncertain threats can prevent generalization. Moreover, phasic enhancement of genetically captured dopamine neurons activated by threat cues can reverse fear generalization. These findings demonstrate the dopamine neurons reflect the certainty of threat prediction that can be used to inform and update the fear engram.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong S Jo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Gabriel Heymann
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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32
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Ahmadlou M, Zweifel LS, Heimel JA. Functional modulation of primary visual cortex by the superior colliculus in the mouse. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3895. [PMID: 30254324 PMCID: PMC6156231 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06389-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The largest targets of retinal input in mammals are the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN), a relay to the primary visual cortex (V1), and the superior colliculus. V1 innervates and influences the superior colliculus. Here, we find that, in turn, superior colliculus modulates responses in mouse V1. Optogenetically inhibiting the superior colliculus reduces responses in V1 to optimally sized stimuli. Superior colliculus could influence V1 via its strong projection to the lateral posterior nucleus (LP/Pulvinar) or its weaker projection to the dLGN. Inhibiting superior colliculus strongly reduces activity in LP. Pharmacologically silencing LP itself, however, does not remove collicular modulation of V1. The modulation is instead due to a collicular gain modulation of the dLGN. Surround suppression operating in V1 explains the different effects for differently sized stimuli. Computations of visual saliency in the superior colliculus can thus influence tuning in the visual cortex via a tectogeniculate pathway. The role of the superior colliculus (SC) in modulating V1 cortical activity is not clear. Here, the authors demonstrate the functional role of SC in modulating V1 responses through an excitatory pathway via the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Ahmadlou
- Department of Cortical Structure & Function, The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - J Alexander Heimel
- Department of Cortical Structure & Function, The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Indersmitten T, Berdyyeva T, Aluisio L, Lovenberg T, Bonaventure P, Wyatt RM. Utilizing Miniature Fluorescence Microscopy to Image Hippocampal Place Cell Ensemble Function in Thy1.GCaMP6f Transgenic Mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 82:e42. [PMID: 30129249 DOI: 10.1002/cpph.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Imaging neuronal activity in awake behaving mice with miniature fluorescence microscopes requires the implementation of a variety of procedures. Surgeries are performed to gain access to the cell population of interest and to implant microscope components. After a recovery period, mice are trained to exhibit a desired behavior. Finally, neuronal activity is imaged and synchronized with that behavior. To take full advantage of the technology, selection of the calcium indicator and experimental design must be carefully considered. In this article, we explain the procedures and considerations that are critical for obtaining high-quality calcium imaging data. As an example, we describe how to utilize miniature fluorescence microscopy to image hippocampal place cell activity during linear track running in Thy1.GCaMP6f transgenic mice. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Leah Aluisio
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | | | - Ryan M Wyatt
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
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34
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Qiu J, Rivera HM, Bosch MA, Padilla SL, Stincic TL, Palmiter RD, Kelly MJ, Rønnekleiv OK. Estrogenic-dependent glutamatergic neurotransmission from kisspeptin neurons governs feeding circuits in females. eLife 2018; 7:e35656. [PMID: 30079889 PMCID: PMC6103748 DOI: 10.7554/elife.35656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuropeptides tachykinin2 (Tac2) and kisspeptin (Kiss1) in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus Kiss1 (Kiss1ARH) neurons are essential for pulsatile release of GnRH and reproduction. Since 17β-estradiol (E2) decreases Kiss1 and Tac2 mRNA expression in Kiss1ARH neurons, the role of Kiss1ARH neurons during E2-driven anorexigenic states and their coordination of POMC and NPY/AgRP feeding circuits have been largely ignored. Presently, we show that E2 augmented the excitability of Kiss1ARH neurons by amplifying Cacna1g, Hcn1 and Hcn2 mRNA expression and T-type calcium and h-currents. E2 increased Slc17a6 mRNA expression and glutamatergic synaptic input to arcuate neurons, which excited POMC and inhibited NPY/AgRP neurons via metabotropic receptors. Deleting Slc17a6 in Kiss1 neurons eliminated glutamate release and led to conditioned place preference for sucrose in E2-treated KO female mice. Therefore, the E2-driven increase in Kiss1 neuronal excitability and glutamate neurotransmission may play a key role in governing the motivational drive for palatable food in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Qiu
