Sex differences in the HPA axis

Corticosterone administration immediately after peripuberty stress exposure does not prevent protracted stress-induced behavioral alterations

Stress-related disorders are commonly associated with abnormalities in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Preliminary studies with cortisol administration in the aftermath of trauma suggest that this HPA axis hormone can potentially prevent maladaptive behavioral and biological stress responses. However, the efficacy of glucocorticoid administration during the peripuberty period has not been tested yet, although this lifetime is a critical time window in brain development and is highly sensitive to the harmful effects of stress. To further examine the short and long-lasting impact of glucocorticoids treatment given during the post-peripubertal stress period, the present study utilized a rat model of peripubertal stress-induced psychopathology and animals were subjected to a battery of tests to assess anxiety-like behaviors, exploratory behavior and reactivity to novelty at late adolescence and sociability, anhedonia and stress coping behaviors at adulthood. All the experiments were performed in males and females to evaluate the potential behavioral sex differences. Overall, our results demonstrated that rats exposed to peripubertal stress show decreased sociability in adulthood without differences in anxiety and depression-like behaviors. Moreover, this study shows that the administration of corticosterone after stress exposure at peripuberty does not prevent stress-induced behavioral alterations. However, we observed that some stress-induced behavioural alterations and corticosterone responses are sex-specific. Thus, the data obtained highlight that delineating sex differences in stress-related studies may ultimately contribute to the development of effective therapeutic interventions for each sex.

Prenatal exposure to synthetic chemicals in relation to HPA axis activity: A systematic review of the epidemiological literature

BACKGROUND

Pregnant people are widely exposed to numerous synthetic chemicals with known endocrine-disrupting properties (e.g., phthalates, phenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)). To date, most epidemiological research on how endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) disrupt hormone pathways has focused on estrogens, androgens, and thyroid hormones. Far less research has examined the impact of EDCs on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, despite its central role in the physiologic stress response and metabolic function.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review the epidemiological literature on prenatal synthetic EDC exposures in relation to HPA axis hormones (e.g., corticotropin-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol, cortisone) in pregnant people and their offspring.

METHODS

A literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Embase was conducted. Primary research studies were selected for inclusion by two independent reviewers and risk of bias was assessed using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation guidelines established by the National Toxicology Program with customization for the specific research topic. Data were extracted from each study and included in a qualitative synthesis.

RESULTS

22 published studies met the inclusion criteria. Phthalates were the most prevalent EDC studied, followed by PFAS, phenols, and parabens, with fewer studies considering other synthetic chemicals. Offspring glucocorticoids were the most commonly considered outcome, followed by maternal glucocorticoids and placental corticotropin-releasing hormone. There was considerable heterogeneity in methods across studies, particularly in HPA axis outcome measures and matrices, making cross-study comparisons challenging. Numerous studies suggested disruption of HPA axis hormones and sex differences in association, but results varied considerably across studies and EDC classes.

CONCLUSIONS

The limited literature to date suggests the HPA axis may be vulnerable to disruption by synthetic EDCs. Carefully designed studies that prioritize biospecimen collection specific to HPA axis hormones are needed along with greater standardization of biospecimen collection and analysis protocols to facilitate cross-study comparisons and interpretation.

The adipose tissue keeps the score: priming of the adrenal-adipose tissue axis by early life stress predisposes women to obesity and cardiometabolic risk

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) refer to early life stress events, including abuse, neglect, and other psychosocial childhood traumas that can have long-lasting effects on a wide range of physiological functions. ACEs provoke sex-specific effects, whereas women have been shown to display a strong positive correlation with obesity and cardiometabolic disease. Notably, rodent models of chronic behavioral stress during postnatal life recapitulate several effects of ACEs in a sex-specific fashion. In this review, we will discuss the potential mechanisms uncovered by models of early life stress that may explain the greater susceptibility of females to obesity and metabolic risk compared with their male counterparts. We highlight the early life stress-induced neuroendocrine shaping of the adrenal-adipose tissue axis as a primary event conferring sex-dependent heightened sensitivity to obesity.

Better emotion regulation mediates gratitude and increased stress in undergraduate students across a university semester

It is well established that university students are vulnerable to poor mental health. Although increased gratitude has been shown to reduce stress among students, a clearer understanding of key mechanisms underpinning this relationship are needed to better inform theoretical models and potential interventions targeted at improving well-being in university students. The present study provides the first direct test of whether capacity for emotion regulation mediates the relationship of gratitude with stress at the beginning and middle of the academic semester. This study is also the first to assess this relationship in a cross-lagged panel mediation model. We used a repeated measures design and a total of 343 undergraduate students completed two online surveys with validated measures of gratitude, stress, and emotion regulation-one at the beginning and the second in the middle of the academic semester. Results showed that emotion regulation mediated the relationship between gratitude and stress at the beginning of semester, and again 6 weeks later. A Clogg's z-score test suggested that the strength of the indirect effect significantly increased across the two time points. A post-hoc cross-lagged panel model found that high gratitude at the beginning of the semester predicted low stress in the middle of the semester via emotion regulation. These data provide novel evidence that emotion regulation may serve as a key protective factor against undergraduate stress. The results provide evidence to support leading theories on how gratitude can reduce stress and promote well-being in university students. They also highlight the practical importance of strengthening emotion regulation abilities in university students and can be used to inform future targeted interventions to improve well-being in university students.

Prenatal immune activation in rats and adult exposure to inescapable shocks reveal sex-dependent effects on fear conditioning that might be relevant for schizophrenia

Prenatal infection is considered a relevant factor for neurodevelopmental alterations and psychiatric diseases. Administration of bacterial and viral components during pregnancy in rodents results in maternal immune activation (MIA), leading to schizophrenia-like neurochemical and behavioral changes. Despite some evidence for abnormal fear conditioning in schizophrenia, only a few animal studies have focused on this issue. Therefore, we addressed the impact of the administration of the viral mimetic polyI:C to pregnant Long-Evans rats on the adult offspring response to inescapable shocks (IS) and contextual fear conditioning. In males, polyI:C induced a greater endocrine (plasma ACTH) response to IS and both polyI:C and IS enhanced fear conditioning and generalization to a completely different novel environment (hole-board), with no additive effects, probably due to a ceiling effect. In contrast, a modest impact of polyI:C and a lower impact of IS on contextual fear conditioning and generalization was observed in females. Thus, the present results demonstrate that polyI:C dramatically affected fear response to IS in adult males and support the hypothesis that males are more sensitive than females to this treatment. This model might allow to explore neurobiological mechanisms underlying abnormal responsiveness to fear conditioning and stressors in schizophrenia.

Androgens Suppress Corticosteroid Binding Globulin in Male Mice, Affecting the Endocrine Stress Response

Biological sex affects the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. However, how androgen deprivation affects this axis remains largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of androgen status on different components of the HPA axis in male mice. Two weeks of androgen deprivation did not affect total plasma corticosterone levels but led to increased pituitary ACTH levels. Stress-induced total plasma corticosterone levels were increased, whereas the suppression of corticosterone after dexamethasone treatment under basal conditions was attenuated. Androgen-deprived mice displayed a 2-fold increase in plasma levels of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG). A similar increase in CBG was observed in global androgen receptor knock-out animals, compared to wild-type littermates. Androgen deprivation was associated with a 6-fold increase in CBG mRNA in the liver and enhanced transcriptional activity at CBG regulatory regions, as evidenced by increased H3K27 acetylation. We propose that the induction of CBG as a consequence of androgen deprivation, together with the unaltered total corticosterone levels, results in lower free corticosterone levels in plasma. This is further supported by mRNA levels of androgen-independent GR target genes in the liver. The reduction in negative feedback on the HPA axis under basal condition would suffice to explain the enhanced stress reactivity after androgen deprivation. Overall, our data demonstrate that, in mice, tonic androgen receptor activation affects CBG levels in conjunction with effects on gene expression and HPA-axis reactivity.

