Life-history traits of standard and autochthonous cladocerans: II. Acute and chronic effects of acetylsalicylic acid metabolites

Environmental Risk Assessment of Drugs in Tropical Freshwaters Using Ceriodaphnia silvestrii as Test Organism

In this study we evaluated the acute (immobility/mortality) and chronic (survival and reproduction) effects of the drugs caffeine, diclofenac sodium salt, ketoprofen, paracetamol and salicylic acid on the cladoceran Ceriodaphnia silvestrii. The environmental risks of these substances for tropical freshwaters were estimated from the risk quotient MEC/PNEC. Sensitivity in acute exposures varied up on the drug as follows: salicylic acid (EC₅₀ = 69.15 mg L^- 1) < caffeine (EC₅₀ = 45.94 mg L^- 1) < paracetamol (EC₅₀ = 34.49 mg L^- 1) < ketoprofen (EC₅₀ = 24.84 mg L^- 1) < diclofenac sodium salt (EC₅₀ = 14.59 mg L^- 1). Chronic toxicity data showed negative effects of the drugs on reproduction. Paracetamol and salicylic acid caused reduction in fecundity in concentrations starting from 10 mg L^- 1 and 35 mg L^- 1, respectively. Ketoprofen caused total inhibition at 5 mg L^- 1. MEC/PNEC values were relatively low for all drugs. The risk was estimated as low or insignificant, except for caffeine, whose MEC/PNEC value was greater than 1 (moderate risk).

The Effects of Single and Combined Stressors on Daphnids-Enzyme Markers of Physiology and Metabolomics Validate the Impact of Pollution

The continuous global increase in population and consumption of resources due to human activities has had a significant impact on the environment. Therefore, assessment of environmental exposure to toxic chemicals as well as their impact on biological systems is of significant importance. Freshwater systems are currently under threat and monitored; however, current methods for pollution assessment can neither provide mechanistic insight nor predict adverse effects from complex pollution. Using daphnids as a bioindicator, we assessed the impact in acute exposures of eight individual chemicals and specifically two metals, four pharmaceuticals, a pesticide and a stimulant, and their composite mixture combining phenotypic, biochemical and metabolic markers of physiology. Toxicity levels were in the same order of magnitude and significantly enhanced in the composite mixture. Results from individual chemicals showed distinct biochemical responses for key enzyme activities such as phosphatases, lipase, peptidase, β-galactosidase and glutathione-S-transferase. Following this, a more realistic mixture scenario was assessed with the aforementioned enzyme markers and a metabolomic approach. A clear dose-dependent effect for the composite mixture was validated with enzyme markers of physiology, and the metabolomic analysis verified the effects observed, thus providing a sensitive metrics in metabolite perturbations. Our study highlights that sensitive enzyme markers can be used in advance on the design of metabolic and holistic assays to guide the selection of chemicals and the trajectory of the study, while providing mechanistic insight. In the future this could prove to become a useful tool for understanding and predicting freshwater pollution.

Application of Surfactant Modified Natural Zeolites for the Removal of Salicylic Acid-A Contaminant of Emerging Concern

This work aimed to test composites (surfactant modified zeolites prepared by treatment of natural zeolites—clinoptilolite (IZ CLI) and/or phillipsite (PHIL75)-rich tuffs with two different amounts of cationic surfactants: cetylpyridinium chloride (CPyCl) and Arquad^® 2HT-75 (ARQ)) for the adsorption of salicylic acid (SA)—a common contaminant of emerging concern. Adsorption of SA was studied at different initial drug concentrations (in the range of 2–100 mg/L) in water solution. The Langmuir isotherm model showed the highest adsorption was achieved by bilayer composite of IZ CLI and CPyCl—around 11 mg/g. Kinetic runs were performed by using the initial drug concentration of 20 mg/L in the time interval from 0 to 75 min and pseudo-second order had good correlation with experimental data. The influence of the four different temperatures on the SA adsorption was also investigated and thermodynamic parameters suggested that the adsorption drug onto composites is an exothermic and nonspontaneous process, followed by the decrease of randomness at the solid/liquid interface during the adsorption. Zeta potential and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) had been performed for the characterization of composites after adsorption of SA confirming the presence of the drug at composite surfaces.

Ecotoxicological effects, environmental fate and risks of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the water environment: A review

Due to the extensive use and incomplete removal, pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are introduced into the water continuously. It has been proved that the unique properties of PPCPs are influential to organisms and the environment, and gradually affect human health. In this paper, the toxicological effects of typical PPCPs, and the environmental behavior of PPCPs in aquatic are reviewed. The risk assessments of PPCPs in the water are summarized. The research directions of environmental toxicology research of PPCPs in the future are proposed. Many PPCPs were found to be toxic or even highly toxic toward aquatic organisms, and have the potential for bioaccumulation. It is essential to study the acute and long-term toxicity of PPCPs and their metabolites, evaluate the environmental behaviors and make a reasonable assessment of ecotoxicology and human health risks of PPCPs.

