Species differences in carcinogenicity and peroxisome proliferation due to trichloroethylene: a biochemical human hazard assessment

Assessment of the mode of action of perchloroethylene-induced mouse liver tumors

Perchloroethylene (PCE) is used as a solvent and chemical intermediate. Following chronic inhalation exposure, PCE selectively induced liver tumors in mice. Understanding the mode of action (MOA) for PCE carcinogenesis in mice is important in defining its possible human cancer risk. The proposed MOA is based on the extensive examination of the peer-reviewed studies that have assessed the mouse liver effects of PCE and its major oxidative metabolite trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Similar to PCE, TCA has also been demonstrated to liver tumors selectively in mice following chronic exposure. The Key Events (KE) of the proposed PCE MOA involve oxidative metabolism of PCE to TCA [KE 1]; activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) [KE 2]; alteration in hepatic gene expression including cell growth pathways [KE 3]; increase in cell proliferation [KE 4]; selective clonal expansion of hepatic preneoplastic foci [KE 5]; and formation of hepatic neoplasms [KE 6]. The scientific evidence supporting the PPARα MOA for PCE is strong and satisfies the requirements for a MOA analysis. The PPARα liver tumor MOA in rodents has been demonstrated not to occur in humans; thus, human liver cancer risk to PCE is not likely.

Epidemiology and Toxicology of Volatile Organic Chemical Contaminants in Water Absorbed Through the Skin

This paper provides a general introduction to the occurrence, epidemiology, and toxicity of some of the most common contaminants of water supplies, the volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). The VOCs are formed from the reaction of chlorine during disinfection with naturally occurring carbon in the form of humic acids. The VOCs may also enter water supplies as a result of manufacturing, processing, distribution, and urban and agricultural run off. Their occurrence is summarized in this paper.

No epidemiologic studies examine the health effects where skin is the sole route of exposure. However, in several studies skin is one of the routes of exposure for VOCs. These are summarized in this paper.

Finally, the toxicity of some of the more important VOCs is summarized. Where possible, similarities in toxicity between individual members of this class of chemical contaminants are noted. There are striking similarities of toxicity of various VOCs in the liver, kidney, and hematopoietic system. These similarities should be considered as skin exposure models are being developed.

Mode of action framework analysis for receptor-mediated toxicity: The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) as a case study

Several therapeutic agents and industrial chemicals induce liver tumors in rodents through the activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα). The cellular and molecular events by which PPARα activators induce rodent hepatocarcinogenesis has been extensively studied and elucidated. This review summarizes the weight of evidence relevant to the hypothesized mode of action (MOA) for PPARα activator-induced rodent hepatocarcinogenesis and identifies gaps in our knowledge of this MOA. Chemical-specific and mechanistic data support concordance of temporal and dose-response relationships for the key events associated with many PPARα activators including a phthalate ester plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and the drug gemfibrozil. While biologically plausible in humans, the hypothesized key events in the rodent MOA, for PPARα activators, are unlikely to induce liver tumors in humans because of toxicodynamic and biological differences in responses. This conclusion is based on minimal or no effects observed on growth pathways, hepatocellular proliferation and liver tumors in humans and/or species (including hamsters, guinea pigs and cynomolgous monkeys) that are more appropriate human surrogates than mice and rats at overlapping dose levels. Overall, the panel concluded that significant quantitative differences in PPARα activator-induced effects related to liver cancer formation exist between rodents and humans. On the basis of these quantitative differences, most of the workgroup felt that the rodent MOA is "not relevant to humans" with the remaining members concluding that the MOA is "unlikely to be relevant to humans". The two groups differed in their level of confidence based on perceived limitations of the quantitative and mechanistic knowledge of the species differences, which for some panel members strongly supports but cannot preclude the absence of effects under unlikely exposure scenarios.

Trichloroethylene: Mechanistic, epidemiologic and other supporting evidence of carcinogenic hazard

The chlorinated solvent trichloroethylene (TCE) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant. The carcinogenic hazard of TCE was the subject of a 2012 evaluation by a Working Group of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Information on exposures, relevant data from epidemiologic studies, bioassays in experimental animals, and toxicity and mechanism of action studies was used to conclude that TCE is carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). This article summarizes the key evidence forming the scientific bases for the IARC classification. Exposure to TCE from environmental sources (including hazardous waste sites and contaminated water) is common throughout the world. While workplace use of TCE has been declining, occupational exposures remain of concern, especially in developing countries. The strongest human evidence is from studies of occupational TCE exposure and kidney cancer. Positive, although less consistent, associations were reported for liver cancer and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. TCE is carcinogenic at multiple sites in multiple species and strains of experimental animals. The mechanistic evidence includes extensive data on the toxicokinetics and genotoxicity of TCE and its metabolites. Together, available evidence provided a cohesive database supporting the human cancer hazard of TCE, particularly in the kidney. For other target sites of carcinogenicity, mechanistic and other data were found to be more limited. Important sources of susceptibility to TCE toxicity and carcinogenicity were also reviewed by the Working Group. In all, consideration of the multiple evidence streams presented herein informed the IARC conclusions regarding the carcinogenicity of TCE.

Evaluation of the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) in mouse liver tumor induction by trichloroethylene and metabolites

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is an industrial solvent and a widespread environmental contaminant. Induction of liver cancer in mice by TCE is thought to be mediated by two metabolites, dichloroacetate (DCA) and trichloroacetate (TCA), both of which are themselves mouse liver carcinogens. TCE, TCA, and DCA are relatively weak peroxisome proliferators (PP), a group of rodent hepatocarcinogens that activate a nuclear receptor, PP-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha. The objective of this review is to assess the weight of evidence (WOE) that PPARalpha is or is not mechanistically involved in mouse liver tumor induction by TCE and metabolites. Based on similarities of TCE and TCA to typical PP, including dose-response characteristics showing PPARalpha-dependent responses coincident with liver tumor induction and abolishment of TCE and TCA effects in PPARalpha-null mice, the WOE supports the hypothesis that PPARalpha plays a dominant role in TCE- and TCA-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. Data indicates that the MOA for DCA tumor induction is PPARalpha-independent. Uncertainties remain regarding the genesis of the TCE-induced tumors. In contrast to the TCA-induced tumors, which have molecular features similar to those induced by typical PP, there is evidence, albeit weak, that TCE tumors arise by a mode of action (MOA) different from that of TCA tumors, based largely on dissimilarities in molecular markers found in TCE versus TCA-induced tumors. In summary, the WOE indicates that TCA-induced liver tumors arise by a PPARalpha-dependent MOA. Although the TCE MOA is likely dominated by a PPARalpha-dependent contribution from TCA, the contribution of a PPARalpha-independent MOA from DCA cannot be ruled out.

Applying Mode-of-Action and Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Contemporary Cancer Risk Assessments: An Example with Trichloroethylene

The guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment recently proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) provide an increased opportunity for the consideration of pharmacokinetic and mechanistic data in the risk assessment process. However, the greater flexibility of the new guidelines can also make their actual implementation for a particular chemical highly problematic. To illuminate the process of performing a cancer risk assessment under the new guidelines, the rationale for a state-of-the-science risk assessment for trichloroethylene (TCE) is presented. For TCE, there is evidence of increased cell proliferation due to receptor interaction or cytotoxicity in every instance in which tumors are observed, and most tumors represent an increase in the incidence of a commonly observed, species-specific lesion. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was applied to estimate target tissue doses for the three principal animal tumors associated with TCE exposure: liver, lung, and kidney. The lowest points of departure (lower bound estimates of the exposure associated with 10% tumor incidence) for lifetime human exposure to TCE were obtained for mouse liver tumors, assuming a mode of action primarily involving the mitogenicity of the metabolite trichloroacetic acid (TCA). The associated linear unit risk estimates for mouse liver tumors are 1.5 x 10(-6) for lifetime exposure to 1 microg TCE per cubic meter in air and 0.4 x 10(-6) for lifetime exposure to 1 microg TCE per liter in drinking water. However, these risk estimates ignore the evidence that the human is likely to be much less responsive than the mouse to the carcinogenic effects of TCA in the liver and that the carcinogenic effects of TCE are unlikely to occur at low environmental exposures. Based on consideration of the most plausible carcinogenic modes of action of TCE, a margin-of-exposure (MOE) approach would appear to be more appropriate. Applying an MOE of 1000, environmental exposures below 66 microg TCE per cubic meter in air and 265 microg TCE per liter in drinking water are considered unlikely to present a carcinogenic hazard to human health.