Alterations in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis as a Response to Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Dark Agouti Rats of Both Sexes

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the central nervous system, usually diagnosed during the reproductive period. Both MS and its commonly used animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), exhibit sex-specific features regarding disease progression and disturbances in the neuroendocrine and endocrine systems. This study investigates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response of male and female Dark Agouti rats during EAE. At the onset of EAE, Crh expression in the hypothalamus of both sexes is decreased, while males show reduced plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone levels. Adrenal gland activity is increased during EAE in both males and females, as evidenced by enlarged adrenal glands and increased StAR gene and protein expression. However, only male rats show increased serum and adrenal corticosterone levels, and an increased volume of the adrenal cortex. Adrenal 3β-HSD protein and progesterone levels are elevated in males only. Serum progesterone levels of male rats are also increased, although testicular progesterone levels are decreased during the disease, implying that the adrenal gland is the source of elevated serum progesterone levels in males. Our results demonstrate a sex difference in the response of the HPA axis at the adrenal level, with male rats showing a more pronounced induction during EAE.

Mineralocorticoid Receptor Signaling in Peripheral Blood Cells in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with alterations in neuroendocrine function, primarily the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, including lower expression of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and its target genes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) or full blood. We previously found reduced mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) expression in MS patients' peripheral blood. MS is being treated with a widening variety of disease-modifying treatments (DMT), some of which have similar efficacy but different mechanisms of action; body-fluid biomarkers to support the choice of the optimal initial DMT and/or to indicate an unsatisfactory response before clinical activity are unavailable. Using cell culture of volunteers' PBMCs and subsequent gene expression analysis (microarray and qPCR validation), we identified the mRNA expression of OTUD1 to represent MR signaling. The MR and MR target gene expression levels were then measured in full blood samples. In 119 MS (or CIS) patients, the expression of both MR and OTUD1 was lower than in 42 controls. The expression pattern was related to treatment, with the MR expression being particularly low in patients treated with fingolimod. While MR signaling may be involved in the therapeutic effects of some disease-modifying treatments, MR and OTUD1 expression can complement the neuroendocrine assessment of MS disease course. If confirmed, such assessment may support clinical decision-making.

Maternal immune activation with toll-like receptor 7 agonist during mid-gestation alters juvenile and adult developmental milestones and behavior

Infections during pregnancy are associated with increased risk for adult neuropsychiatric disease, such as major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder. In mouse models of maternal immune activation (MIA), different toll-like receptors (TLRs) are stimulated to initiate inflammatory responses in mother and fetus. The goal of this study was to determine sex-dependent aspects of MIA using a TLR7/8 agonist, Resiquimod (RQ), on neurodevelopment. RQ was administered to timed-pregnant mice on embryonic day (E) 12.5. At E15, maternal/fetal plasma cytokines were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Maternal cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 were higher while tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-17 were lower in pregnant dams exposed to RQ. Fetal cytokines (E15) were altered at the same timepoint with fetal plasma IL-6 and IL-17 greater after RQ compared to vehicle, while IL-10 and TNF-α were higher in male fetuses but not female. Other timed-pregnant dams were allowed to give birth. MIA with RQ did not alter the female to male ratio of offspring born per litter. Body weights were reduced significantly in both sexes at birth, and over the next 5 weeks. Offspring from RQ-injected mothers opened their eyes 5 days later than controls. Similarly, female offspring from RQ-injected mothers exhibited pubertal delay based on vaginal opening 2-3 days later than control females. On the behavioral side, juvenile and adult male and female MIA offspring exhibited less social-like behavior in a social interaction test. Anhedonia-like behavior was greater in MIA adult female mice. This study provides support for sex-dependent influences of fetal antecedents for altered brain development and behavioral outputs that could be indicative of increased susceptibility for adult disorders through immune mechanisms. Future studies are needed to determine neural cellular and molecular mechanisms for such programming effects.

The Glucocorticoid Receptor: Isoforms, Functions, and Contribution to Glucocorticoid Sensitivity

Glucocorticoids exert pleiotropic effects on all tissues to regulate cellular and metabolic homeostasis. Synthetic forms are used therapeutically in a wide range of conditions for their anti-inflammatory benefits, at the cost of dose and duration-dependent side effects. Significant variability occurs between tissues, disease states, and individuals with regard to both the beneficial and deleterious effects. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is the site of action for these hormones and a vast body of work has been conducted understanding its function. Traditionally, it was thought that the anti-inflammatory benefits of glucocorticoids were mediated by transrepression of pro-inflammatory transcription factors, while the adverse metabolic effects resulted from direct transactivation. This canonical understanding of the GR function has been brought into question over the past 2 decades with advances in the resolution of scientific techniques, and the discovery of multiple isoforms of the receptor present in most tissues. Here we review the structure and function of the GR, the nature of the receptor isoforms, and the contribution of the receptor to glucocorticoid sensitivity, or resistance in health and disease.

Exploring the effects of COVID-19-related traumatic events on the mental health of university students in Brazil: A cross-sectional investigation

University students are vulnerable to mental health issues during their academic lives. During the COVID-19 pandemic, university students faced mental distress due to lockdowns and the transition to e-learning. However, it is not known whether these students were also affected specifically by COVID-19-related traumatic events. This study examined the impact of COVID-19-related traumatic events on 2277 university students from two federal institutions of higher education in Brazil. The university students completed an online questionnaire covering demographics, lifestyle habits, health characteristics, COVID-19-related traumatic events, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. The results showed that an increased intensity of COVID-19-related traumatic events was positively associated with stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, and each specific type of event was associated with these symptoms. In addition, we found a negative association between these symptoms and male sex and age and a positive association with having or having had a history of cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, or mental disorders or another disease diagnosed by a physician. In conclusion, this study emphasizes the heightened risk of mental health issues in university students in the face of COVID-19-related traumatic events. Women, young people and people who have or have had a history of disease were the most vulnerable to mental health issues during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Exploring the neuroprotective role of physical activity in cerebral small vessel disease

Cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) is a common neurological finding characterized by abnormalities of the small blood vessels in the brain. Previous research has established a strong connection between cSVD and stroke, as well as neurodegenerative disorders, notably Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias. As the search for effective interventions continues, physical activity (PA) has emerged as a potential preventative and therapeutic avenue. This review synthesizes the human and animal literature on the influence of PA on cSVD, highlighting the importance of determining optimal exercise protocols, considering aspects such as intensity, duration, timing, and exercise type. Furthermore, the necessity of widening the age bracket in research samples is discussed, ensuring a holistic understanding of the interventions across varying pathological stages of the disease. The review also suggests the potential of exploring diverse biomarkers and risk profiles associated with clinically significant outcomes. Moreover, we review findings demonstrating the beneficial effects of PA in various rodent models of cSVD, which have uncovered numerous mechanisms of neuroprotection, including increases in neuroplasticity and integrity of the vasculature and white matter; decreases in inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction; and alterations in amyloid processing and neurotransmitter signaling. In conclusion, this review highlights the potential of physical activity as a preventive strategy for addressing cSVD, offering insights into the need for refining exercise parameters, diversifying research populations, and exploring novel biomarkers, while shedding light on the intricate mechanisms through which exercise confers neuroprotection in both humans and animal models.

Chronic corticosterone exposure in rats induces sex-specific alterations in hypothalamic reelin fragments, MeCP2, and DNMT3a protein levels

Women are disproportionately affected by stress-related disorders like depression. In our prior research, we discovered that females exhibit lower basal hypothalamic reelin levels, and these levels are differentially influenced by chronic stress induced through repeated corticosterone (CORT) injections. Although epigenetic mechanisms involving DNA methylation and the formation of repressor complexes by DNA methyl-transferases (DNMTs) and Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) have been recognized as regulators of reelin expression in vitro, there is limited understanding of the impact of stress on the epigenetic regulation of reelin in vivo and whether sex differences exist in these mechanisms. To address these questions, we conducted various biochemical analyses on hypothalamic brain samples obtained from male and female rats previously treated with either 21 days of CORT (40 mg/kg) or vehicle (0.9 % saline) subcutaneous injections. Upon chronic CORT treatment, a reduction in reelin fragment NR2 was noted in males, while the full-length molecule remained unaffected. This decrease paralleled with an elevation in MeCP2 and a reduction in DNMT3a protein levels only in males. Importantly, sex differences in baseline and CORT-induced reelin protein levels were not associated with changes in the methylation status of the Reln promoter. These findings suggest that CORT-induced reelin decreases in the hypothalamus may be a combination of alterations in downstream processes beyond gene transcription. This research brings novel insights into the sexually distinct consequences of chronic stress, an essential aspect to understand, particularly concerning its role in the development of depression.