Exposure to sublethal concentrations of the glyphosate-based herbicide Faena® increases sensitivity in the progeny of the American cladoceran Daphnia exilis (Herrick, 1895)

The use of herbicides has increased over the last decades. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide commercialized in more than 750 formulations. While information about glyphosate's toxicity on different non-target aquatic organisms has been vastly documented, we know little about the transgenerational effects in aquatic biota. This study determined the cross-generation effects produced by the glyphosate-based herbicide Faena® on the American cladoceran Daphnia exilis. Measured endpoints were survival, reproductive responses, metabolic biomarkers, and the size of neonates. D. exilis was exposed to glyphosate concentrations of 2.09, 2.49, and 3.15 (mg L-1) (as content in Faena®) during 21 days starting from neonates, at 25°C, 16:8 photoperiod, fed with 8 × 105 cells mL-1 of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. The LC50 was 4.22 mg L-1. Survival, accumulated progeny, and the number of clutches in the parental generation (P1) were significantly higher than those observed in the first generation (F1). Exposure to the herbicide completely inhibited reproduction in the F1. The size of the neonates varied among treatments and broods in P1; nevertheless, neonate size (body and total lengths, as well as body width) was significantly affected in F1. Toxic effects on the survival and reproduction of D. exilis were significantly increased in the F1 exposed to Faena®. Results warn about the augmented effect on progeny where parents were exposed to this herbicide. Multigenerational adverse effects could be expected in freshwater zooplankton exposed to Faena®. The frequently claimed low toxicity of glyphosate must be revised to control the indiscriminate use of this herbicide.

Standard and biochemical toxicological effects of zinc pyrithione in Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina

Chemical toxicity in the environment may be the consequence of exposure of living organisms to multiple substances, with distinct putative effects. Among this mulytiplicity of chemicals that occur in the wild, pharmaceutical drugs and antifoulers are prone to exert toxic effects on non-target organisms. To characterize the toxicity elicited by a compound of this specific class, the present study used standard and biochemical-based tools to quantify the toxic response of the antifouler and antidandruff zinc pyrithione in Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina. The analised parameters were immobility, reproduction, behavioral alteration (swimming patterns), anti-oxidant defense (catalase activity), metabolism (GSTs activities), and neurotoxicity (ChE activity) after exposure to sublethal concentrations of this drug. Exposure to zinc pyrithione has been shown to have neurotoxic and oxidative effects, with changes in swimming behavior. There were no changes in reproductive traits of exposed individuals, from both species. The obtained data demonstrate that ecologically relevant levels of zinc pyrithione can deleteriously alter critical parameters in two distinct freshwater microcrustacean species, although with distinct toxicity patterns and outcomes.

Toxicity of the Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen and naproxen towards freshwater invertebrates: A review

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) represent one of the main therapeutic classes of molecules contaminating aquatic ecosystems worldwide. NSAIDs are commonly and extensively used for their analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties to cure pain and inflammation in human and veterinary therapy. After use, NSAIDs are excreted in their native form or as metabolites, entering the aquatic ecosystems. A number of monitoring surveys has detected the presence of different NSAIDs in freshwater ecosystems in the ng/L - μg/L concentration range. Although the concentrations of NSAIDs in surface waters are low, the high biological activity of these molecules may confer them a potential toxicity towards non-target aquatic organisms. The present review aims at summarizing toxicity, in terms of both acute and chronic toxicity, induced by the main NSAIDs detected in surface waters worldwide, namely acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), paracetamol (PCM), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU) and naproxen (NPX), both singularly and in mixture, towards freshwater invertebrates. Invertebrates play a crucial role in ecosystem functioning so that NSAIDs-induced effects may result in hazardous consequences to the whole freshwater trophic chain. Acute toxicity of NSAIDs occurs only at high, unrealistic concentrations, while sub-lethal effects arise also at low, environmentally relevant concentrations of all these drugs. Thus, further studies represent a priority in order to improve the knowledge on NSAID toxicity and mechanism(s) of action in freshwater organisms and to shed light on their real ecological hazard towards freshwater communities.

A review on gentisic acid as a plant derived phenolic acid and metabolite of aspirin: Comprehensive pharmacology, toxicology, and some pharmaceutical aspects

Beneficial therapeutic effects of phenolic acids have been proven in various research projects including in vivo and in vitro studies. Gentisic acid (GA) is a phenolic acid that has been associated with useful effects on human health, such as antiinflammatory, antigenotoxic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and especially antioxidant activities. It is an important metabolite of aspirin and also widely distributed in plants as a secondary plant product such as Gentiana spp., Citrus spp., Vitis vinifera, Pterocarpus santalinus, Helianthus tuberosus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Olea europaea, and Sesamum indicum and in fruits such as avocados, batoko plum, kiwi fruits, apple, bitter melon, black berries, pears, and some mushrooms. This study was undertaken to review the pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetic properties as well as toxicity and pharmaceutical applications of GA.