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Heidi M Rivera
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Martha A Bosch
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Stephanie L Padilla
- Department of BiochemistryHoward Hughes Medical Institute, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Todd L Stincic
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Richard D Palmiter
- Department of BiochemistryHoward Hughes Medical Institute, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Martin J Kelly
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
- Division of NeuroscienceOregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityBeavertonUnited States
| | - Oline K Rønnekleiv
- Department of Physiology and PharmacologyOregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
- Division of NeuroscienceOregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityBeavertonUnited States
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35
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Considerations for the use of virally delivered genetic tools for in-vivo circuit analysis and behavior in mutant mice: a practical guide to optogenetics. Behav Pharmacol 2018; 28:598-609. [PMID: 29099403 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetics was the method of the year in 2010 according to Nature Neuroscience. Since then, this method has become widespread, the use of virally delivered genetic tools has extended to other fields such as pharmacogenetics, and optogenetic techniques have become frequently applied in genetically manipulated animals for in-vivo circuit analysis and behavioral studies. However, several issues should be taken into consideration when planning such experiments. We aimed to summarize the critical points concerning optogenetic manipulation of a specific brain area in mutant mice. First, the appropriate vector should be chosen to allow optimal optogenetic manipulation. Adeno-associated viral vectors are the most common carriers with different available serotypes. Light-sensitive channels are available in many forms, and the expression of the delivered genetic material can be influenced in many ways. Second, selecting the adequate stimulation protocol is also essential. The pattern, intensity, and timing could be determinative parameters. Third, the mutant strain might have a phenotype that influences the observed behavior. In conclusion, detailed preliminary experiments and numerous control groups are required to choose the best vector and stimulation protocol and to ensure that the mutant animals do not have a specific phenotype that can influence the examined behavior.
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Abstract
Brain cells communicate with one another via local and long-range synaptic connections. Structural connectivity is the foundation for neural function. Brain-wide connectivity can be described at macroscopic, mesoscopic and microscopic levels. The mesoscale connectome represents connections between neuronal types across different brain regions. Building a mesoscale connectome requires a detailed understanding of the cell type composition of different brain regions and the patterns of inputs and outputs that each of these cell types receives and forms, respectively. In this review, I discuss historical and contemporary tracing techniques in both anterograde and retrograde directions to map the input and output connections at population and individual cell levels, as well as imaging and network analysis approaches to build mesoscale connectomes for mammalian brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongkui Zeng
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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37
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Abstract
The nervous system regulates immunity and inflammation. The molecular detection of pathogen fragments, cytokines, and other immune molecules by sensory neurons generates immunoregulatory responses through efferent autonomic neuron signaling. The functional organization of this neural control is based on principles of reflex regulation. Reflexes involving the vagus nerve and other nerves have been therapeutically explored in models of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions, and recently in clinical settings. The brain integrates neuro-immune communication, and brain function is altered in diseases characterized by peripheral immune dysregulation and inflammation. Here we review the anatomical and molecular basis of the neural interface with immunity, focusing on peripheral neural control of immune functions and the role of the brain in the model of the immunological homunculus. Clinical advances stemming from this knowledge within the framework of bioelectronic medicine are also briefly outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin A Pavlov
- Center for Biomedical Science and Center for Bioelectronic Medicine, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York 11030, USA; , ,
| | - Sangeeta S Chavan
- Center for Biomedical Science and Center for Bioelectronic Medicine, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York 11030, USA; , ,
| | - Kevin J Tracey