A longitudinal study of risk and protective factors for symptoms of adjustment disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic caused multiple stressors that may lead to symptoms of adjustment disorder.Objective: We longitudinally examined relationships between risk and protective factors, pandemic-related stressors and symptoms of adjustment disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as whether these relationships differed by the time of assessment.Method: The European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ESTSS) ADJUST Study included N = 15,169 participants aged 18 years and above. Participants from 11 European countries were recruited and screened three times at 6-month intervals from June 2020 to January 2022. Associations between risk and protective factors (e.g. gender), stressors (e.g. fear of infection), and symptoms of adjustment disorder (AjD, ADNM-8) and their interaction with time of assessment were examined using mixed linear regression.Results: The following predictors were significantly associated with higher AjD symptom levels: female or diverse gender; older age; pandemic-related news consumption >30 min a day; a current or previous mental health disorder; trauma exposure before or during the pandemic; a good, satisfactory or poor health status (vs. very good); burden related to governmental crisis management and communication; fear of infection; restricted social contact; work-related problems; restricted activity; and difficult housing conditions. The following predictors were associated with lower AjD levels: self-employment or retirement; working in healthcare; and face-to-face contact ≥ once a week with loved ones or friends. The effects of the following predictors on AjD symptoms differed by the time of assessment in the course of the pandemic: a current or previous mental disorder; burden related to governmental crisis management; income reduction; and a current trauma exposure.Conclusions: We identified risk factors and stressors predicting AjD symptom levels at different stages of the pandemic. For some predictors, the effects on mental health may change at different stages of a pandemic.

Sex differences in the relationship between brain gray matter volume and psychological resilience in late adolescence

Psychological resilience reflects an individual's ability to adapt and cope successfully in adverse environments and situations, making it a crucial trait in resisting stress-linked mental disorders and physical diseases. Although prior literature has consistently shown that males are more resilient than females, the sex-linked neuroanatomical correlates of psychological resilience are largely unknown. This study aims to explore the sex-specific relation between psychological resilience and brain gray matter volume (GMV) in adolescents via structural magnetic resonance imaging (s-MRI). A cohort of 231 healthy adolescents (121/110 females/males), aged 16 to 20 completed brain s-MRI scanning and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and other controlling behavioral tests. With s-MRI data, an optimized voxel-based morphometry method was used to estimate regional GMV, and a whole-brain condition-by-covariate interaction analysis was performed to identify the brain regions showing sex effects on the relation between psychological resilience and GMV. Male adolescents scored significantly higher than females on the CD-RISC. The association of psychological resilience with GMV differed between the two sex groups in the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex extending to the adjacent anterior insula, with a positive correlation among males and a negative correlation among females. The sex-specific association between psychological resilience and GMV might be linked to sex differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain maturation during adolescence. This study may be novel in revealing the sex-linked neuroanatomical basis of psychological resilience, highlighting the need for a more thorough investigation of the role of sex in future studies of psychological resilience and stress-related illness.

FGF21 Induces Skeletal Muscle Atrophy and Increases Amino Acids in Female Mice: A Potential Role for Glucocorticoids

Fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21) is an intercellular signaling molecule secreted by metabolic organs, including skeletal muscle, in response to intracellular stress. FGF21 crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts via the nervous system to coordinate aspects of the adaptive starvation response, including increased lipolysis, gluconeogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Given its beneficial effects for hepatic lipid metabolism, pharmaceutical FGF21 analogues are used in clinical trials treatment of fatty liver disease. We predicted pharmacologic treatment with FGF21 increases HPA axis activity and skeletal muscle glucocorticoid signaling and induces skeletal muscle atrophy in mice. Here we found a short course of systemic FGF21 treatment decreased muscle protein synthesis and reduced tibialis anterior weight; this was driven primarily by its effect in female mice. Similarly, intracerebroventricular FGF21 reduced tibialis anterior muscle fiber cross-sectional area; this was more apparent among female mice than male littermates. In agreement with the reduced muscle mass, the topmost enriched metabolic pathways in plasma collected from FGF21-treated females were related to amino acid metabolism, and the relative abundance of plasma proteinogenic amino acids was increased up to 3-fold. FGF21 treatment increased hypothalamic Crh mRNA, plasma corticosterone, and adrenal weight, and increased expression of glucocorticoid receptor target genes known to reduce muscle protein synthesis and/or promote degradation. Given the proposed use of FGF21 analogues for the treatment of metabolic disease, the study is both physiologically relevant and may have important clinical implications.

Sex differences in a corticosterone-induced depression model in mice: Behavioral, neurochemical, and molecular insights

Depression is characterized by a significant sex disparity, with higher rates observed in women compared to men. This study aimed to investigate the impact of sex on depressive behaviors and explore the underlying mechanisms using a corticosterone (CORT)-induced depression model in mice. Behavioral tests, Nissl staining, UPLC-MS/MS, and Western blot analysis were performed to assess behavioral changes, as well as neuronal alterations, neurotransmitter levels, and protein expressions in the hippocampus. The mice in the model group exhibited sex-specific anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. Nissl staining revealed structural abnormalities in the CA3 region of the hippocampus in females. Neurotransmitter analysis indicated decreased serotonin and norepinephrine levels in both sexes, while glutamate levels were elevated in females. Furthermore, female mice demonstrated elevated serum CORT levels. Western blot analysis revealed sex-specific alterations in specific protein expression. Female mice exhibited downregulated glucocorticoid receptor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression, whereas male mice showed minimal changes. Additionally, female mice displayed reduced phosphorylated AKT, phosphorylated PI3K, and phosphorylated mTOR levels. These findings enhance our understanding of sex-specific differences in the CORT-induced depression model and provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of depression. This research emphasizes sex in depression studies and supports tailored interventions.

Sexual dimorphism in anxiety is programmed in-utero by sex-steroids: Proof of concept using a disease-model and stress responses to COVID pandemic

Sex differences in the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic have been consistently reported, showing disproportionally high rates of anxiety/distress in women relative to men. The mechanisms underlying this sexual dimorphism remain unclear. The present study queries the potential protective role of early hyperandrogenism on brain development. A natural model of sex-steroids abnormality, classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), was used to test this question. CAH is characterized by adrenal androgen overproduction in utero (prenatal) through the neonatal critical developmental period. An online survey collected information on subjective responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. Matched on demographic variables, 60 adults carrying a diagnosis of classic CAH and 240 adults from the general population (non-CAH) were compared on levels of anxiety/distress in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic (May 2020-April 2021). Structural Equation Modeling was used to test the modulation by CAH status of Sex effects on anxiety/distress. Results revealed lower levels of anxiety/distress in the female CAH group compared to the other 3 groups (male CAH, female non-CAH, and male non-CAH). This finding suggests that pre-neonatal hyperandrogenism might impact the development of neural circuits underlying anxiety processes, in a way that enhances resilience to chronic stress.

Sex differences in body temperature and neural power spectra in response to repeated restraint stress

Repeated stress is associated with an increased risk of developing psychiatric illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is more common in women, yet the neurobiology behind this sex difference is unknown. Habituation to repeated stress is impaired in PTSD, and recent preclinical studies have shown that female rats do not habituate as fully as male rats to repeated stress, which leads to impairments in cognition and sleep. Further research should examine sex differences after repeated stress in other relevant measures, such as body temperature and neural activity. In this study, we analyzed core body temperature and EEG power spectra in adult male and female rats during restraint, as well as during sleep transitions following stress. We found that core body temperature of male rats habituated to repeated restraint more fully than female rats. Additionally, we found that females had a higher average beta band power than males on both days of restraint, indicating higher levels of arousal. Lastly, we observed that females had lower delta band power than males during sleep transitions on Day 1 of restraint, however, females demonstrated higher delta band power than males by Day 5 of restraint. This suggests that it may take females longer to initiate sleep recovery compared with males. These findings indicate that there are differences in the physiological and neural processes of males and females after repeated stress. Understanding the way that the stress response is regulated in both sexes can provide insight into individualized treatment for stress-related disorders.