Chronic Toxicological Effects of Carbamazepine on Daphnia magna Straus: Effects on Reproduction Traits, Body Length, and Intrinsic Growth

In recent years, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) that remain in the environment have become increasingly important. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a widely used antiepileptic drug that has a potential impact on the environment due to its Physico-chemical properties, which are rarely eliminated in conventional water treatment. Daphnia magna Straus (DMS) is a fundamental link of aquatic ecosystem chain. The influence of CBZ toxicity on DMS can effectively reflect the effects of CBZ toxicity on the aquatic environment. In this study, DMS was used as a subject to assess the chronic effects of CBZ exposure. It was found that after 21 days of CBZ exposure, the breeding frequency, the total number of eggs laid, body length, and intrinsic growth rate of DMS decreased with increasing CBZ concentrations. Maximum reductions of 69% in fecundity and 60% in fertility were observed at 0.5 mg/L CBZ, while a maximum reduction of 60% in body length was observed at 0.001 mg/L CBZ concentration. The integrated biomarker response version 2 (IBRv2) analysis suggests that with the increase in CBZ concentration, the overall negative effect of CBZ on DMS was enhanced.

A major release of urban untreated wastewaters in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec, Canada) altered growth, reproduction, and redox status in experimentally exposed Daphnia magna

In 2015, five billion liters of untreated urban wastewater (UWW) were released into the St. Lawrence River (Quebec, Canada) over the course of four days in order to repair the Montreal's sewer interceptor network related to the city's primary wastewater treatment plant. The UWW discharge originated mainly from household, industrial, and hospital sources. The objective of this study was to investigate the toxicological effects of this unprecedented punctual UWW release on aquatic invertebrates to gather information that could help understand the potential impacts to the receiving environment of overflow episodes occurring during heavy rain events. Water samples were collected at four impacted and non-impacted sites during and four weeks after the release. The freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna were experimentally exposed to surface water collected from UWW-impacted sites for 13 days and analyzed for life-history endpoints and suitable biomarkers related to oxidative stress (i.e., catalase, superoxide dismutase, lipid peroxidation, and glutathione-s-transferase) and reproduction (chitinase). Results indicated that D. magna growth and reproduction were significantly increased by exposure to UWWs. These effects were correlated with an increase in chitinase activity, which is primarily controlled by reproductive hormones and involved in growth, suggesting potential impacts on these processes. Results also indicated that some UWW samples might have caused oxidative stress during the release but that it was overcome by antioxidant defenses and did not lead to cellular damage. Overall, current results contribute to a better understanding of the biological impacts of UWW to aquatic invertebrates for a better stormwater management.

Toxicity of three emerging contaminants to non-target marine organisms

Coastal areas are continually impacted by anthropic activities because they shelter large urban conglomerates. Urban effluents directly or indirectly end up reaching the marine environment, releasing a large number of pollutants which include the so-called contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), since the conventional treatment plants are not effective in removing these compounds from the effluents. These substances include hormones, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, nanoparticles, biocides, among others. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of the 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), and bisphenol-A (BPA) to two marine crustaceans and one echinoderm, evaluating the following parameters: survival (Artemia sp. and Mysidopsis juniae), embryo-larval development (Echinometra lucunter). The LC₅₀ values calculated in the acute toxicity tests showed that the compounds were more toxic to M. juniae than to the Artemia sp. Among the three contaminants, EE2 was the most toxic (LC_50-48h = 18.4 ± 2.7 mg L^-1 to Artemia sp.; LC_50-96h = 0.36 ± 0.07 mg L^-1 to M. juniae). The three tested compounds affected significantly the embryonic development of the sea urchin in all tested concentrations, including ecologically relevant concentrations, indicating the potential risk that these contaminants may present to the marine biota.

Worms on drugs: ecotoxicological effects of acetylsalicylic acid on the Polychaeta species Hediste diversicolor in terms of biochemical and histological alterations

Pharmaceuticals are important environmental stressors since they have a worldwide use; they are usually released in the aquatic compartment without adequate treatment, and because of their intrinsic properties, they may affect several non-target organisms. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), the active substance of aspirin, is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, being one of the most widely prescribed analgesics in human medical care. Consequently, this compound is systematically reported to occur in the wild, where it may exert toxic effects on non-target species, which are mostly uncharacterized so far. The objective of the present work was to assess the acute and chronic effects of ASA on selected oxidative stress biomarkers [catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GRed), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST)], lipid peroxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance), and histological alterations in the polychaete Hediste diversicolor (Annelida: Polychaeta). The obtained data showed that ASA is not exempt of toxicity, since it was responsible for significant, albeit transient, changes in biomarkers related to the redox status of the organisms, occurring as an increase in the activity of catalase in the individuals exposed acutely to ASA. Chronic exposure to ecologically relevant concentrations of this drug showed to be mostly ineffective in promoting any significant biochemical alteration in H. diversicolor. However, histochemical observations revealed proliferation of mucous cells in the tegument of chronically exposed individuals to ASA.