PPARα Agonist-Induced Rodent Tumors: Modes of Action and Human Relevance

Widely varied chemicals--including certain herbicides, plasticizers, drugs, and natural products--induce peroxisome proliferation in rodent liver and other tissues. This phenomenon is characterized by increases in the volume density and fatty acid oxidation of these organelles, which contain hydrogen peroxide and fatty acid oxidation systems important in lipid metabolism. Research showing that some peroxisome proliferating chemicals are nongenotoxic animal carcinogens stimulated interest in developing mode of action (MOA) information to understand and explain the human relevance of animal tumors associated with these chemicals. Studies have demonstrated that a nuclear hormone receptor implicated in energy homeostasis, designated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha), is an obligatory factor in peroxisome proliferation in rodent hepatocytes. This report provides an in-depth analysis of the state of the science on several topics critical to evaluating the relationship between the MOA for PPARalpha agonists and the human relevance of related animal tumors. Topics include a review of existing tumor bioassay data, data from animal and human sources relating to the MOA for PPARalpha agonists in several different tissues, and case studies on the potential human relevance of the animal MOA data. The summary of existing bioassay data discloses substantial species differences in response to peroxisome proliferators in vivo, with rodents more responsive than primates. Among the rat and mouse strains tested, both males and females develop tumors in response to exposure to a wide range of chemicals including DEHP and other phthalates, chlorinated paraffins, chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene, and certain pesticides and hypolipidemic pharmaceuticals. MOA data from three different rodent tissues--rat and mouse liver, rat pancreas, and rat testis--lead to several different postulated MOAs, some beginning with PPARalpha activation as a causal first step. For example, studies in rodent liver identified seven "key events," including three "causal events"--activation of PPARalpha, perturbation of cell proliferation and apoptosis, and selective clonal expansion--and a series of associative events involving peroxisome proliferation, hepatocyte oxidative stress, and Kupffer-cell-mediated events. Similar in-depth analysis for rat Leydig-cell tumors (LCTs) posits one MOA that begins with PPARalpha activation in the liver, but two possible pathways, one secondary to liver induction and the other direct inhibition of testicular testosterone biosynthesis. For this tumor, both proposed pathways involve changes in the metabolism and quantity of related hormones and hormone precursors. Key events in the postulated MOA for the third tumor type, pancreatic acinar-cell tumors (PACTs) in rats, also begin with PPARalpha activation in the liver, followed by changes in bile synthesis and composition. Using the new human relevance framework (HRF) (see companion article), case studies involving PPARalpha-related tumors in each of these three tissues produced a range of outcomes, depending partly on the quality and quantity of MOA data available from laboratory animals and related information from human data sources.

Lack of formic acid production in rat hepatocytes and human renal proximal tubule cells exposed to chloral hydrate or trichloroacetic acid

The industrial solvent trichloroethylene (TCE) and its major metabolites have been shown to cause formic aciduria in male rats. We have examined whether chloral hydrate (CH) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA), known metabolites of TCE, produce an increase in formic acid in vitro in cultures of rat hepatocytes or human renal proximal tubule cells (HRPTC). The metabolism and cytotoxicity of CH was also examined to establish that the cells were metabolically active and not compromised by toxicity. Rat hepatocytes and HRPTC were cultured in serum-free medium and then treated with 0.3-3mM CH for 3 days or 0.03-3mM CH for 10 days, respectively and formic acid production, metabolism to trichloroethanol (TCE-OH) and TCA and cytotoxicity determined. No increase in formic acid production in rat hepatocytes or HRPTC exposed to CH was observed over and above that due to chemical degradation, neither was formic acid production observed in rat hepatocytes exposed to TCA. HRPTC metabolized CH to TCE-OH and TCA with a 12-fold greater capacity to form TCE-OH versus TCA. Rat hepatocytes exhibited a 1.6-fold and three-fold greater capacity than HRPTC to form TCE-OH and TCA, respectively. CH and TCA were not cytotoxic to rat hepatocytes at concentrations up to 3mM/day for 3 days. With HRPTC, one sample showed no cytotoxicity to CH at concentrations up to 3mM/day for 10 days, while in another cytotoxicity was seen at 1mM/day for 3 days. In summary, increased formic acid production was not observed in rat hepatocytes or HRPTC exposed to TCE metabolites, suggesting that the in vivo response cannot be modelled in vitro. CH was toxic to HRPTC at millimolar concentrations/day over 10 days, while glutathione derived metabolites of TCE were toxic at micromolar concentrations/day over 10 days [Lock, E.A., Reed, C.J., 2006. Trichloroethylene: mechanisms of renal toxicity and renal cancer and relevance to risk assessment. Toxicol. Sci. 19, 313-331] supporting the view that glutathione derived metabolites are likely to be responsible for nephrotoxicity.

Cancer incidence among workers potentially exposed to chlorinated solvents in an electronics factory

A retrospective cohort morbidity study based on standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) was conducted to investigate the possible association between exposure to chlorinated organic solvents and various types of cancers in an electronics factory. The cohort of the exposed group was retrieved from the Bureau of Labor Insurance (BLI) computer database records dating from 1978 through December 31, 1997. Person-year accumulation began on the date of entry to the cohort, or January 1, 1979 (whichever came later), and ended on the closing date of the study (December 31, 1997), if alive without contracting any type of cancers, or the date of death, or the date of the cancer diagnosis. Vital status and cases of cancer of study subjects were determined from January 1, 1979 to December 31, 1997 by linking cohort data with the National Cancer Registry Database. The cancer incidence of the general population was used for comparison. After adjustment for age and calendar year, only SIR for breast cancer in the exposed female employees were significantly elevated when compared with the Taiwanese general population, based on the entire cohort without exclusion. The SIR of female breast cancer also showed a significant trend of period effect, but no significant dose-response relationship on duration of employment. Although the total cancer as well as the cancer for trachea, bronchus and lung for the entire female cohort was not significantly elevated, trend analysis by calendar-year interval suggested an upward trend. However, when duration of employment or latency was taken into consideration, no significantly elevated SIR was found for any type of cancer in either male or female exposed workers. In particular, the risk of female breast cancer was not indicated to be increased. No significant dose-response relationship on duration of employment and secular trend was found for the above-mentioned cancers. This study provides no evidence that exposure to chlorinated organic solvents at the electronics factory was associated with elevated human cancers. Dominant short-term employees may bias the cancer risk toward false positive.

Induction of peroxisome proliferation in cultured hepatocytes by a series of halogenated acetates

Trichloroacetate (TCA) and dichloroacetate (DCA) are hepatocarcinogenic metabolites of the environmental pollutant trichloroethylene (TCE) and are common water contaminants. Induction of peroxisome proliferation via activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) has been proposed as a mechanism for their hepatocarcinogenic action. However, it is unclear whether these compounds are direct ligands of PPARalpha or whether activation occurs by a ligand-independent process. The present studies were undertaken to determine whether a primary rat hepatocyte model system could be used to examine structure-activity relationships of haloacetates for the induction of peroxisomal palmitoyl-CoA oxidation. The haloacetates tested differed in both type (iodo, bromo, chloro and fluoro) and extent (mono, di and tri) substitution. Significant differences were observed in both potency and efficacy. Potency varied over about two orders of magnitude, in the order of mono > di = tri. Within the monohalo-substituted series, the order of potency was iodo > bromo > chloro, with the fluoro analog being essentially inactive. The monoiodo- and monobromo-derivatives showed significant induction at 50 and 100 microM, respectively, but cytotoxicity precluded obtaining full concentration-response curves. The dihalo- and trihalo-acetates had generally similar potency, and, with the exception of the diflouro- and dibromoacetates, showed a maximal induction of two- to three-fold. Difluoroacetate and dibromoacetate induced palmitoyl-CoA oxidation by nine- and six-fold, respectively, approaching the effectiveness of Wy-14,643 (50 microM) in this system. Of interest, the slopes of the concentration-dependence lines of the difluoro- and dibromo-acetates were markedly dissimilar from the other di- and tri-haloacetates, suggesting either a marked difference in the way they activate the PPARalpha receptor or a substantial difference in the way they are metabolized or transported by the hepatocytes.