Resilience in Newly Diagnosed Breast Cancer Women: The Predictive Role of Diurnal Cortisol and Social Support

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is currently the most prevalent malignancy among women. Psychological resilience is an important factor that diminishes the stress-related emotional and psychosocial disturbances triggered when receiving the diagnosis. Furthermore, resilience appears to be associated with cortisol, the hormonal end-product of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; however, further studies are needed due to the mixed results reported. Thus, we aim to examine the predictive role of social support and cortisol in resilience among breast cancer patients.

METHODS

A total of 132 women with primary breast cancer completed the Medical Outcomes Study-Social Support Survey (MOS-SSS) and the Resilience Scale (RS-14) and provided four salivary samples for the estimation of participants' total daily cortisol production, for which the formula of the area under the curve with respect to the ground (AUCg) was applied. Moderation analyses were performed to study the influence of social support and AUCg on psychological resilience levels.

RESULTS

The regression analyses showed a direct significant effect for the emotional support subscale of MOS-SSS on resilience and the interaction between emotional support and AUCg was also found to be statistically significant. Specifically, the conditional effect of emotional support on resilience was found to be significant at middle (M = 3.08; p < .05) and low levels (M = .59; p < .001) of AUCg.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that newly diagnosed breast cancer women with middle and low diurnal cortisol profiles may benefit more from emotional support based-interventions while women with high diurnal cortisol may need more individualized therapies.

The transcription factor VAX1 in VIP neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus impacts circadian rhythm generation, depressive-like behavior, and the reproductive axis in a sex-specific manner in mice

Background

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) within the hypothalamus is a key brain structure required to relay light information to the body and synchronize cell and tissue level rhythms and hormone release. Specific subpopulations of SCN neurons, defined by their peptide expression, regulate defined SCN output. Here we focus on the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) expressing neurons of the SCN. SCN VIP neurons are known to regulate circadian rhythms and reproductive function.

Methods

To specifically study SCN VIP neurons, we generated a novel knock out mouse line by conditionally deleting the SCN enriched transcription factor, Ventral Anterior Homeobox 1 (Vax1), in VIP neurons (Vax1Vip; Vax1fl/fl:VipCre).

Results

We found that Vax1Vip females presented with lengthened estrous cycles, reduced circulating estrogen, and increased depressive-like behavior. Further, Vax1Vip males and females presented with a shortened circadian period in locomotor activity and ex vivo SCN circadian period. On a molecular level, the shortening of the SCN period was driven, at least partially, by a direct regulatory role of VAX1 on the circadian clock genes Bmal1 and Per2. Interestingly, Vax1Vip females presented with increased expression of arginine vasopressin (Avp) in the paraventricular nucleus, which resulted in increased circulating corticosterone. SCN VIP and AVP neurons regulate the reproductive gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and kisspeptin neurons. To determine how the reproductive neuroendocrine network was impacted in Vax1Vip mice, we assessed GnRH sensitivity to a kisspeptin challenge in vivo. We found that GnRH neurons in Vax1Vip females, but not males, had an increased sensitivity to kisspeptin, leading to increased luteinizing hormone release. Interestingly, Vax1Vip males showed a small, but significant increase in total sperm and a modest delay in pubertal onset. Both male and female Vax1Vip mice were fertile and generated litters comparable in size and frequency to controls.

Conclusion

Together, these data identify VAX1 in SCN VIP neurons as a neurological overlap between circadian timekeeping, female reproduction, and depressive-like symptoms in mice, and provide novel insight into the role of SCN VIP neurons.

The hypothalamic steroidogenic pathway mediates susceptibility to inflammation-evoked depression in female mice

BACKGROUND

Depression is two-to-three times more frequent among women. The hypothalamus, a sexually dimorphic area, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. Neuroinflammation-induced hypothalamic dysfunction underlies behaviors associated with depression. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse model of depression has been well-validated in numerous laboratories, including our own, and is widely used to investigate the relationship between neuroinflammation and depression. However, the sex-specific differences in metabolic alterations underlying depression-associated hypothalamic neuroinflammation remain unknown.

METHODS

Here, we employed the LPS-induced mouse model of depression to investigate hypothalamic metabolic changes in both male and female mice using a metabolomics approach. Through bioinformatics analysis, we confirmed the molecular pathways and biological processes associated with the identified metabolites. Furthermore, we employed quantitative real-time PCR, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blotting, and pharmacological interventions to further elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

A total of 124 and 61 differential metabolites (DMs) were detected in male and female mice with depressive-like behavior, respectively, compared to their respective sex-matched control groups. Moreover, a comparison between female and male model mice identified 37 DMs. We capitalized on biochemical clustering and functional enrichment analyses to define the major metabolic changes in these DMs. More than 55% of the DMs clustered into lipids and lipid-like molecules, and an imbalance in lipids metabolism was presented in the hypothalamus. Furthermore, steroidogenic pathway was confirmed as a potential sex-specific pathway in the hypothalamus of female mice with depression. Pregnenolone, an upstream component of the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway, was downregulated in female mice with depressive-like phenotypes but not in males and had considerable relevance to depressive-like behaviors in females. Moreover, exogenous pregnenolone infusion reversed depressive-like behaviors in female mice with depression. The 5α-reductase type I (SRD5A1), a steroidogenic hub enzyme involved in pregnenolone metabolism, was increased in the hypothalamus of female mice with depression. Its inhibition increased hypothalamic pregnenolone levels and ameliorated depressive-like behaviors in female mice with depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study findings demonstrate a marked sexual dimorphism at the metabolic level in depression, particularly in hypothalamic steroidogenic metabolism, identifying a potential sex-specific pathway in female mice with depressive-like behaviors.

Sex-dependent association of DNA methylation of HPA axis-related gene FKBP5 with obsessive-compulsive disorder

AIMS

Although hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been reported, epigenetic changes in HPA axis-related genes have not been well studied in OCD. The present study investigated whether the epigenetic regulation of FK506-binding protein 51 gene (FKBP5) intron 7 is associated with OCD status in each sex. In addition, relationships among the DNA methylation levels of FKBP5 intron 7, OCD status and early-life trauma were explored.

METHODS

A total of 267 patients with OCD and 201 controls aged between 18 and 40 years were recruited. Demographic and clinical assessment, FKBP5 rs1360780 genotyping, and pyrosequencing of FKBP5 intron 7 were conducted. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leucocytes. First, multivariate analysis of covariance for differential DNA methylation levels between OCD patients and controls was conducted with adjustment for FKBP5 rs1360780 genotype, early-life trauma, depressive symptoms, and age as covariates in each sex. Next, path analysis was conducted to determine the mediation effects of DNA methylation levels of FKBP5 between early-life trauma and OCD status. In addition, sensitivity analyses for medication and lifetime major depression were also performed.

RESULTS

DNA methylation at the FKBP5 intron 7 CpG site was significantly lower in men with OCD, compared to controls (mean difference -1.33%, 95% CI -2.11 to -0.55, p < 0.001). The results remained significant for drug naïve or free subjects (mean difference -1.27%, 95% CI -2.18 to -0.37, p = 0.006, in men) and for subjects without lifetime major depressive disorder (mean difference -1.60%, 95% CI -2.54 to -0.66, p < 0.001, in men). The mediation effect of DNA methylation levels was not significant between early-life trauma and OCD status.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that epigenetic factors of HPA axis-related gene FKBP5 may play a role in the pathogenesis of OCD. Further studies are needed to determine how altered DNA methylation of FKBP5 intron 7 and HPA axis function are involved in OCD.