Genome-wide identification and expression of the entire 52 glutathione S-transferase (GST) subfamily genes in the Cu2+-exposed marine copepods Tigriopus japonicus and Paracyclopina nana

In this study, the entire glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), the major phase II detoxification enzyme, were identified in two marine copepod species Tigriopus japonicus and Paracyclopina nana. The genome-wide identification of GSTs in T. japonicus and P. nana resulted in 32 and 20 GSTs in total, respectively. Among the identified GSTs, two specific classes of GSTs, specifically sigma and delta/epsilon GSTs were the dominant form of cytosolic GSTs in T. japonicus, while delta/epsilon and mu classes were dominant cytosolic GSTs in P. nana. In addition, Membrane-Associated Proteins in Eicosanoid and Glutathione metabolism (MAPEG) family were found in relatively higher proportion compared to other classes. Moreover, sigma, delta/epsilon, and microsomal GSTs have shown to expand through tandem duplication. To validate the detoxification function of the identified GSTs, both copepods were exposed to copper (Cu²⁺) and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and GST activity were measured. With integration of phylogenetic analysis and xenobiotic-mediated GST mRNA expression patterns along with previous enzymatic activities, the functional divergence among species-specific GST genes was clearly observed. This study covers full identification of GST classes in two marine copepod species and their important role in marine environmental ecotoxicology.

Significance of metabolites in the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals consumed by human

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the significance of metabolites to the ERA of human pharmaceuticals. The predicted exposure concentrations (PECs) in surface water were estimated for a total of 24 selected active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites using a life cycle based emission estimation model combined with a multimedia fate model with Monte-Carlo calculations. With the eco-toxicity data, the hazard quotients (HQs) of the metabolites were compared with those of individual parents alone. The results showed that PEC or toxicity or both of the metabolites was predicted to be higher than that of their parent APIs, which resulted in a total of 18 metabolites (from 12 parents) that have greater HQs than their parents. This result clearly demonstrated that some metabolites may potentially pose greater risk than their parent APIs in the water environment. Therefore, significance of metabolites should be carefully evaluated for monitoring strategy, priority setting, and scoping of the environmental risk assessment of APIs. The method used in the present work may serve as a pragmatic approach for the purpose of preliminary screening or priority setting of environmental risk posed by both APIs and their metabolites.

Cyto-genotoxicity and oxidative stress in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to a mixture of ibuprofen and diclofenac

Thirty million people worldwide consume each day nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), a heterogeneous group of pharmaceuticals used for its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Recent studies report high NSAID concentrations in wastewater treatment plant effluents, in surface, ground, and drinking water, and in sediments. NSAIDs are also known to induce toxicity on aquatic organisms. However, toxicity in natural ecosystems is not usually the result of exposure to a single substance but to a mixture of toxic agents, yet only a few studies have evaluated the toxicity of mixtures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity induced by diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBP), and their mixture on a species of commercial interest, the common carp Cyprinus carpio. The median lethal concentration of IBP and DCF was determined, and oxidative stress was evaluated using the following biomarkers: lipid peroxidation and activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase. Cyto-genotoxicity was evaluated by micronucleus test, comet assay, and the specific activity of caspase-3. Results show that DCF, IBP, and a mixture of these pharmaceuticals induced free radical production, oxidative stress and cyto-genotoxicity in tissues of C. carpio. However, a greater effect was elicited by the mixture than by either pharmaceutical alone in some biomarkers evaluated, particularly in gill. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1637-1650, 2017.

Humic dissolved organic carbon drives oxidative stress and severe fitness impairments in Daphnia

Increases in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the form of humic substances, causing browning of surface water, have been reported worldwide. Field surveys indicate that higher DOC levels can influence primary production and thus plankton composition. Experimental studies on the direct effects of humic DOC on aquatic organisms have shown varying results depending on concentration and additional environmental factors. Moreover, changes in life-histories and stress responses have usually been tested separately, rather than in combination. We experimentally tested the impact of a sudden increase in humic DOC on two species of the zooplankton cladoceran Daphnia, across several levels of biological organisation, from cellular to population responses. In D. magna, strong impacts on reproduction (delayed maturity and reduced number of offspring) were coupled with overall stress induction (increases in antioxidant capacity and oxidative damage, combined with a reduced amount of available energy). In D. longispina, increased mortality and lowered fecundity were observed. We conclude that a strong input of humic DOC into aquatic systems can have severe negative impacts on zooplankton species, and has the potential to alter zooplankton community structures.