A cohort mortality study of workers exposed to chlorinated organic solvents in Taiwan

PURPOSE

A retrospective cohort mortality study based on standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) was conducted to investigate the possible association between exposure to chlorinated organic solvents and various types of cancer deaths.

METHODS

Vital status and causes of death of study subjects were determined from January 1, 1985 to December 31, 1997 by linking cohort data with the National Mortality Database. Person-year accumulation began on the date of entry to the cohort, or January 1, 1985 (whichever came later), and ended on the closing date of the study (December 31, 1997), if alive; or the date of death.

RESULTS

This retrospective cohort study examined cancer mortality among 86,868 workers at an electronics factory in the northern Taiwan. Using various durations of employment and latency and adjusting for age and calendar year, no significantly elevated SMR was found for any cancer in either male or female exposed workers when compared with the general Taiwanese population. In particular, the risk of female breast cancer was not found to be increased. Although ovarian cancer suggested an upward trend when analyzed by length of employment, ovarian cancer risk for the entire female cohort was not elevated.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that this study provided no evidence that exposure to chlorinated organic solvents was associated with human cancer risk.

Comparison of available benchmark dose softwares and models using trichloroethylene as a model substance

By using trichloroethylene as a model substance the U.S. EPA benchmark dose software was compared to the software by Crump and the software by Kalliomaa. Dose-response and dose-effect data on the liver, kidneys, central nervous system (CNS), and tumours were selected for the evaluation. Based on the present study the U.S. EPA software is preferable to the other softwares for dichotomous data. A wider range in benchmark doses was often observed for dichotomous data when the numbers of dose levels were limited. The log-logistic model in most cases gave the best fit when ranking the dichotomous models. In addition, the log-logistic model often implied a more conservative benchmark dose. For continuous data it was more difficult to find a model describing the data. The softwares by Kalliomaa and by the U.S. EPA offered the best opportunities for benchmark dose modelling of continuous data. Flexible models, like the Hill- and the Mult model, are needed for S-shaped continuous data but these models demand more dose levels in order to describe the data. Since the number of dose levels are important for model selection study design is important and should be further evaluated.

Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene

Determining the key events in the induction of liver cancer in mice by trichloroethylene (TRI) is important in the determination of how risks from this chemical should be treated at low doses. At least two metabolites can contribute to liver cancer in mice, dichloroacetate (DCA) and trichloroacetate (TCA). TCA is produced from metabolism of TRI at systemic concentrations that can clearly contribute to this response. As a peroxisome proliferator and a species-specific carcinogen, TCA may not be important in the induction of liver cancer in humans at the low doses of TRI encountered in the environment. Because DCA is metabolized much more rapidly than TCA, it has not been possible to directly determine whether it is produced at carcinogenic levels. Unlike TCA, DCA is active as a carcinogen in both mice and rats. Its low-dose effects are not associated with peroxisome proliferation. The present study examines whether biomarkers for DCA and TCA can be used to determine if the liver tumor response to TRI seen in mice is completely attributable to TCA or if other metabolites, such as DCA, are involved. Previous work had shown that DCA produces tumors in mice that display a diffuse immunoreactivity to a c-Jun antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, SC-45), whereas TCA-induced tumors do not stain with this antibody. In the present study, we compared the c-Jun phenotype of tumors induced by DCA or TCA alone to those induced when they are given together in various combinations and to those induced by TRI given in an aqueous vehicle. When given in various combinations, DCA and TCA produced a few tumors that were c-Jun+, many that were c-Jun-, but a number with a mixed phenotype that increased with the relative dose of DCA. Sixteen TRI-induced tumors were c-Jun+, 13 were c-Jun-, and 9 had a mixed phenotype. Mutations of the H-ras protooncogene were also examined in DCA-, TCA-, and TRI-induced tumors. The mutation frequency detected in tumors induced by TCA was significantly different from that observed in TRI-induced tumors (0.44 vs 0.21, p < 0.05), whereas that observed in DCA-induced tumors (0.33) was intermediate between values obtained with TCA and TRI, but not significantly different from TRI. No significant differences were found in the mutation spectra of tumors produced by the three compounds. The presence of mutations in H-ras codon 61 appeared to be a late event, but ras-dependent signaling pathways were activated in all tumors. These data are not consistent with the hypothesis that all liver tumors induced by TRI were produced by TCA.

The use of mechanistic data and the handling of scientific uncertainty in carcinogen risk assessments. The trichloroethylene example

The purpose of this paper is to explore how risk assessors actually use mechanistic data in carcinogen risk assessment and to discuss how the handling of scientific uncertainty may affect the outcome of the risk assessment. The analysis is performed by comparing 29 trichloroethylene risk assessment documents in general and 2 of these, namely the ECETOC (1994, Trichloroethylene: Assessment of Human Carcinogenic Hazard, Technical Report No. 60) and the OECD/EU (1996, Initial Assessment Report for the 4th SIAM (Screening Information Data Set Initial Assessment Meeting), May 1996: Trichloroethylene, sponsor country, United Kingdom [Draft]), in more detail. It is concluded that in this example the ECETOC required less evidence for considering a carcinogenic mechanism irrelevant to humans than did the OECD/EU risk assessors. There are examples of when two risk assessors have selected different primary data for their argumentation and also examples of how one and the same primary publication was interpreted differently. Biased data selection and evaluation of primary data that correlate to the risk assessor's overall conclusions have also been identified. The general comparison of all 29 TCE risk assessment documents indicates that the assessment of scientific uncertainty in the mechanistic data affects the overall conclusions.

The effect of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid on DNA methylation and cell proliferation in B6C3F1 mice

The chlorine disinfection by-products, dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA), are carcinogenic in mouse liver. We have previously reported that DCA and TCA induced DNA hypomethylation in mouse liver. In the present study, we determined the temporal association for DNA hypomethylation and cell proliferation. Female B6C3F1 mice were administered daily doses of 500 mg/kg DCA or TCA by gavage and sacrificed at 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 hours after the first dose. The proliferating cell nuclear antigen-labeling index in the liver was increased at 72 and 96 hours by both DCA and TCA, that is, at 72 hours the index was 1.00 +/- 0.21, 0.51 +/- 0.11, and 0.095 +/- 0.016 for DCA, TCA, and the vehicle control, respectively. The mitotic index was also significantly increased at 96 hours. The promoter region for the c-myc gene was hypomethylated only at 72 and 96 hours and not at the earlier sacrifices. Similarly, the methylation of the c-myc gene in the kidney and urinary bladder was decreased only at 72 and 96 hours. In summary, enhancement of cell proliferation and decreased methylation of the c-myc gene were first observed simultaneously at 72 hours after the start of exposure. Thus, the results support the hypothesis that DCA and TCA induce DNA hypomethylation by inducing DNA replication and preventing the methylation of the newly synthesized strands of DNA.