Psychological resilience and cortisol levels in adults: A systematic review

Resilience or the capacity to "bend but not break" refers to the ability to maintain or regain psychobiological equilibrium during or after exposure to stressful life events. Specifically, resilience has been proposed as a potential resource for staving off pathological states that often emerge after exposure to repeated stress and that are related to alterations in circulating cortisol. The aim of this systematic review of the literature was to gather evidence related to the relationship between psychological resilience and cortisol levels in adult humans. An extensive systematic search was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method in the PubMed and Web of Science databases. In total, 1256 articles were identified and, of these, 35 peer-reviewed articles were included in the systematic review. We categorized findings according to (1) the short and long-term secretion period covered by the cortisol matrices selected by studies and also according to (2) the differentiated diurnal, phasic (acute), and tonic (basal) components of the HPA output to which they refer and their relationships with resilience. Reported relationships between psychological resilience and distinct cortisol output parameters varied widely across studies, finding positive, negative, and null associations between the two variables. Notably, several of the studies that found no relationship between resilience and cortisol used a single morning saliva or plasma sample as their assessment of HPA axis activity. Despite limitations such as the great variability of the instruments and methods used by the studies to measure both resilience and cortisol, together with their high heterogeneity and small sample sizes, the evidence found in this systematic review points to the potential of resilience as a modifiable key factor to modulate the physiological response to stress. Therefore, further exploration of the interaction between the two variables is necessary for the eventual development of future interventions aimed at promoting resilience as an essential component of health prevention.

Heterotypic stressors unmask behavioral influences of PMAT deficiency in mice

Certain life stressors having enduring physiological and behavioral consequences, in part by eliciting dramatic signaling shifts in monoamine neurotransmitters. High monoamine levels can overwhelm selective transporters like the serotonin transporter. This is when polyspecific transporters like plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT, Slc29a4) are hypothesized to contribute most to monoaminergic signaling regulation. Here, we employed two distinct counterbalanced stressors - fear conditioning, and swim stress - in mice to systematically determine how reductions in PMAT function affect heterotypic stressor responsivity. We hypothesized male heterozygotes would exhibit augmented stressor responses relative to female heterozygotes. Decreased PMAT function enhanced context fear expression, an effect unexpectedly obscured by a sham stress condition. Impaired cued fear extinction retention and enhanced context fear expression in males were conversely unmasked by a sham swim condition. Abrogated corticosterone levels in male heterozygotes that underwent swim stress after context fear conditioning did not map on to any measured behaviors. In sum, male heterozygous mouse fear behaviors proved malleable in response to preceding stressor or sham stress exposure. Combined, these data indicate reduced male PMAT function elicits a form of stress-responsive plasticity. Future studies should assess how PMAT is differentially affected across sexes and identify downstream consequences of the stress-shifted corticosterone dynamics.

Non-invasive, real-time stress measurement: Vocalization compared with thermal imaging in kittens of the domestic cat in response to social separation

Finding tools to assess the stress response which can be easily applied, are non-invasive, reliable and measured in real time is still a relevant topic in many areas of biology. Vocal characteristics and temperature of certain body areas have been suggested to reflect HPA axis and ANS activation. We hypothesized that changes in vocalizations and peripheral body temperature will show the magnitude of the stress response, and that the change in these will covary. Our aim was to measure the change in vocal characteristics and eye and nasal temperature of kittens (n = 43 from nine litters of seven mixed-breed mothers) during a potentially stressful event and to test how these correlated. We found change in several vocal and thermal parameters during a short social separation. Our findings indicate that arousal due to ANS activation in kittens of the domestic cat resulted in an increasing number of vocalisations of longer duration and higher intensity, and in lower and a wider range in fundamental frequency. Calls also became less tonal with more jitter. Change in temperature was generally negative in the lacrimal caruncle as well as in the rhinarium, but with great variance across individuals. Change in eye temperature positively correlated with the intensity of the calls and the change in nose temperature positively correlated with the change in call length. The results suggest the continued difficulty in interpreting both physiological and behavioural data to assess an individual´s stress response.

Episodic Migraine and POTS

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Migraine is prevalent in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS). The purpose of this review is to summarize and interpret studies that examine stress response systems in patients with migraine, focusing on their relevance to the pathologies associated with POTS. Important structural and functional components of the stress response network are also reviewed.

RECENT FINDINGS

In patients with migraine, studies examining the autonomic nervous system have demonstrated interictal sympathetic hypofunction and ictal sympathetic hyperfunction, while those focusing on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis have demonstrated elevated responsivity. There is evidence that activation of these stress response systems during a migraine episode may exacerbate vascular dysfunction and play a role in the development of central sensitization. Activation of the stress response systems during an episode of migraine has the potential to exacerbate the pathology of POTS. Treatment approaches for the patient with comorbid episodic migraine and POTS should consider the etiology of POTS.

Total cortisol output during an acute stressor predicts youths' internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic

Individual differences in cortisol output may influence adolescents' adjustment to the COVID-19 pandemic; however, boys and girls may differ in terms of associations between cortisol output and internalizing symptoms in the context of COVID-19-related stress. We examined whether pre-pandemic cortisol output during an acute stressor, assessed approximately three years prior to the pandemic, predicted change in adolescents' internalizing symptoms early during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consistent with previous work on other life stressors, girls' cortisol output was positively associated with anxious and somatic symptoms early in the pandemic. Conversely, cortisol output and depressive symptoms were negatively associated for boys; boys with higher cortisol had depressive symptoms which significantly decreased over time. Findings suggest that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis stress functioning plays a role in shaping differences between adolescent boys' and girls' adjustment during the experience of a ubiquitous chronic stressor.

Stress Among the Adult Population During COVID-19 Pandemic in Kedah, Malaysia: Association Between Sociodemographics and the Movement Control Order Period

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a significant increase in the prevalence of stress worldwide. However, the extent and factors associated with psychological distress during COVID-19 among the local population in Kedah, Malaysia, have not been adequately explored. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and factors associated with stress among the adult population in Kedah, Malaysia, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Materials and methods We conducted a cross-sectional study using a retrospective record review. A simple random sampling was applied among the adult population of Kedah who were screened for mental health well-being from January 2021 until March 2022. A proforma checklist that consists of sociodemographic and clinical factors and the date of screening was used to collect the data. A descriptive and multiple logistic regression was conducted, and analysis was done by SPSS version 26 (IBM Inc., Armonk, New York). The dependent variables were the presence of stress incorporated self-reported symptoms ranging from mild to very severe. The independent variables were sociodemographic, clinical factors, and movement control order period, which refers to the period when the state of Kedah experienced all the different phases of movement control order (MCO), which were from 1 January 2021 until 28 June 2021. Results In total, 562 adults were included. The mean age was 31.75 years, and the majority were female (69.6%). The prevalence of stress was 45.7% (95% CI 41.6%, 49.8%), with a total of 257 people. The majority of them did not have stress, consisting of 305 people (54.3%), followed by 69 people (12.3%) who reported severe stress, 67 people (11.9%) who reported moderate, 66 people (11.7%) who reported mild, and 55 people (9.8%) who reported very severe stress. The significant factor associated with stress among the adult population in Kedah, Malaysia, during the COVID-19 pandemic was the female gender (Adj OR 3.035 95% CI: 2.007 to 4.591, p-value <0.001). Being unemployed (Adj OR 2.171 95% CI: 1.480 to 3.185, p-value <0.001) and being under movement control order period was also associated with stress (Adj OR 0.383 95% CI: 0.264 to 0.555, p-value <0.001). Conclusion The prevalence of stress among the adult population during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kedah was 45.7%, with a total of 257 people, higher than other studies. Being female and unemployed was associated with stress, while the movement control order period was a protective factor against stress. Preventive strategies should be tailored based on the vulnerabilities of these groups, such as the development of more effective community-based interventions for safeguarding the mental health of the general public during future pandemics.

Pharmacological activation of the amygdala, but not single prolonged footshock-induced acute stress, interferes with cue-induced motivation toward food rewards in rats

In the face of threats, animals adapt their behaviors to cope with the situation. Under such circumstances, irrelevant behaviors are usually suppressed. In this study, we examined whether food-seeking motivation would decrease under activation of the amygdala, an important nucleus in the regulation of stress response in the central nervous system, or after a physical acute stress session. In Experiment 1, we pharmacologically activated the basolateral nucleus (BLA) or the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) before a cue-induced reinstatement test in rats. Our results showed that activation of the BLA or the CeA abolished cue-induced motivation toward food rewards, while locomotor activity and free food intake were not affected. In Experiments 2 and 3, we further assessed anxiety and despair levels, as well as cue-induced reinstatement, after a single prolonged footshock-induced acute stress in rats. Behaviorally, acute stress did not affect anxiety level, despair level, or cue-induced motivation toward food rewards. Physiologically, there was no difference in cellular activities of the amygdala immediately after acute stress. To conclude, our results suggested that pharmacological activation of the amygdala decreased cue-induced motivation toward food reward. However, physiological acute stress did not immediately interfere with the negative emotions, motivation, or amygdala activities of the animals.