Review on fate and mechanism of removal of pharmaceutical pollutants from wastewater using biological approach

Due to research advancement and discoveries in the field of medical science, maintains and provides better human health and safer life, which lead to high demand for production of pharmaceutical compounds with a concomitant increase in population. These pharmaceutical (biologically active) compounds were not fully metabolized by the body and excreted out in wastewater. This micro-pollutant remains unchanged during wastewater treatment plant operation and enters into the receiving environment via the discharge of treated water. Persistence of pharmaceutical compounds in both surface and ground waters becomes a major concern due to their potential eco-toxicity. Pharmaceuticals (emerging micro-pollutants) deteriorate the water quality and impart a toxic effect on living organisms. Therefore, from last two decades, plenty of studies were conducted on the occurrence, impact, and removal of pharmaceutical residues from the environment. This review provides an overview on the fate and removal of pharmaceutical compounds via biological treatment process.

Reproductive and developmental toxicity of the herbicide Betanal® Expert and corresponding active ingredients to Daphnia spp

The commercial herbicide formulation Betanal® Expert and its active ingredients (a.i.s) ethofumesate, phenmedipham and desmedipham were focused in this study. Following questions yielding from a previous study, an in-depth analysis of the reproductive toxicity of the pesticide was made. Long-term exposures of Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina to Betanal® Expert, to each a.i. and to a customised mixture matching the a.i.s ratio within the commercial formulation were carried out, and deleterious effects in the offspring were recorded. This intended to clarify whether (1) the tested compounds induce reproductive injury; (2) there is interspecific variation in daphnids tolerance to the compounds; (3) there is an interaction between chemicals in combined treatments; and (4) the so-called inert ingredients added to the commercial formulation contribute to the toxicity of the herbicide. Generally, developmental impair was observed in both species (egg abortion and release of undeveloped embryos or dead offspring) at concentrations of any of the a.i.s below 1 mg L(-1). Ethofumesate was invariably the least toxic pesticide, and D. magna tended to be of slightly higher sensitivity to the exposures compared to D. longispina. Joint exposures indicated that the a.i.s can interact, inducing more than and less than additive effects for Betanal® Expert and the customised a.i. mixture, respectively. This indicates that inert ingredients co-formulating the commercial pesticide (which are absent from the customised a.i. mixture) actually contribute to its overall toxicity. This study constitutes an add-on to the discussion on the ecotoxicological framework required for authorisation of pesticide trade and usage. The results support the need to consider test species, long-term hazardous potential and toxicity of commercial formulations rather than solely that of active ingredients, as relevant variables in pesticide regulation.

Short and long-term exposure to diclofenac alter oxidative stress status in common carp Cyprinus carpio

Diclofenac (DCF) has been detected in significant amounts in municipal treated wastewater effluent. Diverse studies report that trace concentrations of DCF may induce toxic effects on different aquatic organisms as well as developmental, reproductive and renal damage. This study aimed to determine whether short and long-term exposure to DCF alter the oxidative stress (OS) status in blood, muscle, gills, brain and liver of common carp Cyprinus carpio. The median lethal concentration of DCF at 96 h (96-h LC50) and subsequently the lowest observed adverse effect level were determined. Carp were exposed (short and long-term) to the latter value for different exposure times (4 and 24 days) and the following biomarkers were evaluated in gill, brain, liver and blood: hydroperoxides content (HPC), lipid peroxidation (LPX), protein carbonyl content (PCC) and the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Also, the DCF was determined by LC-MS/MS. Significant increases in HPC, LPX and PCC were observed respect to control (P < 0.05) particularly in blood, muscle, gill, brain and liver. SOD, CAT and GPx activity also increased in these organs, with respect to controls (P < 0.05). DCF concentrations decreased and increased in water system and carp, respectively. Cyprinus carpio exposed to DCF was affected in OS status during the initial days of the study (at 4 days), exhibiting an increased response at 24 days in blood and liver. In contrast, a decrease was observed in muscle, gills and brain at 24 days with respect to 4 days. In conclusion, DCF induces OS on blood, muscle, gills, brain and liver in the carp C. carpio in short and long-term exposure. The biomarkers employed in this study are useful in the assessment of the environmental impact of this agent on aquatic species.

DNA damage and oxidative stress induced by acetylsalicylic acid in Daphnia magna

Acetylsalicylic acid is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory widely used due to its low cost and high effectiveness. This compound has been found in water bodies worldwide and is toxic to aquatic organisms; nevertheless its capacity to induce oxidative stress in bioindicators like Daphnia magna remains unknown. This study aimed to evaluate toxicity in D. magna induced by acetylsalicylic acid in water, using oxidative stress and DNA damage biomarkers. An acute toxicity test was conducted in order to determine the median lethal concentration (48-h LC50) and the concentrations to be used in the subsequent subacute toxicity test in which the following biomarkers were evaluated: lipid peroxidation, oxidized protein content, activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, and level of DNA damage. Lipid peroxidation level and oxidized protein content were significantly increased (p<0.05), and antioxidant enzymes significantly altered with respect to controls; while the DNA damage were significantly increased (p<0.05) too. In conclusion, acetylsalicylic acid induces oxidative stress and DNA damage in D. magna.