- Center for Biomedical Science and Center for Bioelectronic Medicine, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York 11030, USA; , ,
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38
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Moberly AH, Schreck M, Bhattarai JP, Zweifel LS, Luo W, Ma M. Olfactory inputs modulate respiration-related rhythmic activity in the prefrontal cortex and freezing behavior. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1528. [PMID: 29670106 PMCID: PMC5906445 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03988-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiration and airflow through the nasal cavity are known to be correlated with rhythmic neural activity in the central nervous system. Here we show in rodents that during conditioned fear-induced freezing behavior, mice breathe at a steady rate (~4 Hz), which is correlated with a predominant 4-Hz oscillation in the prelimbic prefrontal cortex (plPFC), a structure critical for expression of conditioned fear behaviors. We demonstrate anatomical and functional connections between the olfactory pathway and plPFC via circuit tracing and optogenetics. Disruption of olfactory inputs significantly reduces the 4-Hz oscillation in the plPFC, but leads to prolonged freezing periods. Our results indicate that olfactory inputs can modulate rhythmic activity in plPFC and freezing behavior. Nasal airflow and olfactory bulb activity are linked to oscillations in cortical areas. This study shows olfactory input and respiration are correlated with oscillation in the prefrontal cortex during freezing behavior in mice, and attenuation of olfactory inputs can increase behavioral freezing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew H Moberly
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Mary Schreck
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Janardhan P Bhattarai
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - Wenqin Luo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Minghong Ma
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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39
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Foldi CJ, Milton LK, Oldfield BJ. The Role of Mesolimbic Reward Neurocircuitry in Prevention and Rescue of the Activity-Based Anorexia (ABA) Phenotype in Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:2292-2300. [PMID: 28322236 PMCID: PMC5645746 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Patients suffering from anorexia nervosa (AN) become anhedonic; unable or unwilling to derive normal pleasures and avoid rewarding outcomes, most profoundly in food intake. The activity-based anorexia (ABA) model recapitulates many of the characteristics of the human condition, including anhedonia, and allows investigation of the underlying neurobiology of AN. The potential for increased neuronal activity in reward/hedonic circuits to prevent and rescue weight loss is investigated in this model. The mesolimbic pathway extending from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) was activated using a dual viral strategy, involving retrograde transport of Cre (CAV-2-Cre) to the VTA and coincident injection of DREADD receptors (AAV-hSyn-DIO-hM3D(Gq)-mCherry). Systemic clozapine-n-oxide (CNO; 0.3 mg/kg) successfully recruited a large proportion of the VTA-NAc dopaminergic projections, with activity evidenced by colocalization with elevated levels of Fos protein. The effects of reward circuit activation on energy balance and predicted survival was investigated in female Sprague-Dawley rats, where free access to running wheels was paired with time-limited (90 min) access to food, a paradigm (ABA) which will cause anorexia and death if unchecked. Excitation of the reward pathway substantially increased food intake and food anticipatory activity (FAA) to prevent ABA-associated weight loss, while overall locomotor activity was unchanged. Similar activation of reward circuitry, delayed until establishment of the ABA phenotype, rescued rats from their precipitous weight loss. Although these data are consistent with shifts primarily in food intake, the contribution of mechanisms including energy expenditure to survival remains to be determined. These results will inform the neurobiological underpinnings of AN, and provide insight into the mechanisms of reward circuitry relevant to feeding and weight loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire J Foldi
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Laura K Milton
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Brian J Oldfield
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia,Department of Physiology, Monash University, 26 Innovation Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia, Tel: +61 3 990 52507, Fax: +61 3 990 20707, E-mail:
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Gore BB, Miller SM, Jo YS, Baird MA, Hoon M, Sanford CA, Hunker A, Lu W, Wong RO, Zweifel LS. Roundabout receptor 2 maintains inhibitory control of the adult midbrain. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28394253 PMCID: PMC5419739 DOI: 10.7554/elife.23858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of excitatory and inhibitory balance in the brain is essential for its function. Here we find that the developmental axon guidance receptor Roundabout 2 (Robo2) is critical for the maintenance of inhibitory synapses in the adult ventral tegmental area (VTA), a brain region important for the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Following selective genetic inactivation of Robo2 in the adult VTA of mice, reduced inhibitory control results in altered neural activity patterns, enhanced phasic dopamine release, behavioral hyperactivity, associative learning deficits, and a paradoxical inversion of psychostimulant responses. These behavioral phenotypes could be phenocopied by selective inactivation of synaptic transmission from local GABAergic neurons of the VTA, demonstrating an important function for Robo2 in regulating the excitatory and inhibitory balance of the adult brain. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23858.001 Although no two people are alike, we all share the same basic brain structure. This similarity arises because the same developmental program takes place in every human embryo. Specific genes are activated in a designated sequence to generate the structure of a typical human brain. But what happens to these genes when development is complete – do they remain active in the adult brain? A gene known as Robo2 encodes a protein that helps neurons find their way through the developing brain. Many of these neurons will ultimately form part of the brain’s reward system. This is a network of brain regions that communicate with one another using a chemical called dopamine. The reward system contributes to motivation, learning and memory, and also underlies drug addiction. In certain mental illnesses such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia, the dopamine-producing neurons in the reward system work incorrectly or die. To find out whether Robo2 is active in the mature nervous system, Gore et al. used genetic techniques to selectively remove the gene from the reward system of adult mice. Doing so reduced the ability of the dopamine neurons within the reward system to inhibit one another, which in turn increased their activity. This changed the behavior of the mice, making them hyperactive and less able to learn and remember. Cocaine makes normal mice more active; however, mice that lacked the Robo2 gene became less active when given cocaine. Overall, the work of Gore et al. suggests that developmental axon guidance genes remain important in the adult brain. Studying developmental genes such as Robo2 may therefore open up new treatment possibilities for a number of mental illnesses and brain disorders. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23858.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan B Gore
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Samara M Miller
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Yong Sang Jo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Madison A Baird
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Mrinalini Hoon
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Christina A Sanford
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Avery Hunker
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Weining Lu
- Department of Medicine, Renal Section, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, United States
| | - Rachel O Wong
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
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Abstract
Mammalian reproductive function depends upon a neuroendocrine circuit that evokes the pulsatile release of gonadotropin hormones (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) from the pituitary. This reproductive circuit is sensitive to metabolic perturbations. When challenged with starvation, insufficient energy reserves attenuate gonadotropin release, leading to infertility. The reproductive neuroendocrine circuit is well established, composed of two populations of kisspeptin-expressing neurons (located in the anteroventral periventricular hypothalamus, Kiss1AVPV, and arcuate hypothalamus, Kiss1ARH), which drive the pulsatile activity of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons. The reproductive axis is primarily regulated by gonadal steroid and circadian cues, but the starvation-sensitive input that inhibits this circuit during negative energy balance remains controversial. Agouti-related peptide (AgRP)-expressing neurons are activated during starvation and have been implicated in leptin-associated infertility. To test whether these neurons relay information to the reproductive circuit, we used AgRP-neuron ablation and optogenetics to explore connectivity in acute slice preparations. Stimulation of AgRP fibers revealed direct, inhibitory synaptic connections with Kiss1ARH and Kiss1AVPV neurons. In agreement with this finding, Kiss1ARH neurons received less presynaptic inhibition in the absence of AgRP neurons (neonatal toxin-induced ablation). To determine whether enhancing the activity of AgRP neurons is sufficient to attenuate fertility in vivo, we artificially activated them over a sustained period and monitored fertility. Chemogenetic activation with clozapine N-oxide resulted in delayed estrous cycles and decreased fertility. These findings are consistent with the idea that, during metabolic deficiency, AgRP signaling contributes to infertility by inhibiting Kiss1 neurons.