A mathematical representation of the reactive scope model

Researchers have long sought to understand and predict an animal's response to stressful stimuli. Since the introduction of the concept of homeostasis, a variety of model frameworks have been proposed to describe what is necessary for an animal to remain within this stable physiological state and the ramifications of leaving it. Romero et al. (Horm Behav 55(3):375-389, 2009) introduced the reactive scope model to provide a novel conceptual framework for the stress response that assumes an animal's ability to tolerate a stressful stimulus may degrade over time in response to the stimulus. We provide a mathematical formulation for the reactive scope model using a system of ordinary differential equations and show that this model is capable of recreating existing experimental data. We also provide an experimental method that may be used to verify the model as well as several potential additions to the model. If future experimentation provides the necessary data to estimate the model's parameters, the model presented here may be used to make quantitative predictions about physiological mediator levels during a stress response and predict the onset of homeostatic overload.

Sex shapes cell-type-specific transcriptional signatures of stress exposure in the mouse hypothalamus

Stress-related psychiatric disorders and the stress system show prominent differences between males and females, as well as strongly divergent transcriptional changes. Despite several proposed mechanisms, we still lack the understanding of the molecular processes at play. Here, we explore the contribution of cell types to transcriptional sex dimorphism using single-cell RNA sequencing. We identify cell-type-specific signatures of acute restraint stress in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, a central hub of the stress response, in male and female mice. Further, we show that a history of chronic mild stress alters these signatures in a sex-specific way, and we identify oligodendrocytes as a major target for these sex-specific effects. This dataset, which we provide as an online interactive app, offers the transcriptomes of thousands of individual cells as a molecular resource for an in-depth dissection of the interplay between cell types and sex on the mechanisms of the stress response.

Sex differences in metabolic phenotype and hypothalamic inflammation in the 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is notably associated with cognitive decline resulting from impaired function of hippocampal and cortical areas; however, several other domains and corresponding brain regions are affected. One such brain region is the hypothalamus, shown to atrophy and develop amyloid and tau pathology in AD patients. The hypothalamus controls several functions necessary for survival, including energy and glucose homeostasis. Changes in appetite and body weight are common in AD, often seen several years prior to the onset of cognitive symptoms. Therefore, altered metabolic processes may serve as a biomarker for AD, as well as a target for treatment, considering they are likely both a result of pathological changes and contributor to disease progression. Previously, we reported sexually dimorphic metabolic disturbances in ~ 7-month-old 3xTg-AD mice, accompanied by differences in systemic and hypothalamic inflammation.

METHODS

In the current study, we investigated metabolic outcomes and hypothalamic inflammation in 3xTg-AD males and females at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age to determine when these sex differences emerge.

RESULTS

In agreement with our previous study, AD males displayed less weight gain and adiposity, as well as reduced blood glucose levels following a glucose challenge, compared to females. These trends were apparent by 6-9 months of age, coinciding with increased expression of inflammatory markers (Iba1, GFAP, TNF-α, and IL-1β) in the hypothalamus of AD males.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide additional evidence for sex-dependent effects of AD pathology on energy and glucose homeostasis, which may be linked to hypothalamic inflammation.

COVID-19 or threat of a nuclear war in Europe? A cross-sectional study of anxiety levels in adults living in Portugal

Background

Since 2019, Europe has experienced ongoing stressors with the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian-Ukrainian War, which have had social, financial, physical, and psychological impacts. Studies suggest that anxiety, fear, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and other psychological disorders are common in such situations, and there is a need for more research on the impact of the war on mental health in Portugal. The main goal of the present study was to assess the impact of the fear of COVID-19 and anxiety related to nuclear war on the general anxiety levels of adult individuals living in Portugal.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted from May to July 2022 using an online questionnaire built on the Google Forms platform. Portuguese-speaking male and female individuals aged 18 years or older, who provided informed consent and agreed to participate, were included. The outcome variable was defined using the Portuguese version of the GAD-7 scale, while the main predictors were the FCV-19S and the NWA Scale in Portuguese. Linear and logistic regression models were used to test associations between predictors and outcome variable.

Results

The study included 1,182 participants, with a mean age of 46.5 (±11.7) years, mostly women (80.6%). The global mean GAD-7 score was 5.8 (±4.5) points, and 17.9% of the participants scored above the 10-point cutoff. Higher scores were found in both the FCV-19S and the NWA scale among participants with anxiety, as measured by both a 10-point cutoff (p < 0.001), and GAD-7 scale mean scores (p < 0.001). The study showed that fear of COVID-19 [OR of 1.133 (95%CI: 1.097-1.170)] and, at a lesser extent, nuclear war anxiety [OR of 1.020 (95%CI, 1.009-1.031)] contribute to anxiety in the general population. This is also true for those with a personal history of anxiety, revealed by multiple regression.

Discussion

This study contributes to the research on COVID-19's impact on anxiety and provides the first comprehensive assessment of nuclear war anxiety in Portugal. Results highlight the need for long-term care for anxiety, as prevalence is expected to increase due to the pandemic and war, even in non-conflict areas like Portugal.

Sex differences in pituitary corticotroph excitability

Stress-related illness represents a major burden on health and society. Sex differences in stress-related disorders are well documented, with women having twice the lifetime rate of depression compared to men and most anxiety disorders. Anterior pituitary corticotrophs are central components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, receiving input from hypothalamic neuropeptides corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), while regulating glucocorticoid output from the adrenal cortex. The dynamic control of electrical excitability by CRH/AVP and glucocorticoids is critical for corticotroph function; however, whether corticotrophs contribute to sexually differential responses of the HPA axis, which might underlie differences in stress-related disorders, is very poorly understood. Using perforated patch clamp electrophysiology in corticotrophs from mice expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of the Pomc promoter, we characterized basal and secretagogue-evoked excitability. Both male and female corticotrophs show predominantly single-spike action potentials under basal conditions; however, males predominantly display spikes with small-amplitude (<20 mV) afterhyperpolarizations (B-type), whereas females displayed a mixture of B-type spikes and spikes with a large-amplitude (>25 mV) afterhyperpolarization (A-type). In response to CRH, or CRH/AVP, male cells almost exclusively transition to a predominantly pseudo-plateau bursting, whereas only female B-type cells display bursting in response to CRH±AVP. Treatment of male or female corticotrophs with 1 nM estradiol (E2) for 24-72 h has no effect on the proportion of cells with A- or B-type spikes in either sex. However, E2 results in the cessation of CRH-induced bursting in both male and female corticotrophs, which can be partially reversed by adding a BK current using a dynamic clamp. RNA-seq analysis of purified corticotrophs reveals extensive differential gene expression at the transcriptional level, including more than 71 mRNAs encoding ion channel subunits. Interestingly, there is a two-fold lower level (p < 0.01) of BK channel pore-forming subunit (Kcnma1) expression in females compared to males, which may partially explain the decrease in CRH-induced bursting. This study identified sex differences at the level of the anterior pituitary corticotroph ion channel landscape and control of both spontaneous and CRH-evoked excitability. Determining the mechanisms of sex differences of corticotroph and HPA activity at the cellular level could be an important step for better understanding, diagnosing, and treating stress-related disorders.

The sex-dependent and enduring impact of pubertal stress on health and disease

Illness is often predicated long before the manifestation of its symptoms. Exposure to stressful experiences particularly during critical periods of development, such as puberty and adolescence, can induce various physical and mental illnesses. Puberty is a critical period of maturation for neuroendocrine systems, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes. Exposure to adverse experiences during puberty can impede normal brain reorganizing and remodelling and result in enduring consequences on brain functioning and behaviour. Stress responsivity differs between the sexes during the pubertal period. This sex difference is partly due to differences in circulating sex hormones between males and females, impacting stress and immune responses differently. The effects of stress during puberty on physical and mental health remains under-examined. The purpose of this review is to summarize the most recent findings pertaining to age and sex differences in HPA axis, HPG axis, and immune system development, and describe how disruption in the functioning of these systems can propagate disease. Lastly, we delve into the notable neuroimmune contributions, sex differences, and the mediating role of the gut microbiome on stress and health outcomes. Understanding the enduring consequences of adverse experiences during puberty on physical and mental health will allow a greater proficiency in treating and preventing stress-related diseases early in development.