Environmental effects of anticholinesterasic therapeutic drugs on a crustacean species, Daphnia magna

The presence of pharmaceutical drugs in the environment is an important field of toxicology, since such residues can cause deleterious effects on exposed biota. This study assessed the ecotoxicological acute and chronic effects of two anticholinesterasic drugs, neostigmine and pyridostigmine in Daphnia magna. Our study calculated 48 h-EC50 values for the immobilization assay of 167.7 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and 91.3 μg L(-1) for pyridostigmine. In terms of feeding behavior, we calculated a 5 h-EC50 for filtration rates of 7.1 and 0.2 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and pyridostigmine, respectively; for the ingestion rates, the calculated EC50 values were, respectively, 7.5 and 0.2 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and pyridostigmine. In the reproduction assay, the most affected parameter was the somatic growth rate (LOECs of 21.0 and 2.9 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and pyridostigmine, respectively), followed by the fecundity (LOECs of 41.9 and 11.4 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and pyridostigmine, respectively). We also determined a 48 h-IC50 for cholinesterase activity of 1.7 and 4.5 μg L(-1) for neostigmine and pyridostigmine, respectively. These results demonstrated that both compounds are potentially toxic for D. magna at concentrations in the order of the μg L(-1).

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the aquatic environment in China: a review

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been detected as contaminants of emerging concern ubiquitously in the aquatic environment in China and worldwide. A clear picture of PPCP contamination in the Chinese aquatic environment is needed to gain insight for both research and regulatory needs (e.g. monitoring, control and management). The occurrence data of 112 PPCPs in waters and sediments in China has been reviewed. In most cases, the detected concentration of these PPCPs in waters and sediments were at ng/L and ng/g levels, which were lower than or comparable to those reported worldwide. A screening level risk assessment (SLERA) identified six priority PPCPs in surface waters, namely erythromycin, roxithromycin, diclofenac, ibuprofen, salicylic acid and sulfamethoxazole. The results of SLERA also revealed that the hot spots for PPCP pollution were those river waters affected by the megacities with high density of population, such as Beijing, Tianjin, Guangzhou and Shanghai. Limitations of current researches and implications for future research in China were discussed. Some regulatory issues were also addressed.

Emerging contaminants in Belgian marine waters: single toxicant and mixture risks of pharmaceuticals

Knowledge on the effects of pharmaceuticals on aquatic marine ecosystems is limited. The aim of this study was therefore to establish the effect thresholds of pharmaceutical compounds occurring in the Belgian marine environment for the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and subsequently perform an environmental risk assessment for these substances. Additionally, a screening-level risk assessment was performed for the pharmaceutical mixtures. No immediate risk for acute toxic effects of these compounds on P. tricornutum were apparent at the concentrations observed in the Belgian marine environment. In two Belgian coastal harbours however, a potential chronic risk was observed for the β-blocker propranolol. No additional risks arising from the exposure to mixtures of pharmaceuticals present in the sampling area could be detected. However, as risk characterization ratios for mixtures of up to 0.5 were observed, mixture effects could emerge should more compounds be taken into account.

Diclofenac-induced oxidative stress in brain, liver, gill and blood of common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Due to its analgesic properties, diclofenac (DCF) is one of the most commonly used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). While residue from this pharmaceutical agent has been found in diverse water bodies in various countries, there is not enough information of its potential toxicity on aquatic organisms, particularly in species which are economically valuable due to their high consumption by humans, such as the common carp Cyprinus carpio. This study aimed to evaluate potential DCF-induced oxidative stress in brain, liver, gill and blood of C. carpio. The median lethal concentration of DCF at 96h (96-h LC50) was determined and used to establish the concentration equivalent to the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL). Carp specimens were exposed to this concentration for different exposure times (12, 24, 48, 72 and 96h) and the following biomarkers were evaluated: lipid peroxidation (LPX) and the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Also, the DCF and 4-hydroxy DCF was determined by LC-MS/MS. Results show a statistically significant LPX increase (P<0.05) in liver and gill mainly as well as significant changes in the activity of the antioxidant enzymes evaluated in these organs, with respect to controls (P<0.05). The DCF concentrations decreased in water system and increased in the carp. The DCF biotransformation to 4-hydroxy DCF was observed to 12h. The pharmaceutical agent DCF is concluded to induce oxidative stress on the common carp C. carpio, with the highest incidence of oxidative damage occurring in liver and gill. Furthermore, the biomarkers employed in this study are useful in the assessment of the environmental impact of this agent on aquatic species.