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Sanford CA, Soden ME, Baird MA, Miller SM, Schulkin J, Palmiter RD, Clark M, Zweifel LS. A Central Amygdala CRF Circuit Facilitates Learning about Weak Threats. Neuron 2016; 93:164-178. [PMID: 28017470 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fear is a graded central motive state ranging from mild to intense. As threat intensity increases, fear transitions from discriminative to generalized. The circuit mechanisms that process threats of different intensity are not well resolved. Here, we isolate a unique population of locally projecting neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) that produce the neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). CRF-producing neurons and CRF in the CeA are required for discriminative fear, but both are dispensable for generalized fear at high US intensities. Consistent with a role in discriminative fear, CRF neurons undergo plasticity following threat conditioning and selectively respond to threat-predictive cues. We further show that excitability of genetically isolated CRF-receptive (CRFR1) neurons in the CeA is potently enhanced by CRF and that CRFR1 signaling in the CeA is critical for discriminative fear. These findings demonstrate a novel CRF gain-control circuit and show separable pathways for graded fear processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina A Sanford
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Marta E Soden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Madison A Baird
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Samara M Miller
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Jay Schulkin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Richard D Palmiter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Michael Clark
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Larry S Zweifel
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.
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Saunders BT, Richard JM, Janak PH. Contemporary approaches to neural circuit manipulation and mapping: focus on reward and addiction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 370:20140210. [PMID: 26240425 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tying complex psychological processes to precisely defined neural circuits is a major goal of systems and behavioural neuroscience. This is critical for understanding adaptive behaviour, and also how neural systems are altered in states of psychopathology, such as addiction. Efforts to relate psychological processes relevant to addiction to activity within defined neural circuits have been complicated by neural heterogeneity. Recent advances in technology allow for manipulation and mapping of genetically and anatomically defined neurons, which when used in concert with sophisticated behavioural models, have the potential to provide great insight into neural circuit bases of behaviour. Here we discuss contemporary approaches for understanding reward and addiction, with a focus on midbrain dopamine and cortico-striato-pallidal circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin T Saunders
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Jocelyn M Richard
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Patricia H Janak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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Xu X, Sun Y, Holmes TC, López AJ. Noncanonical connections between the subiculum and hippocampal CA1. J Comp Neurol 2016; 524:3666-3673. [PMID: 27150503 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampal formation is traditionally viewed as having a feedforward, unidirectional circuit organization that promotes propagation of excitatory processes. While the substantial forward projection from hippocampal CA1 to the subiculum has been very well established, accumulating evidence supports the existence of a significant backprojection pathway comprised of both excitatory and inhibitory elements from the subiculum to CA1. Based on these recently updated anatomical connections, such a backprojection could serve to modulate information processing in hippocampal CA1. Here we review the published anatomical and physiological studies on the subiculum to CA1 backprojection, and present recent conclusive anatomical evidence for the presence of noncanonical subicular projections to CA1. New insights into this understudied pathway will improve our understanding of reciprocal CA1-subicular connections and guide future studies on how the subiculum interacts with CA1 to regulate hippocampal circuit activity and learning and memory behaviors. J. Comp. Neurol. 524:3666-3673, 2016. © 2016 The Authors The Journal of Comparative Neurology Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangmin Xu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, California, USA.