Sex-dependent clinical presentation, body image, and endocrine status in long-term remitted anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

Although anorexia nervosa (AN) in males has recently gained attention, knowledge of its psychological and physiological outcomes is still scarce. We explore sex-specific characteristics of long-term remitted AN with respect to residual eating disorder (ED) psychopathology, body image, and endocrinology.

METHOD

We recruited 33 patients with AN in remission for at least 18 months (24 women, 9 men) and 36 matched healthy controls (HCs). Eating disorder psychopathology and body image ideals were assessed via clinical interviews, questionnaires, and an interactive 3D body morphing tool. Plasma levels of leptin, free triiodothyronine, cortisol, and sex hormones were quantified. Univariate models controlled for age and weight were used to test for the effects of diagnosis and sex.

RESULTS

Both patient groups showed residual ED psychopathology but normal weight and hormone levels relative to HCs. Male remitted patients demonstrated significantly stronger muscularity-focused body image ideals, evident in interviews, self-reports, and behavioural data, than both female patients and HCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex-specific body image characteristics in patients with remitted AN point towards the need to adjust test instruments and diagnostic criteria to male-specific psychopathology. In the future, sufficiently powered studies should evaluate the risk of men with AN developing muscle dysmorphia in the long term.

Crosstalk between androgen receptor and WNT/β-catenin signaling causes sex-specific adrenocortical hyperplasia in mice

Female bias is highly prevalent in conditions such as adrenal cortex hyperplasia and neoplasia, but the reasons behind this phenomenon are poorly understood. In this study, we show that overexpression of the secreted WNT agonist R-spondin 1 (RSPO1) leads to ectopic activation of WNT/β-catenin signaling and causes sex-specific adrenocortical hyperplasia in mice. Although female adrenals show ectopic proliferation, male adrenals display excessive immune system activation and cortical thinning. Using a combination of genetic manipulations and hormonal treatment, we show that gonadal androgens suppress ectopic proliferation in the adrenal cortex and determine the selective regulation of the WNT-related genes Axin2 and Wnt4. Notably, genetic removal of androgen receptor (AR) from adrenocortical cells restores the mitogenic effect of WNT/β-catenin signaling. This is the first demonstration that AR activity in the adrenal cortex determines susceptibility to canonical WNT signaling-induced hyperplasia.

Women are Taking the Hit: Examining the Unique Consequences of Cannabis Use Across the Female Lifespan

Cannabis use has risen dramatically in recent years due to global decriminalization and a resurgence in the interest of potential therapeutic benefits. While emerging research is shaping our understanding of the benefits and harms of cannabis, there remains a paucity of data specifically focused on how cannabis affects the female population. The female experience of cannabis use is unique, both in the societal context and because of the biological ramifications. This is increasingly important given the rise in cannabis potency, as well as the implications this has for the prevalence of Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD). Therefore, this scoping review aims to discuss the prevalence of cannabis use and CUD in women throughout their lifespan and provide a balanced prospective on the positive and negative consequences of cannabis use. In doing so, this review will highlight the necessity for continued research that goes beyond sex differences.

Body surface temperature of rats reveals both magnitude and sex differences in the acute stress response

Understanding how biological markers of stress relate to stressor magnitude is much needed and can be used in welfare assessment. Changes in body surface temperature can be measured using infrared thermography (IRT) as a marker of a physiological response to acute stress. While an avian study has shown that changes in body surface temperature can reflect the intensity of acute stress, little is known about surface temperature responses to stressors of different magnitudes and its sex-specificity in mammals, and how they correlate with hormonal and behavioural responses. We used IRT to collect continuous surface temperature measurements of tail and eye of adult male and female rats (Rattus norvegicus), for 30 minutes after exposure to one of three stressors (small cage, encircling handling or rodent restraint cone) for one minute, and cross-validated the thermal response with plasma corticosterone (CORT) and behavioural assessment. To obtain individual baseline temperatures and thermal responses to stress, rats were imaged in a test arena (to which they were habituated) for 30 seconds before and 30 minutes after being exposed to the stressor. In response to the three stressors, tail temperature initially decreased and then recovered to, or overshot the baseline temperature. Tail temperature dynamics differed between stressors; being restrained in the small cage was associated with the smallest drop in temperature, in male rats, and the fastest thermal recovery, in both sexes. Increases in eye temperature only distinguished between stressors early in the response and only in females. The post stressor increase in eye temperature was greater in the right eye of males and the left eye of females. In both sexes encircling may have been associated with the fastest increase in CORT. These results were in line with observed behavioural changes, with greater movement in rats exposed to the small cage and higher immobility after encircling. The female tail and eye temperature, as well as the CORT concentrations did not return to pre-stressor levels in the observation period, in conjunction with the greater occurrence of escape-related behaviours in female rats. These results suggest that female rats are more vulnerable to acute restraint stress compared to male rats and emphasise the importance of using both sexes in future investigations of stressor magnitude. This study demonstrates that acute stress induced changes in mammalian surface temperature measured with IRT relate to the magnitude of restraint stress, indicate sex differences and correlate with hormonal and behavioural responses. Thus, IRT has the potential to become a non-invasive method of continuous welfare assessment in unrestrained mammals.

Restraint or immobilization: a comparison of methodologies for restricting free movement in rodents and their potential impact on physiology and behavior

Restriction of free movement has historically been used as a model for inducing acute and chronic stress in laboratory animals. This paradigm is one of the most widely employed experimental procedures for basic research studies of stress-related disorders. It is easy to implement, and it rarely involves any physical harm to the animal. Many different restraint methods have been developed with variations in the apparatuses used and the degree of limitation of movement. Unfortunately, very few studies directly compare the differential impact of the distinct protocols. Additionally, restraint and immobilization terms are not differentiated and are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature. This review offers evidence of great physiological differences in the impact of distinct restraint procedures in rats and mice and emphasizes the need for a standardized language on this topic. Moreover, it illustrates the necessity of additional systematic studies that compare the effects of the distinct restraint methodologies, which would help to decide better which procedure should be used depending on the objectives of each particular study.

The stress of losing sleep: Sex-specific neurobiological outcomes

Sleep is a vital and evolutionarily conserved process, critical to daily functioning and homeostatic balance. Losing sleep is inherently stressful and leads to numerous detrimental physiological outcomes. Despite sleep disturbances affecting everyone, women and female rodents are often excluded or underrepresented in clinical and pre-clinical studies. Advancing our understanding of the role of biological sex in the responses to sleep loss stands to greatly improve our ability to understand and treat health consequences of insufficient sleep. As such, this review discusses sex differences in response to sleep deprivation, with a focus on the sympathetic nervous system stress response and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We review sex differences in several stress-related consequences of sleep loss, including inflammation, learning and memory deficits, and mood related changes. Focusing on women's health, we discuss the effects of sleep deprivation during the peripartum period. In closing, we present neurobiological mechanisms, including the contribution of sex hormones, orexins, circadian timing systems, and astrocytic neuromodulation, that may underlie potential sex differences in sleep deprivation responses.

Associations of stressful life events with subthreshold depressive symptoms and major depressive disorder: The moderating role of gender

BACKGROUND

Stressful life events (SLEs) are high-risk factors for subthreshold depressive symptoms (SDS) and major depressive disorder (MDD). This study sought to assess the association of SLEs with SDS and MDD, with a focus on gender effects.

METHODS

A total of 4132 participants were recruited from 34 primary health care settings. The Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ) was used to measure SLEs that participants had experienced in the past time. The Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) was used to assess SDS, and the Mini-International Neuropsychiatry Interview (MINI) depression module was used to assess the diagnosis of MDD by trained psychiatrists.