Acute and chronic toxicity of Betanal(®)Expert and its active ingredients on nontarget aquatic organisms from different trophic levels

As a way to improve the efficacy to target organisms, new pesticide generation is based on technologically advanced coformulations of two or more active ingredients. One example is Betanal(®)Expert, a postemergence herbicide composed of an Advanced Micro Droplet coformulation of phenmedipham, desmedipham, and ethofumesate. Although its composed formulation brings an increase in the pesticide performance, it can also enhance its toxicity to nontarget species. Therefore, the present study intends to contribute with relevant information on ecotoxicological effects of Betanal(®)Expert and its active ingredients on a battery of bioassays using aquatic species from different trophic levels: bacteria (Vibrio fischeri), microalgae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, Chlorella vulgaris, and Chlamydomonas pseudocostata), macrophyte (Lemna minor), and cladocerans (Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina) species. Across the organisms tested and endpoints measured, different responses concerning the toxicity of the active ingredients were found: (i) phenmedipham was the most toxic to V. fischeri and L. minor; (ii) desmedipham was the most toxic to P. subcapitata, D. magna, and D. longispina; (iii) and ethofumesate was the most toxic to C. pseudocostata and C. vulgaris. Furthermore, for C. pseudocostata and daphnids, the toxicity observed for some active ingredients was higher than the toxicity of the commercial formulation. In fact, in an attempt to evaluate the contribution of each active ingredient to the overall toxicity of Betanal(®)Expert, it was observed that, in general, the toxicity values obtained for desmedipham and phenmedipham were close or even lower to the values determined for Betanal(®)Expert, indicating that the ethofumesate can act as an antagonist in the three-way coformulation. In spite of the most impaired species being the photosynthetic ones, this study also showed pernicious effects on nonphotosynthetic organisms with distinct target sites. Therefore, our results underline the importance of clarifying the mode of action and metabolic pathways of these compounds on nonphotosynthetic species.

Occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in urban wastewater: removal, mass load and environmental risk after a secondary treatment--a review

This review focuses on 118 pharmaceuticals, belonging to seventeen different therapeutic classes, detected in raw urban wastewater and effluent from an activated sludge system, a usual treatment adopted for urban wastewaters worldwide prior to final discharge into surface water bodies. Data pertaining to 244 conventional activated sludge systems and 20 membrane biological reactors are analysed and the observed ranges of variability of each selected compound in their influent and effluent reported, with particular reference to the substances detected most frequently and in higher concentrations. A snapshot of the ability of these systems to remove such compounds is provided by comparing their global removal efficiencies for each substance. Where possible, the study then evaluates the average daily mass load of the majority of detected pharmaceuticals exiting the secondary treatment step. The final part of the review provides an assessment of the environmental risk posed by their presence in the secondary effluent by means of the risk quotient that is the ratio between the average pharmaceutical concentration measured in the secondary effluent and the predicted no-effect concentration. Finally, mass load rankings of the compounds under review are compared with those based on their risk level. This analysis shows that the highest amounts discharged through secondary effluent pertain to one antihypertensive, and several beta-blockers and analgesics/anti-inflammatories, while the highest risk is posed by antibiotics and several psychiatric drugs and analgesics/anti-inflammatories. These results are reported with a view to aiding scientists and administrators in planning measures aiming to reduce the impact of treated urban wastewater discharge into surface water bodies.

Human pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment: a review of recent toxicological studies and considerations for toxicity testing

Although an increasingly large amount of data exists on the acute and chronic aquatic toxicity of pharmaceuticals, numerous questions still remain. There remains a dearth of information pertaining to the chronic toxicity of bivalves, benthic invertebrates, fish, and endangered species, as well as study designs that examine mechanism-of-action (MOA)-based toxicity, in vitro and computational toxicity, and pharmaceutical mixtures. Studies examining acute toxicity are prolific in the published literature; therefore, we address many of the shortcomings in the literature by proposing "intelligent" well-designed aquatic toxicology studies that consider comparative pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. For example, few studies on the chronic responses of aquatic species to residues of pharmaceuticals have been performed, and very few on variables that are plausibly linked to any therapeutic MOA. Unfortunately, even less is understood about the metabolism of pharmaceuticals in aquatic organisms. Therefore, it is clear that toxicity testing at each tier of an ecological risk assessment scheme would be strengthened for some pharmaceuticals by selecting model organisms and endpoints to address ecologically problematic MOAs. We specifically recommend that future studies employ AOP approaches (Ankley et al. 2010) that leverage mammalian pharmacology information, including data on side effects and contraindications. Use of conceptual AOP models for pharmaceuticals can enhance future studies in ways that assist in the development of more definitive ecological risk assessments, identify chemical classes of concern, and help protect ecosystems that are affected by WWTP effluent discharge.