Differential effects of dihalogenated and trihalogenated acetates in the liver of B6C3F1 mice

Haloacetates are produced in the chlorination of drinking water in the range 10--100 microg l(-1). As bromide concentrations increase, brominated haloacetates such as bromodichloroacetate (BDCA), bromochloroacetate (BCA) and dibromoacetate (DBA) appear at higher concentrations than the chlorinated haloacetates: dichloroacetate (DCA) or trichloroacetate (TCA). Both DCA and TCA differ in their hepatic effects; TCA produces peroxisome proliferation as measured by increases in cyanide-insensitive acyl CoA oxidase activity, whereas DCA increases glycogen concentrations. In order to determine whether the brominated haloacetates DBA, BCA and BDCA resemble DCA or TCA more closely, mice were administered DBA, BCA and BDCA in the drinking water at concentrations of 0.2--3 g l(-1). Both BCA and DBA caused liver glycogen accumulation to a similar degree as DCA (12 weeks). The accumulation of glycogen occurred in cells scattered throughout the acinus in a pattern very similar to that observed in control mice. In contrast, TCA and low concentrations of BDCA (0.3 g l(-1)) reduced liver glycogen content, especially in the central lobular region. The high concentration of BDCA (3 g l(-1)) produced a pattern of glycogen distribution similar to that in DCA-treated and control mice. This effect with a high concentration of BDCA may be attributable to the metabolism of BDCA to DCA. All dihaloacetates reduced serum insulin levels. Conversely, trihaloacetates had no significant effects on serum insulin levels. Dibromoacetate was the only brominated haloacetate that consistently increased acyl-CoA oxidase activity and rates of cell replication in the liver. These results further distinguish the effects of the dihaloacetates from those of peroxisome proliferators like TCA.

Species differences in the metabolism and regulation of gene expression by conjugated linoleic acid

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) inhibits carcinogenesis and atherosclerotic plaque formation and delays the onset of diabetes in experimental animals. Whereas a plethora of data has demonstrated beneficial effects in rodent models, little work has been done to determine the role of dietary CLA in human health. The ability of CLA to modulate lipid metabolism appears to be a pivotal mechanism of CLA's beneficial effects in mice and rats. In particular, dietary CLA induces the expression of genes dependent in part on the transcription factor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR). Furthermore, several CLA isomers are high-affinity ligands and activators for PPAR alpha. Within various rodent species and strains, dietary CLA exerts varying potencies; therefore, the differences in species' sensitivities are of great importance when trying to extrapolate the rodent data to be relevant in humans. This review presents the latest findings of the ability of CLA to alter lipid metabolism and gene expression in several different strains of mice and rats and speculates on the implications of these findings for human health.

A cancer risk assessment of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate: application of the new U.S. EPA Risk Assessment Guidelines

The current United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classification of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) as a B2 "probable human" carcinogen is based on outdated information. New toxicology data and a considerable amount of new mechanistic evidence were used to reconsider the cancer classification of DEHP under EPA's proposed new cancer risk assessment guidelines. The total weight-of-evidence clearly indicates that DEHP is not genotoxic. In vivo administration of DEHP to rats and mice results in peroxisome proliferation in the liver, and there is strong evidence and scientific consensus that, in rodents, peroxisome proliferation is directly associated with the onset of liver cancer. Peroxisome proliferation is a transcription-mediated process that involves activation by the peroxisome proliferator of a nuclear receptor in rodent liver called the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPARalpha). The critical role of PPARalpha in peroxisomal proliferation and carcinogenicity in mice is clearly established by the lack of either response in mice genetically modified to remove the PPARalpha. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how, in rodents, peroxisome proliferation can lead to the formation of hepatocellular tumors. The general consensus of scientific opinion is that PPARalpha-induced mitogenesis and cell proliferation are probably the major mechanisms responsible for peroxisome proliferator-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in rodents. Oxidative stress appears to play a significant role in this increased cell proliferation. It triggers the release of TNFalpha by Kupffer cells, which in turn acts as a potent mitogen in hepatocytes. Rats and mice are uniquely responsive to the morphological, biochemical, and chronic carcinogenic effects of peroxisome proliferators, while guinea pigs, dogs, nonhuman primates, and humans are essentially nonresponsive or refractory; Syrian hamsters exhibit intermediate responsiveness. These differences are explained, in part, by marked interspecies variations in the expression of PPARalpha, with levels of expression in humans being only 1-10% of the levels found in rat and mouse liver. Recent studies of DEHP clearly indicate a nonlinear dose-response curve that strongly suggests the existence of a dose threshold below which tumors in rodents are not induced. Thus, the hepatocarcinogenic effects of DEHP in rodents result directly from the receptor-mediated, threshold-based mechanism of peroxisome proliferation, a well-understood process associated uniquely with rodents. Since humans are quite refractory to peroxisomal proliferation, even following exposure to potent proliferators such as hypolipidemic drugs, it is concluded that the hepatocarcinogenic response of rodents to DEHP is not relevant to human cancer risk at any anticipated exposure level. DEHP should be classified an unlikely human carcinogen with a margin of exposure (MOE) approach to risk assessment. The most appropriate and conservative point of reference for assessing MOEs should be 20 mg/kg/day, which is the mouse NOEL for peroxisome proliferation and increased liver weight. Exposure of the general human population to DEHP is approximately 30 microg/kg body wt/day, the major source being from residues in food. Higher exposures occur occupationally [up to about 700 microg/kg body wt/day (mainly by inhalation) based on current workplace standards] and through use of certain medical devices [e.g., up to 457 microg/kg body wt/day for hemodialysis patients (intravenous)], although these have little relevance because the routes of exposure bypass critical activation enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract.

Conjugated linoleic acid activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and beta subtypes but does not induce hepatic peroxisome proliferation in Sprague-Dawley rats

Since conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has structural and physiological characteristics similar to peroxisome proliferators, we hypothesized that CLA would activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR). We compared the effects of dietary CLA (0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% by weight) with a peroxisome proliferator (0.01% Wy-14,643) in female and male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Dietary CLA had little effect on body weight, liver weight, and hepatic peroxisome proliferation, compared to male rats fed Wy-14,643 diet. Lipid content in livers from rats fed 1.5% CLA and Wy-14,643 diets was increased (P < 0.01) when compared to rats fed control diets regardless of gender. Hepatic acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO) mRNA levels were increased 3-fold in male rats fed 1.5% CLA diet compared to rats fed control diets while Wy-14,643 supported approximately 30-fold ACO mRNA accumulation. A similar response was observed for liver fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABP) mRNA. The effect of dietary treatments on hepatic PPAR-responsive genes in female rats was weaker than in male rats. The (9Z,11E)-CLA isomer activated PPAR alpha in transfected cells to a similar extent as Wy-14,643, whereas the furan-CLA metabolite was comparable to bezafibrate on activating PPAR beta. These data suggest that while CLA was able to activate PPARs it is not a peroxisome proliferator in SD rats.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha-regulated growth responses and their importance to hepatocarcinogenesis

Peroxisome proliferators (PPs) are a class of non-genotoxic rodent hepatocarcinogens that act by perturbing liver growth regulation. We have demonstrated previously that PPs suppress both spontaneous rat hepatocyte apoptosis and that induced by exogenous stimuli such as transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF beta1). More recently, we have demonstrated that PPs can suppress apoptosis induced by more diverse stimuli such as DNA damage or ligation of Fas, a receptor related to the tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) family of cell surface receptors. PPs transcriptionally activate the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-alpha, PPAR alpha, a member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. We investigated whether activation of PPAR alpha mediates the suppression of rat hepatocyte apoptosis induced by PPs. We isolated a naturally occurring variant form of PPAR alpha (hPPAR alpha-6/29) from human liver by PCR cloning. hPPAR alpha-6/29 shared the ability of mPPAR alpha to bind to DNA but, unlike mPPAR alpha, could not be activated by PPs. Furthermore, hPPAR alpha-6/29 could act as a dominant negative regulator of PPAR-mediated gene transcription. When introduced into primary rat liver cell cultures by transient transfection, hPPAR alpha-6/29 prevented the suppression of hepatocyte apoptosis by the PP nafenopin, but not that seen in response to phenobarbitone (PB), a non-genotoxic carcinogen whose action does not involve PPAR alpha. The suppression of hepatocyte apoptosis was abrogated completely even though only 30% of hepatocytes were transfected, suggesting the involvement of a soluble factor. Recent data have suggested that TNF alpha, perhaps released by liver Kupffer cells in response to PPs, may play a key role in mediating the effects of PPs on hepatocyte growth regulation.