RESULTS

In our sample (N = 4132), exposure to any SLEs was more common in individuals with SDS and MDD than in non-depressed population, and the proportion of emotional abuse was relatively high (SDS: 10.6 %; MDD: 33.9 %). After adjusting for control variables, people who experienced SLEs were at a higher risk of SDS and MDD. For males, those experiencing only one event were not at a higher risk of SDS (P = 0.061). For individuals who had experienced multiple SLEs, the association between SLEs and SDS was stronger in females than males. However, the association between SLEs and MDD was stronger in males than females.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional study design and self-reported SLEs.

CONCLUSIONS

SLEs were associated with the increased risks of SDS and MDD. The associations of SLEs with SDS were more robust for females than males. In contrast, the association between SLEs and MDD was stronger in males than females.

Acute exposure to microcystins affects hypothalamic-pituitary axes of male rats

Microcystins (MCs) produced by some cyanobacteria can cause toxicity in animals and humans. In recent years, growing evidence suggests that MCs can act as endocrine disruptors. This research systematically investigated effects of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) on endocrine organs, biosynthesis of hormones and positive/negative feedback of the endocrine system in rats. Male, Sprague-Dawley rats were acutely administrated MC-LR by a single intraperitoneal injection at doses of 45, 67.5 or 90 μg MC-LR/kg body mass (bm), and then euthanized 24 h after exposure. In exposed rats, histological damage of hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal, testis and thyroid were observed. Serum concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone (CORT), expressions of genes and proteins for biosynthesis of hormones were lesser, which indicated an overall suppression of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Along the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, lesser concentrations of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and testosterone (T), but greater concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and estradiol (E2) were observed. Except for greater transcription of cyp19a1 in testes, transcriptions of genes and proteins for T and E2 biosynthesis along the HPG axis were lesser. As for the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, after MCs treatment, greater concentrations of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), but lesser concentrations of free tri-iodothyronine (fT3) were observed in serum. Concentrations of free tetra-iodothyronine (fT4) were greater in rats dosed with 45 μg MCs/kg, bm, but lesser in rats dosed with 67.5 or 90 μg MCs/kg, bm. Transcripts of genes for biosynthesis of hormones and receptors along the HPT axis and expressions of proteins for biosynthesis of tetra-iodothyronine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3) in thyroid were significantly altered. Cross-talk among the HPA, HPG and HPT axes probably occurred. It was concluded that MCs caused an imbalance of positive and negative feedback of hormonal regulatory axes, blocked biosynthesis of key hormones and exhibited endocrine-disrupting effects.

Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety

Depression and anxiety disorders carry a tremendous worldwide burden and emerge as a significant cause of disability among western societies. Both disorders are known to disproportionally affect women, as they are twice more likely to be diagnosed and moreover, they are also prone to suffer from female-specific mood disorders. Importantly, the prevalence of these affective disorders has notably risen after the COVID pandemic, especially in women. In this chapter, we describe factors that are possibly contributing to the expression of such sex differences in depression and anxiety. For this, we overview the effect of transcriptomic and genetic factors, the immune system, neuroendocrine aspects, and cognition. Furthermore, we also provide evidence of sex differences in antidepressant response and their causes. Finally, we emphasize the importance to consider sex as a biological variable in preclinical and clinical research, which may facilitate the discovery and development of new and more efficacious antidepressant and anxiolytic pharmacotherapies for both women and men.

A single dose of hydrocortisone does not alter interhemispheric transfer of information or transcallosal integration

Stress has been suggested as a factor that may explain the link between altered functional lateralization and psychopathology. Modulation of the function of the corpus callosum via stress hormones may be crucial in this regard. Interestingly, there is evidence that interhemispheric integration and hemispheric asymmetries are modifiable by endocrinological influences. In previous studies, our group could show an enhancing effect of acute stress on interhemispheric integration. To investigate if this effect can be attributed to an increase in the stress hormone cortisol, 50 male participants received 20 mg hydrocortisone or a placebo in a double-blind crossover design. In each test session, we collected EEG data while participants completed a lexical decision task and a Poffenberger paradigm. In the lexical decision task, we found shorter latencies of the N1 ERP component for contralateral compared to ipsilateral presentation of lexical stimuli. Similarly, we replicated the classical Poffenberger effect with shorter ERP latencies for stimuli presented in the contralateral visual field compared to the ipsilateral visual field. However, no effect of cortisol on latency differences between hemispheres could be detected. These results suggest that a temporary increase in cortisol alone might not be enough to affect the interhemispheric transfer of information via the corpus callosum. Together with previous results from our group, this suggests that chronically elevated stress hormone levels play a more central role in the relationship between altered hemispheric asymmetries and a variety of mental disorders.

Sleep restriction during opioid abstinence affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in male and female rats

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dynamics are disrupted by opioids and may be involved in substance abuse; this persists during withdrawal and abstinence and is associated with co-morbid sleep disruption leading to vulnerability to relapse. We hypothesized that chronic sleep restriction (SR) alters the HPA axis diurnal rhythm and the sexually dimorphic response to acute stressor during opioid abstinence. We developed a rat model to evaluate the effect of persistent sleep loss during opioid abstinence on HPA axis dynamics in male and female rats. Plasma ACTH and corticosterone were measured diurnally and in response to acute restraint stress in rats Before (control) compared to During subsequent opioid abstinence without or with SR. Abstinence, regardless of sleep state, led to an increase in plasma ACTH and corticosterone in the morning in males. There was a tendency for higher PM plasma ACTH during abstinence in SR males (p = 0.076). ACTH and corticosterone responses to restraint were reduced in male SR rats whereas there was a failure to achieve the post-restraint nadir in female SR rats. There was no effect of the treatments or interventions on adrenal weight normalized to body weight. SR resulted in a dramatic increase in hypothalamic PVN AVP mRNA and plasma copeptin in male but not female rats. This corresponded to the attenuation of the HPA axis stress response in SR males during opioid abstinence. We have identified a potentially unique, sexually dimorphic role for magnocellular vasopressin in the control of the HPA axis during opioid abstinence and sleep restriction.

Psychological stress and psychological support of Chinese nurses during severe public health events

The domestic health care system has been facing a difficult task, especially in medical care, and Chinese nurses are under tremendous psychological pressure. Psychological support is a protective factor to relieve stress. This study examined the stress level and characteristics of Chinese nurses with different psychological support-seeking behaviours. Data from online questionnaires for this cross-sectional study were collected between January 2020 and February 2020 and yielded 2248 valid questionnaires for analysis with a response rate of 99.8%. General information of the respondents was also collected. The nurses' stress levels were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). T tests, chi-square tests, and linear regression were used to examine the relationships among the factors. The results of this survey showed that between January and February 2020, 26.9% of nurses received psychological counselling, and the proportion was higher among men and nurses with lower education. The PSS-10 was related to gender, age group, provincial severity, and confidence in the control of the epidemic. The results showed that psychological support can effectively improve the confidence of domestic nurses in the face of arduous work and effectively relieve the psychological pressure caused by a heavy workload.

The influence of arts engagement on the mental health of isolated college students during the COVID-19 outbreak in China

Objectives

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted the mental health of college students. This study aimed to investigate the buffering effect of arts engagement on anxiety and resilience in college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Study design

A cross-sectional study.

Methods

The data were collected via an online survey during a wave of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Shanghai (March 15 to April 15, 2022). In total, 2,453 college students throughout China reported general anxiety symptom levels (according to the GAD-7), resilience (according to the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale), frequency of receptive arts engagement in the previous year, exposure to risk situations, and behavioral changes due to the pandemic.

Results

During the current stage of the pandemic, 43.7% of college students suffered from varying degrees of anxiety, and 2.6% showed severe anxiety. Gender and learning stage were not associated with anxiety. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that the decision to return to academic institution, the degree of exposure to COVID-19, and the frequency of accepting art participation and resilience could significantly predict the anxiety level of college students. Gender, study stage, behavioral changes arising from COVID-19, and exposure to COVID-19 significantly predict the resilience level of college students. There was an association between high frequency music activities, reading activities and low anxiety level (p < 0.001). There was an association between high frequency digital art, music activities, reading and high resilience (p < 0.01).

Conclusions

Arts engagement appears to help students cope with mental health problems and those at risk. Policymakers should encourage college students to participate in art activities, especially in the context of social distancing.