Occurrence, temporal evolution and risk assessment of pharmaceutically active compounds in Doñana Park (Spain)

Doñana National Park (Southern Spain) is one of the most emblematic protected areas in Europe and is included in UNESCO's World Heritage List. A 1-year monitoring study was carried out to investigate the presence of 16 pharmaceutical compounds belonging to seven therapeutic groups in wastewater discharges, rivers and streams affecting Doñana Park. Fourteen pharmaceuticals were detected in effluent wastewater at concentration levels up to 26.8 μg L(-1) and thirteen were detected in surface water at concentration levels up to 4.55 μg L(-1). Ibuprofen was the compound at the highest concentration levels. An increase of the concentration levels in surface water was observed in summer months due to the reduction of the flow rates of the rivers. Nevertheless, risk quotient values estimated in surface water were lower than one so no toxicological effect is suspected to occur. The highest average risk quotients were obtained for ibuprofen (risk quotient 0.67±0.28), gemfibrozil (risk quotient 0.52±0.33), propranolol (0.13±0.06) and naproxen (0.10±0.09). Nevertheless, in summer months, risk quotient values up to 9.3 and 10.7 were estimated for the estrogenic compounds 17α-ethinylestradiol and 17β-estradiol.

Diclofenac-enriched artificial sediment induces oxidative stress in Hyalella azteca

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug widely used in Mexico where it is sold over the counter. It enters water bodies through municipal and industrial discharges, posing a risk to water systems and aquatic organisms. Diclofenac-enriched artificial sediment was used to evaluate the toxicity of this pharmaceutical on the sentinel species Hyalella azteca, using oxidative stress biomarkers in order to determine if the set of tests used in this study is a suitable early damage biomarker. The median lethal concentration (72-h LC(50)) was determined and oxidative stress was evaluated using lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl content to evaluate oxidized protein content, and the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. All biomarkers were significantly altered. Diclofenac induces oxidative stress in H. azteca and the set of tests used (lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl content, antioxidant enzyme activities) constitutes an adequate early damage biomarker for evaluating the toxicity of this pharmaceutical group in aquatic species.

Short- and long-term responses of Daphnia spp. to propanil exposures in distinct food supply scenarios

The widespread increase of pesticides application in crops frequently leads to the contamination of vicinal freshwater lentic ecosystems. Herbicides such as propanil may impair cladoceran fitness, which is per se strongly influenced by the food availability and/or its acquisition efficiency. This work intended to evaluate the responses of Daphnia magna and three clonal lineages belonging to the Daphnia longispina complex to acute and chronic exposures of the herbicide propanil, as well as to assess whether food availability features these responses. Results showed that the agrochemical was acutely and chronically toxic to both D. magna and the D. cf. longispina clones at the same range of low concentrations, while relevant differences were depicted between the three distinct genotypes belonging to the D. longispina complex. Food-level conditioned the general fitness of the daphnids in the tests but evidences suggest that it does not interfere specifically with the toxicant mode of action.

Effects of food availability on the acute and chronic toxicity of the insecticide methomyl to Daphnia spp

The widespread increase of pesticides application in crops threats vicinal freshwater lentic ecosystems, frequently leading to their contamination. Due to their position in the aquatic food web, the responses to these pesticide inputs of freshwater filter-feeding zooplankters, as daphnids, provide relevant information the general risk to the ecosystem of xenobiotics. Moreover, cladoceran grazers often face fluctuations in food availability due to the phytoplankton dynamics in lentic water bodies, and food acquisition naturally conditions their fitness. In this study, the responses of Daphnia magna, and of three genotypes within the Daphnia longispina complex, to acute and chronic exposures of methomyl, were assessed. In addition, we focused on whether the food level can model the Daphnia life-history responses to the insecticide. Results showed that methomyl was acutely and chronically toxic to both D. magna and the D. cf longispina populations at very low concentrations, and remarkable differences in sensitivity were noticed when comparing the responses to the toxic among taxa/genotypes. Furthermore, food availability conditioned the overall fitness of the species although not interacting specifically on the response to the toxicant stress.

Evaluation of water column and sediment toxicity from an abandoned uranium mine using a battery of bioassays

Uranium mining activities in Cunha Baixa, Mangualde (Portugal), were extensive between 1967 and 1993, with high production of poor ore. Ore exploitation left millions of tons of tailings in the surrounding area, close to human houses. Contamination of the area (water and soil compartment) presently represents a serious hazard to humans and wildlife. The aim of this work was to evaluate the acute toxicity of water and sediments from a pond that floods a uranium mine pit, in two periods (spring and autumn). High contents of metals were found in water samples (chiefly Mn, Fe, Al, U, Sr). A battery of assays was applied to screen the acute toxicity of the different compartments using algae, crustaceans and dipterans. Results showed that the sediments were non-toxic, unlike the superficial water. Water toxicity was higher in the autumn, when the effluent was more acidic, compared to spring. In the water toxicity assays, the relative sensitivity of the test species used was Daphnia longispina>Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata>Daphnia magna. The present study is part of the chemical and ecotoxicological characterisation of the aquatic compartment performed in the Tier 1 of the Ecological Risk Assessment of the Cunha Baixa mining area.