Comparison of the effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl)adipate on hepatic peroxisome proliferation and cell replication in the rat and mouse

The effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) have been compared in female F344 rats and female B6C3F1 mice fed diets containing 0-4.0% DEHA and 0-2.5% DEHA, respectively, for periods of 1, 4 and 13 weeks. In both the rat and mouse treatment with DEHA at all time points produced a dose-dependent increase in relative liver weight and hepatic peroxisome proliferation as demonstrated by the induction of peroxisomal (cyanide-insensitive palmitoyl-CoA oxidation) and microsomal (lauric acid 12-hydroxylase) fatty acid oxidising enzyme activities. The magnitude of induction of peroxisome proliferation was similar in both species. Replicative DNA synthesis was studied by implanting osmotic pumps containing 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine during study weeks 0-1, 3-4 and 12-13. After 1 week DEHA treatment hepatocyte labelling index values were increased in rats given 2.5 and 4.0% DEHA and mice given 0.6-2.5% DEHA. While DEHA treatment for 4 and 13 weeks did not increase labelling index values in the rat, a sustained stimulation of replicative DNA synthesis was observed in mice given 1.2 and 2.5% DEHA. The results of this study demonstrate a species difference in the hepatic effects of DEHA, in that at some dose levels DEHA can produce a sustained stimulation of replicative DNA synthesis in mouse but not in rat liver. Sustained cell replication provides a better correlation with the observed formation of liver tumours in chronic studies with DEHA in female mice, but not in female rats, than the magnitude of stimulation of hepatic peroxisome proliferation.

The role of mouse intestinal microflora in the metabolism of trichloroethylene, an in vivo study

1. Both trichloroethylene and its metabolite, dichloroacetic acid, produce liver tumors peroxisome proliferation and other adverse cellular alterations in rodents. 2. The hepatic mechanism by which dichloroacetic acid is formed is not conclusively demonstrated, but pharmacokinetic models have successfully associated its formation with trichloroacetic acid as immediate precursor. 3. Previous investigations have shown that dichloroacetic acid is formed from trichloroacetic acid by gut microflora isolated in vitro. 4. To determine the impact of gut microflora on dichloroacetic acid formation from a trichloroethylene dose in vivo, we developed a procedure which reduced gut microflora some 3 orders of magnitude below published levels. 5. The administration of trichloroethylene to control mice and to mice whose gut was practically sterile resulted in equivalent concentrations of dichloroacetic acid and other metabolites in blood and liver, but significantly different content of these metabolites in cecum contents. 6. These data indicate that gut microflora contribute minimally, if at all, to the formation of circulating dichloroacetic acid under these conditions.

Dissimilar characteristics of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-initiated foci and tumors promoted by dichloroacetic acid or trichloroacetic acid in the liver of female B6C3F1 mice

Dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) are metabolites of the industrial solvent and environmental contaminant trichloroethylene (TCE), as well as contaminants of chlorinated drinking water. Human exposure to these chemicals is of concern as all three have been shown to increase liver tumor incidence in mice. Differences in dose-response curves, progression to cancer, and postexposure regression of lesions suggest that TCA and DCA work through different mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to further characterize the proliferative hepatocellular lesions promoted by TCA and DCA using biomarkers of cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism in liver sections to better delineate the distinctions in the mechanism of the two chloroacetates. Fifteen-day-old female mice were initiated with 25 mg/kg N-methyl-N-nitrosourea. The initiated mice were administered DCA or TCA (20.0 mmol/L) in drinking water from age 49 days until euthanasia at age 413 days. The pathologic assessment showed that the foci of altered hepatocytes and tumors occurring in the animals promoted with DCA were eosinophilic and positive immunohistochemically for TGF-alpha, c-jun, c-myc, CYP 2E1, CYP 4A1, and glutathione S-transferase-pi (GST-pi). The DCA lesions also were essentially negative for c-fos and TGF-beta, but nontumor hepatocytes were consistently TGF-beta-positive. In contrast, tumors promoted by TCA were predominantly basophilic, lacked GST-pi, and stained variably; usually, more than 50% of the tumor hepatocytes were essentially negative for the other biomarkers. This study demonstrates some striking differences in certain molecular biomarkers of cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism between DCA and TCA. The results also suggest some potential growth signal transduction pathways that may contribute to the DCA promotion of tumors, further support the premise that these two chloroacetates promote hepatocarcinogenesis in different ways, and provide a rational basis for a similar comparison with TCE. Such a comparison should give some insight as to whether DCA, TCA, or both are playing a significant role in the murine liver carcinogenesis of the parent compound, TCE.

Trichloroethylene radicals generated by ionizing radiation. An EPR/spin trapping study

Trichloroethylene (TCE) was exposed in the presence of the spin trap N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenyl nitrone (PBN, 0.1 M) to ionizing radiation from two different sources in an attempt to determine the origin of the spin-trapped radicals generating the EPR spectra in precision cut liver slices. TCE samples were irradiated with 18 MeV electrons to a total dose of 1000 Gy in a linear accelerator (LINAC) or exposed to 60Co gamma-rays to total doses of 100 Gy and 1000 Gy. The results show that three PBN adducts were generated during the LINAC radiations. Two of these spin adducts correspond to the addition of carbon-centered radicals to PBN, and the third adduct is consistent with a decomposition product of PBN. The predominant carbon-entered radical yields a PBN adduct that is more stable, persists for over 24 h and has identical hyperfine coupling constants (aN = 1.61 mT, aH beta = 0.325 mT) to the PBN adduct obtained when precision-cut liver slices were exposed to TCE. Gamma radiation (100 Gy) of TCE yields PBN adducts with lower primary nitrogen hyperfine coupling constants (aN = 1.45 mT and aN = 1.54 mT). The results (gamma-radiation) suggest that the carbon-centered radical is formed on a single TCE carbon that is different than the predominant radical formed during LINAC radiations. This difference is confirmed by experiments using 13C-TCE. The results further suggest that, during gamma-radiation of TCE, the radicals are formed by dechlorination at the TCE carbon containing two chlorine atoms. The results obtained during LINAC radiations suggest that the predominant radical is formed by dechlorination at the TCE carbon containing a single chlorine and a single proton. In addition, it is possible that this radical is the initial TCE radical formed during exposure of liver slices to TCE.

Promotion by mixtures of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-initiated cancer in the liver of female B6C3F1 mice

Hepatic tumor promoting activity was determined for mixtures of dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) in female B6C3F1 mice initiated on day 15 of age with 25 mg/kg N-methyl-N-nitrosourea. The mice received in their drinking water from 6 to 50 weeks of age either DCA (7.8, 15.6, or 25 mmol/l) with/without 6.0 mmol/l TCA or TCA (6.0 or 25 mmol/l) with/without 15.6 mmol/l DCA. Proliferative lesions (foci of altered hepatocytes and hepatocellular adenomas) promoted by TCA increased linearly with its concentration and were predominantly basophilic and negative for glutathione S-transferase-pi (GST-pi), while those promoted by DCA increased exponentially with its concentration and were eosinophilic and positive for GST-pi. The promoting activity of DCA and TCA in mixtures was at least additive. The proliferative lesions resulting from exposure to the mixtures were predominately similar to those promoted by DCA, i.e. contained eosinophilic and GST-pi-positive hepatocytes.