| | - Yanjun Sun
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Todd C Holmes
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Alberto J López
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
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Padilla SL, Qiu J, Soden ME, Sanz E, Nestor CC, Barker FD, Quintana A, Zweifel LS, Rønnekleiv OK, Kelly MJ, Palmiter RD. Agouti-related peptide neural circuits mediate adaptive behaviors in the starved state. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:734-741. [PMID: 27019015 PMCID: PMC4846501 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the face of starvation, animals will engage in high-risk behaviors that would normally be considered maladaptive. Starving rodents, for example, will forage in areas that are more susceptible to predators and will also modulate aggressive behavior within a territory of limited or depleted nutrients. The neural basis of these adaptive behaviors likely involves circuits that link innate feeding, aggression and fear. Hypothalamic agouti-related peptide (AgRP)-expressing neurons are critically important for driving feeding and project axons to brain regions implicated in aggression and fear. Using circuit-mapping techniques in mice, we define a disynaptic network originating from a subset of AgRP neurons that project to the medial nucleus of the amygdala and then to the principal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, which suppresses territorial aggression and reduces contextual fear. We propose that AgRP neurons serve as a master switch capable of coordinating behavioral decisions relative to internal state and environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jian Qiu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Marta E. Soden
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and the Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Elisenda Sanz
- Institut de Neurociències and Departament de Biologia Cel·lular, Fisiologia i Immunologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Casey C Nestor
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Forrest D. Barker
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Albert Quintana
- Institut de Neurociències and Departament de Biologia Cel·lular, Fisiologia i Immunologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Larry S. Zweifel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and the Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Oline K. Rønnekleiv
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Martin J. Kelly
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon
| | - Richard D. Palmiter
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Nestor CC, Qiu J, Padilla SL, Zhang C, Bosch MA, Fan W, Aicher SA, Palmiter RD, Rønnekleiv OK, Kelly MJ. Optogenetic Stimulation of Arcuate Nucleus Kiss1 Neurons Reveals a Steroid-Dependent Glutamatergic Input to POMC and AgRP Neurons in Male Mice. Mol Endocrinol 2016; 30:630-44. [PMID: 27093227 DOI: 10.1210/me.2016-1026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons are essential for reproduction, but their role in the control of energy balance and other homeostatic functions remains unclear. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons, located in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus, integrate numerous excitatory and inhibitory inputs to ultimately regulate energy homeostasis. Given that POMC and AgRP neurons are contacted by Kiss1 neurons in the ARC (Kiss1(ARC)) and they express androgen receptors, Kiss1(ARC) neurons may mediate the orexigenic action of testosterone via POMC and/or AgRP neurons. Quantitative PCR analysis of pooled Kiss1(ARC) neurons revealed that mRNA levels for Kiss1 and vesicular glutamate transporter 2 were higher in castrated male mice compared with gonad-intact males. Single-cell RT-PCR analysis of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) ARC neurons harvested from males injected with AAV1-EF1α-DIO-ChR2:YFP revealed that 100% and 88% expressed mRNAs for Kiss1 and vesicular glutamate transporter 2, respectively. Whole-cell, voltage-clamp recordings from nonfluorescent postsynaptic ARC neurons showed that low frequency photo-stimulation (0.5 Hz) of Kiss1-ChR2:YFP neurons elicited a fast glutamatergic inward current in POMC and AgRP neurons. Paired-pulse, photo-stimulation revealed paired-pulse depression, which is indicative of greater glutamate release, in the castrated male mice compared with gonad-intact male mice. Group I and group II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonists depolarized and hyperpolarized POMC and AgRP neurons, respectively, which was mimicked by high frequency photo-stimulation (20 Hz) of Kiss1(ARC) neurons. Therefore, POMC and AgRP neurons receive direct steroid- and frequency-dependent glutamatergic synaptic input from Kiss1(ARC) neurons in male mice, which may be a critical pathway for Kiss1 neurons to help coordinate energy homeostasis and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey C Nestor
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Jian Qiu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Stephanie L Padilla
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Chunguang Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Martha A Bosch
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Wei Fan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Sue A Aicher
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Richard D Palmiter
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Oline K Rønnekleiv
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Martin J Kelly
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (C.CN., J.Q., C.Z., M.A.B., S.A.A., O.K.R., M.J.K.) and Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine and Knight Cardiovascular Institute (W.F.), Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239; Division of Neuroscience (O.K.R., M.J.K.), Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon 97006; and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (S.L.P., R.D.P.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