Trichloroethylene cancer risk: simplified calculation of PBPK-based MCLs for cytotoxic end points

Cancer risk assessments for trichloroethylene (TCE) based on linear extrapolation from bioassay results are questionable in light of new data on TCE's likely mechanism of action involving induced cytotoxicity, for which a threshold-type dose-response model may be more appropriate. Previous studies have shown that if a genotoxic mechanism for TCE is assumed, algebraic methods can considerably simplify the use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to estimate virtually safe environmental concentrations for humans based on rodent cancer-bioassay data. We show here how such methods can be extended to the case in which TCE is assumed to induce cancer via cytotoxicity, to estimate environmentally safe concentrations based on rodent toxicity data. These methods can be substituted for the numerical methods typically used to calculate PBPK-effective doses when these are defined as peak concentrations. We selected liver and kidney as plausible target tissues, based on an analysis of rodent TCE-bioassay data and on a review of related data bearing on mechanism. Tumor patterns in rodent bioassays are shown to be consistent with our estimates of PBPK-based, effective cytotoxic doses to mice and rats used in these studies. When used with a margin of exposure of 1000, our method yielded maximum concentration levels for TCE of 16 ppb (87 micrograms/m3) for TCE in air respired 24 hr/day, 700 ppb (3.8 mg/m3) for TCE in air respired for relatively brief daily periods (e.g., 0.5 hr while showering/bathing), and 210 micrograms/liter for TCE in drinking water assuming a daily 2-liter ingestion. Cytotoxic effective doses were also estimated for occupational respiratory exposures. These estimates indicate that the current OSHA permissible exposure limit for TCE would produce metabolite concentrations that exceed an acute no observed adverse effect level for hepatotoxicity in mice. On this basis, the OSHA TCE limit is not expected to be protective.

Reduced expression of mature TGF beta 1 correlates with the suppression of rat hepatocyte apoptosis by the peroxisome proliferator, nafenopin

Non-genotoxic carcinogens cause cancer without damaging the DNA. Peroxisome proliferators (PPs) are a class of potent rodent non-genotoxic hepatocarcinogens that may act by perturbing hepatocyte growth regulation. Previously, we have shown that although cultured rat hepatocytes degenerate rapidly in culture, their survival can be reversibly maintained by the PP nafenopin. This prolonged survival is associated with a decrease in the number of hepatocytes displaying the chromatin condensation characteristic of apoptosis. The addition of the negative growth regulator TGF beta-1 induced high levels of hepatocyte apoptosis but nafenopin was able to suppress this TGF beta-1 induced apoptosis. These data suggested that increased levels of mature TGF beta-1 may be involved in the signalling of the apoptosis seen in degenerating hepatocyte cultures. To test this hypothesis, we carried out Western blot analyses using a anti-TGF beta 1 antibody. There was an increase (p = 0.014) in expression of mature TGF beta 1 in degenerating rat hepatocyte cultures compared with hepatocyte cultures surviving in the presence of nafenopin. However, there was a concomitant decrease (p = 0.024) in TGF beta 1-latency activated protein (TGF beta 1-LAP), the precursor of the active, mature form. Immunocytochemistry confirmed that TGF beta 1/TGF beta 1-LAP expression was predominantly in the hepatocytes displaying apoptotic morphology although expression was detected also in non-parenchymal liver cells. The immunocytochemistry data indicate that TGF beta 1 is involved during the onset of hepatocyte apoptosis and that the PP nafenopin can impinge on this cell death pathway. TGF beta 1-LAP, probably produced mainly by the non-parenchymal liver cells, may be processed less efficiently to the mature, active form in the presence of nafenopin, although more data are required to confirm this hypothesis.

Promotion by dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-initiated cancer in the liver of female B6C3F1 mice

Hepatic tumor promoting activity was determined for dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) in female B6C3F1 mice initiated on day 15 of age with 25m/kg N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU). The mice were administered the chloroacetic acids in drinking water starting at 7 weeks of age and continuing until sacrificed 31 or 52 weeks later. Both chloroacetic acids promoted MNU-initiated foci and tumors, however their concentration-response relationships differed being exponential and linear for DCA or TCA, respectively. Lesions promoted by DCA but not by TCA, regressed upon termination of exposure at 31 weeks. Foci and tumors promoted by DCA were eosinophilic and contained glutathione S-transferase-pi(GST-pi), while TCA promoted basophilic tumors lacking GST-pi. Hence, tumor promotion by DCA and TCA appeared to differ both with respect to their concentration-response relationships and to the characteristics of precancerous lesions and tumors.

Induction of peroxisomal beta-oxidation and P-450 4A-dependent activities by pivalic and trichloroacetic acid in rat liver and kidney

The influence of pivalic acid (PIV), a compound often used to make pro-drugs, and of the structurally related trichloroacetic acid (TCA), on several hepatic and renal enzymes was investigated in Sprague-Dawley rats, following a 4-day treatment period. The PIV and TCA treatments resulted in a similar and selective induction (2-3 times) of peroxisomal palmitoyl-CoA oxidase and the cytochrome P-450 4A dependent microsomal (omega)- and (omega-1)-lauric acid activities, both in liver and kidney. Western blot analysis of liver and kidney microsomes from PIV- and TCA-treated rats, using antibody to the P-450 4A1, revealed induction of members of the P-450 4A subfamily. These results suggest that PIV, like TCA, is a renal and hepatic peroxisome proliferator in rats, and further support the previously indicated close association between the peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation enzymes and microsomal P-450 4A sub-family enzymes.

Strain as a determinant factor in the differential responsiveness of rats to chemicals

The beneficial effects derived from the use of chemicals in agriculture, energy production, transportation, pharmaceuticals, and other products that improve the quality of life are clearly established. However, continued exposure to these chemicals is only advantageous in conditions where the benefit far outweighs toxic manifestations. By law, determination of risk of toxicity necessitates the use of laboratory animals to establish whether chemical exposure is safe for humans. To simulate the human condition, it is incumbent upon investigators to choose a species in which pharmacokinetic and toxicokinetic principles are established and resemble those of humans. Some of the advantages to the use of rat in chemical toxicity testing include (a) similarities in metabolism, anatomy, and physiological parameters to humans; (b) the short life span, especially for carcinogenesis study; (c) the availability, ease of breeding, and maintenance at a relatively low cost; and (d) the existence of a large database to enable comparison of present to reported literature findings. However, the choice of rat can be complicated by several factors such as sex, age, and nutrition, but especially strain, where currently there are over 200 different strains of rat known to exist. The aim of this review is to demonstrate that there are differences in the responsiveness of rat strains to chemicals and that the susceptibility observed is dependent on the tissue examined. It is evident that the genotype differs among strains, and this may be responsible for differences in sensitivities to chemicals. Awareness of strain as a factor in susceptibility to toxicant action needs to be taken into account in interpretation of relevance of risk of toxicity for humans.

Effect of various exposure scenarios on the biological monitoring of organic solvents in alveolar air. II. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane and trichloroethylene

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of different exposure scenarios on the elimination of trichloroethylene (TRI) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TRI) in alveolar air and other biological fluids in human volunteers. In addition, it was sought to establish an interactive process between experimental data gathering and simulation modeling in an attempt to predict the influence of the different scenarios of exposure to TRI and 1,1,1-TRI on their respective biological monitoring indices and thus to establish the flexibility and validity of simulation models. Two adult male and two adult female Caucasian volunteers were exposed by inhalation, in a dynamic controlled exposure chamber, to various concentrations of TRI (12.5-25 ppm) or 1,1,1-TRI (87.5-175 ppm) in order to establish the influence of exposure concentration, duration of exposure, variation of concentration within day, and work load on biological exposure indices. The concentrations of unchanged solvents in end-exhaled air and in blood as well as the urinary excretion of trichloroethanol (TCE) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) were determined. The results show that doubling the exposure concentration for both solvents led to a proportional increase in the concentrations of unchanged solvents in alveolar air and blood at the end of a 7-h exposure period; this proportionality was still observable in 1,1,1-TRI expired air samples 16 h after the end of the third exposure day. In the case of urinary excretion of TCE and TCA, the proportionality between excretion and exposure concentration was not as good. It was once again observed that the slow excretion of both metabolites leads to progressive cumulation and that their urinary determination is subject to considerable interindividual variations. After adjustment (lowering) of the exposure concentration to account for a prolongation of the duration of exposure (from 8 to 12 h) it was observed that the concentrations of TRI or 1,1,1-TRI towards the end of both exposure periods are more a reflection of the actual exposure concentration than of the exposure duration. Despite important interindividual variations, these adjusted and nonadjusted exposures led to almost identical average total urinary excretion over 24 h) of TCE and TCA after exposure to 1,1,1-TRI, as was also the case for TCE but not for TCA after exposure to TRI. Induced within-day variations in the exposure concentration led to corresponding but not proportional changes in alveolar air concentrations for both solvents. After exposure to peak concentrations there was a lag period before alveolar air concentrations returned to prepeak levels. At the end of repeated 10-min periods of physical exercise at 50 W, alveolar air concentrations of TRI were increased by 50% while those of 1,1,1-TRI increased by only 12%. After optimization of the physiologically based toxicokinetic model parameters with experimental data collected during the first exposure scenario, results pertaining to the three other scenarios were adequately simulated by the optimized models. Overall, the results of the present study suggest that alveolar air solvent concentration is a reliable index of exposure to both TRI and 1,1,1-TRI under various experimental exposure scenarios. These results also suggest that urinary excretion of TCE and TCA must be interpreted with caution when assessing exposure to either solvents. For exposure situations likely to be encountered in the workplace, physiologically based toxicokinetic modeling appears to be a useful tool both for developing strategies of biological monitoring of exposure to volatile organic solvents and for predicting alveolar air concentrations under a given set of exposure conditions.

Cancer in relation to occupational exposure to perchloroethylene

Exposure to perchloroethylene (PCE) occurs in a number of occupational settings in which organic solvents are used, and, in particular, is widely prevalent in the dry-cleaning industry. This review summarizes the results of studies of the occurrence of the individual types of cancer in dry cleaners. Two of those cancers of greatest a priori concern (because of results in PCE-exposed experimental animals)--liver cancer and leukemia--have not occurred with increased frequency among persons employed in the dry-cleaning industry. Rates were elevated by about a factor of two for esophageal and bladder cancers, but not increased clearly for any other site. The excess mortality from esophageal cancer was well beyond the limits of chance, based on a total of 23 deaths that occurred in the two principal cohort-studies of dry cleaners. There was some indication of a particularly high risk associated with prolonged employment and a long interval since first employment. However, the possible confounding effect of the combination of cigarette smoking and heavy alcohol consumption, a very strong risk factor for the development of esophageal cancer, could be taken into account only partially in these studies. With regard to bladder cancer, the limited data available suggest that the observed increased risk could be due to exposure to other solvents than PCE used in dry cleaning. The potential influence of occupational exposure to PCE on the occurrence of esophageal and bladder cancer needs continued examination in further follow-up of existing cohorts of dry cleaners, the assembly of additional cohorts, and in large case-control studies that ascertain occupational exposures in some detail.

Trichloroethylene--a review of the literature from a health effects perspective

This report reviews the literature on the impact of exposure to trichloroethylene (TCE) on human health. Special emphasis is given to the health effects reported in excess of national norms by participants in the TCE Subregistry of the Volatile Organic Compounds Registry of the National Exposure Registries--persons with documented exposure to TCE through drinking and use of contaminated water. The health effects reported in excess by some or all of the sex and age groups studied were speech and hearing impairments, effects of stroke, liver problems, anemia and other blood disorders, diabetes, kidney disease, urinary tract disorders, and skin rashes.

Factors affecting species differences in the kinetics of metabolites of trichloroethylene

The hepatocarcinogenicity of trichloroethylene (TRI) in mice has been attributed to a metabolite, trichloroacetate (TCA). Rats of various strains appear to be resistant to TRI-induced hepatocarcinogenesis and produce lower peak concentrations of TCA. Mice, however, also form significant amounts of another carcinogenic metabolite, dichloroacetate (DCA). The present study was conducted to investigate the interspecies differences in the metabolism of TRI between the mouse, rat, and dog and to gain further insight into the role metabolic factors may play in the apparent species specificity of liver tumor induction by TRI. Fischer 344 rats and beagle dogs were dosed orally with TRI and blood was analyzed for TRI, DCA, TCA, and trichloroethanol (TCE). Data on the metabolism of TRI in mice have been previously published. Limited data are available on the metabolism of TRI in humans. Dogs produce higher peak concentrations and have a larger area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) for TCA as compared to rats given similar doses of TRI. Dichloroacetate was not found in measurable concentrations, that is, above 4 nmol/ml, the minimal quantifiable concentration, in the blood of either rats or dogs. Appreciable concentrations of DCA were found in the blood of mice administered TRI in previous studies. Trichloroethanol was found to be present in the blood, urine, and bile, primarily as the glucuronide conjugate. In all species, peak TCA concentrations were observed beyond the disappearance of TRI. The AUC for TCE glucuronide is consistent with its acting as a precursor for TCA and probably contributes to the continued increase in TCA concentration after TRI disappears from the system. Investigations into the binding of TCA to plasma constituents in the rat, dog, mouse, and human suggest that binding also plays a role in species differences in the distribution and elimination of TCA.

Apparent increased risk of leukemia in their highest category of exposure to tetrachloroethylene (PCE) in drinking water

The potential human carcinogenicity of PCE has been the subject of study for many years, yet the largest and most recent occupational studies have not reported any increased risk of leukemia in PCE-exposed groups, let alone a risk of the magnitude suggested by Aschengrau et al. The EPA's own Science Advisory Board concluded in 1991 that PCE is a chemical "for which there is no compelling evidence of human cancer risk, accompanied by animal data of carcinogenicity whose extrapolation to humans is ambiguous." Given this background, it is not plausible that a leukemia risk of the magnitude reported by Aschengrau et al. should exist but not have been found among highly exposed occupational groups. Aschengrau et al. could contribute to our understanding of this inconsistency by presenting the additional data analysis that I have suggested.

In vitro evidence for involvement of CoA thioesters in peroxisome proliferation and hypolipidaemia

The mechanisms of peroxisomal induction and hypolipidaemia caused by treatment with peroxisome proliferators, such as nafenopin and clofibrate, remain to be elucidated. Proposed mechanisms include receptor-mediated processes or adaptations resulting from disruption of hepatic lipid metabolism. The latter mechanism was investigated in a series of in vitro studies. Incubation of primary rat hepatocytes with various carboxyl-containing compounds revealed no clear common factor which imparted potency as a peroxisomal inducer. Inhibitors of fatty acyl-CoA synthetase, norepinephrine and desulpho-CoA, however, decreased the level of peroxisomal induction by nafenopin in rat hepatocytes, suggesting that activation of carboxyl-containing compounds to their CoA thioesters may be a necessary step in initiating peroxisome proliferation. Coenzyme A thioesters of nafenopin, clofibric acid and other carboxyl-containing chemicals were synthesised and found to inhibit the activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase to varying degrees. The CoA thioester of nafenopin was the most potent inhibitor among this group (Ki = 1.45 x 10(-5) M), but weaker than palmitoyl-CoA (Ki = 2.22 x 10(-6) M), the feedback inhibitor of acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Hypolipidaemia caused by treatment with peroxisome proliferators may, therefore, be related to inhibition of fatty-acid synthesis by the corresponding CoA thioester derivative.

Occupational factors and renal disease

The male-to-female ratio of patients requiring dialysis treatment commonly approaches 2:1. It is proposed that environmental factors, particularly occupational exposure to hydrocarbons, may account for the excess number of male patients. The term "hydrocarbon" refers to the aliphatic, alicyclic, aromatic, and halogenated hydrocarbons (carbon tetrachloride, chloroform); glycols (ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, dioxane, glycerol); and organic solvents. Hydrocarbons commonly find use as solvents in industrial manufacturing practices because of their lipid solubility. Hydrocarbons have long been known to be neurotoxicants, affecting both peripheral and central nervous systems. Although benzene and its derivative have a known association with uroepithelial tumors, there is now a considerable body of evidence suggesting a possible role for hydrocarbon exposure in the development of non-neoplastic renal diseases. This article presents an epidemiological case for such an association and critically reviews the literature.