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Smith KS, Bucci DJ, Luikart BW, Mahler SV. DREADDS: Use and application in behavioral neuroscience. Behav Neurosci 2016; 130:137-55. [PMID: 26913540 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Technological advances over the last decade are changing the face of behavioral neuroscience research. Here we review recent work on the use of one such transformative tool in behavioral neuroscience research, chemogenetics (or Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs, DREADDS). As transformative technologies such as DREADDs are introduced, applied, and refined, their utility in addressing complex questions about behavior and cognition becomes clear and exciting. In the behavioral neuroscience field, remarkable new findings now regularly appear as a result of the ability to monitor and intervene in neural processes with high anatomical precision as animals behave in complex task environments. As these new tools are applied to behavioral questions, individualized procedures for their use find their way into diverse labs. Thus, "tips of the trade" become important for wide dissemination not only for laboratories that are using the tools but also for those who are interested in incorporating them into their own work. Our aim is to provide an up-to-date perspective on how the DREADD technique is being used for research on learning and memory, decision making, and goal-directed behavior, as well as to provide suggestions and considerations for current and future users based on our collective experience. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S Smith
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College
| | - David J Bucci
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College
| | - Bryan W Luikart
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College
| | - Stephen V Mahler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine
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Gompf HS, Budygin EA, Fuller PM, Bass CE. Targeted genetic manipulations of neuronal subtypes using promoter-specific combinatorial AAVs in wild-type animals. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:152. [PMID: 26190981 PMCID: PMC4488755 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Techniques to genetically manipulate the activity of defined neuronal subpopulations have been useful in elucidating function, however applicability to translational research beyond transgenic mice is limited. Subtype targeted transgene expression can be achieved using specific promoters, but often currently available promoters are either too large to package into many vectors, in particular adeno-associated virus (AAV), or do not drive expression at levels sufficient to alter behavior. To permit neuron subtype specific gene expression in wildtype animals, we developed a combinatorial AAV targeting system that drives, in combination, subtype specific Cre-recombinase expression with a strong but non-specific Cre-conditional transgene. Using this system we demonstrate that the tyrosine hydroxylase promoter (TH-Cre-AAV) restricted expression of channelrhodopsin-2 (EF1α-DIO-ChR2-EYFP-AAV) to the rat ventral tegmental area (VTA), or an activating DREADD (hSyn-DIO-hM3Dq-mCherry-AAV) to the rat locus coeruleus (LC). High expression levels were achieved in both regions. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed the majority of ChR2+ neurons (>93%) colocalized with TH in the VTA, and optical stimulation evoked striatal dopamine release. Activation of TH neurons in the LC produced sustained EEG and behavioral arousal. TH-specific hM3Dq expression in the LC was further compared with: (1) a Cre construct driven by a strong but non-specific promoter (non-targeting); and (2) a retrogradely-transported WGA-Cre delivery mechanism (targeting a specific projection). IHC revealed that the area of c-fos activation after CNO treatment in the LC and peri-LC neurons appeared proportional to the resulting increase in wakefulness (non-targeted > targeted > ACC to LC projection restricted). Our dual AAV targeting system effectively overcomes the large size and weak activity barrier prevalent with many subtype specific promoters by functionally separating subtype specificity from promoter strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heinrich S Gompf
- Department of Neurology, Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, MA, USA
| | - Evgeny A Budygin
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine Winston Salem, NC, USA ; Department of Biology, St. Petersburg State University St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Patrick M Fuller
- Department of Neurology, Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, MA, USA
| | - Caroline E Bass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo Buffalo, NY, USA
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49
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Saunders A, Sabatini BL. Cre Activated and Inactivated Recombinant Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors for Neuronal Anatomical Tracing or Activity Manipulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 72:1.24.1-1.24.15. [PMID: 26131660 DOI: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0124s72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) transcriptionally activated by Cre recombinase (Cre-On) are powerful tools for determining the anatomy and function of genetically defined neuronal types in transgenic Cre driver mice. Here we describe how rAAVs transcriptionally inactivated by Cre (Cre-Off) can be used in conjunction with Cre-On rAAVs or genomic Cre-reporter alleles to study brain circuits. Intracranial injection of Cre-On/Cre-Off rAAVs into spatially intermingled Cre(+) and Cre(-) neurons allows these populations to be differentially labeled or manipulated within individual animals. This comparison helps define the unique properties of Cre(+) neurons, highlighting the specialized role they play in their constituent brain circuits. This protocol touches on the conceptual and experimental background of Cre-Off rAAV systems, including caveats and methods of validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpiar Saunders
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Bernardo L Sabatini
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
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