Hepatic peroxisome proliferation in rodents and its significance for humans

Peroxisomes are subcellular organelles found in all eukaryotic cells. In the liver they are usually round and measure about 0.5-1.0 microns; in rodents they contain a prominent crystalloid core, but this may be absent in newly formed rodent peroxisomes as well as in human peroxisomes. A major role of the peroxisomes is the breakdown of long-chain fatty acids, thereby complementing mitochondrial fatty-acid metabolism. Many chemicals are known to increase the number of peroxisomes in rat and mouse hepatocytes. This peroxisome proliferation is accompanied by replicative DNA synthesis and liver growth. No clear structure-activity relationships are apparent. Many of these peroxisome proliferators contain acid functions that can modulate fatty acid metabolism. Two mechanisms have been proposed for the induction of peroxisome proliferation. One is based on the existence of one or several specific cytosolic receptors that bind the peroxisome proliferator, facilitating its translocation to the cell nucleus and the activation of the expression of specific genes. The second, perhaps more general, hypothesis involves chemically mediated perturbation of lipid metabolism. These two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. Many peroxisome proliferators have been shown to induce hepatocellular tumours, despite being uniformly non-genotoxic, when administered at high dose levels to rats and mice for long periods. Three mechanisms have been proposed to explain the induction of tumours. One is based on increased production of active oxygen species due to imbalanced production of peroxisomal enzymes; it has been proposed that these reactive oxygen species cause indirect DNA damage with subsequent tumour formation. In rodents, an alternative mechanism is the promotion of endogenous lesions by sustained DNA synthesis and hyperplasia. Thirdly, it is conceivable that sustained growth stimulation may be sufficient for tumour formation. Marked species differences are apparent in response to peroxisome proliferations. Rats and mice are extremely sensitive, and hamsters show an intermediate response while guinea pigs, monkeys and humans appear to be relatively insensitive or non-responsive at dose levels that produce a marked response in rodents. These species differences may be reproduced in vitro using primary culture hepatocytes isolated from a variety of species including humans. The available experimental evidence suggests a strong association and a probable casual link between peroxisome-proliferator-elicited liver growth and the subsequent development of liver tumours in rats and mice. Since humans are insensitive or unresponsive, at therapeutic dose levels, to peroxisome-proliferator-induced hepatic effects, it is reasonable to conclude that the encountered levels of exposure to these non-genotoxic agents do not present a hepatocarcinogenic hazard to humans.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The effect of retinoids and clofibric acid on the peroxisomal oxidation of palmitic acid and of 3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha-trihydroxy-5 beta-cholestanoic acid in rat and rabbit hepatocytes

The effects of retinoids and the peroxisome proliferator clofibric acid on peroxisomal enzyme pathways were studied in hepatocytes from both rat and rabbit. Retinoic acid and retinol increased the activity of acyl-CoA oxidase in rabbit hepatocytes around 60% and around 30% in rat hepatocytes. Exposure to clofibric acid caused an increase in acyl-CoA oxidase activity of 115% in rat hepatocytes and of 40% in rabbit hepatocytes, indicating that rabbit is less sensitive to peroxisome proliferator than rat. Simultaneous exposure to clofibric acid and retinoids did not act additatively or synergistically. Both rabbit and rat hepatocytes expressed mRNA for the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor, (PPAR), although the transcript in rabbit was slightly smaller compared to that expressed in rat hepatocytes. The effect of retinoic acid in 7800 C1 Morris rat hepatoma cells, a cell line known to have an inducible peroxisomal beta-oxidation of fatty acids, was only slight with an increase of the acyl-CoA oxidase activity of 25% compared with control cells. As for clofibric acid, which gave a 2-fold induction of the acyl-CoA oxidase activity, the effect of retinoic acid was potentiated by dexamethasone. These cells also expressed mRNA for PPAR, with the same size as that found in rat hepatocytes. The oxidation of 3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha-trihydroxy-5 beta-cholestanoic acid (THCA), an intermediate in bile acid formation, in rat hepatocytes increased 110% by clofibric acid and around 80% by retinoic acid. In rabbit hepatocytes, clofibric acid increased the oxidation rate 75% and retinoic acid 100%. The results presented here show similarities in the effects of retinoids and clofibric acid on the acyl-CoA oxidase activity and the oxidation rate of THCA, since they increase these two peroxisomal activities in hepatocytes in vitro. A decrease in both these enzyme activities occurs during cultivation time in untreated primary hepatocyte cultures. The present data may therefore either be explained by an increased expression or an induced stability of the enzymes involved.

The role of dichloroacetate in the hepatocarcinogenicity of trichloroethylene

The induction of hepatic tumors in B6C3F1 mice treated with trichloroethylene (TRI) has been attributed to its metabolism to trichloroacetate (TCA). Trichloroacetate is an effective peroxisome proliferator in mice at blood concentrations that are readily achieved with carcinogenic doses of TRI. Recent data has demonstrated that both TCA and dichloroacetate (DCA) are capable of inducing liver tumors in B6C3F1 mice. Although long recognized as a metabolite of TRI, little attention has focussed on the role DCA might play in the hepatocarcinogenic effects of TRI. There are significant differences in the effects of DCA and TCA on the liver of B6C3F1 mice. Trichloroacetate treatment induces peroxisome proliferation, increases lipid deposition, and results in a marked accumulation of lipofuscin in the liver with long-term exposures. Dichloroacetate induces a markedly enlarged liver associated with a cytomegaly and large accumulations of glycogen. The cytomegaly is associated with the development of focal areas of recurrent liver necrosis which in turn lead to high levels of cell proliferation in the area surrounding these lesions. Induction of peroxisomes with DCA is transitory and the accumulation of lipofuscin is much less evident than with TCA treatment. Studies of TRI metabolism demonstrate that blood levels of DCA produced are sufficient to account for the hepatocarcinogenic effects of TRI. The rather low concentrations of DCA found in the urine of mice treated with TRI relative to TCA concentrations are due to the much more rapid and complete metabolism of DCA. These data do not support the conclusion that the hepatocarcinogenic effects of TRI are simply related to peroxisome proliferation.

Evaluating the risk of liver cancer in humans exposed to trichloroethylene using physiological models

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a widespread environmental pollutant. TCE is classified as a rodent carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Using the rodent cancer bioassay findings and estimates of metabolized dose, the EPA has estimated lifetime exposure cancer risks for humans that ingest TCE in drinking water or inhale TCE. In this study, a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PB-PK) model for mice was used to simulate selected gavage and inhalation bioassays with TCE. Plausible dose-metrics thought to be linked with the mechanism of action for TCE carcinogenesis were selected. These dose-metrics, adjusted to reflect an average amount per day for a lifetime, were metabolism of TCE (AMET, mg/kg/day) and systemic concentration of TCA (AUCTCA, mg/L/day). These dose-metrics were then used in a linearized multistage model to estimate AMET and AUCTCA values that correspond to liver cancer risks of 1 in 1 million in mice. A human PB-PK model for TCE was then used to predict TCE concentrations in drinking water and air that would provide AMET and AUCTCA values equal to the predicted mice AMET and AUCTCA values that correspond to liver cancer risks of 1 in 1 million. For the dose-metrics, AMET and AUCTCA, the TCE concentrations in air were 10.0 and 0.1 ppb TCE (continuous exposure), respectively, and in water, 7 and 4 micrograms TCE/L, respectively.

Pharmacokinetic modeling of trichloroethylene and trichloroacetic acid in humans

The development and application of appropriate physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models of chemical contaminants will provide a rational basis for risk assessment extrapolation. Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a widespread contaminant found in soil, groundwater, and the atmosphere. Exposures to TCE and its metabolites have been found to be carcinogenic in rodents. In this study, a PBPK model for TCE and its major metabolite, trichloroacetic acid (TCA), is developed for humans. The model parameters, estimated from the relevant published literature on human exposures to TCE and its metabolites, are described. Key parameters describing the metabolism of TCE and the kinetics of TCA were estimated by optimization. The optimization was accomplished by simultaneously matching model predictions to observations of TCE concentrations in blood and exhaled breath, TCA plasma concentrations, and urinary TCA excretion from five published studies. The optimized human PBPK model provides an excellent description of TCE and TCA kinetics. The predictions were especially good for TCA plasma concentrations following repeated TCE inhalation, an exposure scenario similar to that occurring in the workplace. The human PBPK model can be used to estimate dose metrics resulting from TCE exposures and is therefore useful when considering the estimation of human health risks associated with such exposures.