Detection of nanoplastics in food by asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation coupled to multi-angle light scattering: possibilities, challenges and analytical limitations

A critical review on the migration, transformation, sampling, analysis and environmental effects of microplastics in the environment

As emerging pollutants, microplastics have recently received considerable attention owing to detection in various organisms and environments. Mass production and widespread use of plastic products increase their potential risks to humans owing to their persistent, mobile, and toxic properties. Numerous methods have been used to identify and quantify the various forms of microplastics, however, unified standards do not exist. In this review, we systematically summarize the sources, migration, transformation, and analytical methods for microplastics in diverse ecosystems, particularly the most recent sampling and identification techniques. Additionally, the environmental effects and health hazards of microplastics on aquatic and terrestrial systems, as well as human beings are discussed. We also present management strategies for reducing microplastics in a broader social and policy context. This review aims to provide an overview of the migration, transformation, sampling, analysis, and environmental effects of microplastics, which addresses knowledge gaps in microplastic pollution and provides proposals for key research gaps.

Current Approaches to Microplastics Detection and Plastic Biodegradation

Environmental concerns about the widespread use of non-biodegradable plastic have generated interest in developing quick and effective methods to degrade synthetic polymers. With millions of tons of plastic waste generated annually, biodegradation by microorganisms presents a promising and eco-friendly solution. However, a bottleneck has arisen due to the lack of standardized methods for verification of the biodegradation process. Based on this literature review, he techniques most commonly employed for this purpose currently include measuring mass loss, examining the surface of plastic fragments by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and using analytical methods such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. Nevertheless, currently, there is no universal approach to accurately assess the ability of individual microorganisms to degrade plastics. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in techniques for detecting biodegradation of synthetic polymers and future directions in the development of sustainable strategies for mitigating plastic pollution.

Uncovering layer by layer the risk of nanoplastics to the environment and human health

Nanoplastics (NPs), defined as plastic particles with dimensions less than 100 nm, have emerged as a persistent environmental contaminant with potential risk to both environment and human health. Nanoplastics might translocate across biological barriers and accumulate in vital organs, leading to inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity, already reported in several organisms. Disruptions to cellular functions, hormonal balance, and immune responses were also linked to NPs exposure in in vitro assays. Further, NPs have been found to adsorb other pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and leach additives potentially amplifying their advere impacts, increasing the threat to organisms greater than NPs alone. However, NPs toxic effects remain largely unexplored, requiring further research to elucidate potential risks to human health, especially their accumulation, degradation, migration, interactions with the biological systems and long-term consequences of chronic exposure to these compounds. This review provides an overview of the current state-of-art regarding NPs interactions with environmental pollutants and with biological mechanisms and toxicity within cells.

Asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation for comprehensive characterization of hetero-aggregates made of nano-silver and extracellular polymeric substances

The present study explores the capability of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) coupled online with diode array (DAD), fluorescence detectors (FLD), multi-angle light scattering (MALS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) to characterize silver nanoparticles (nAg) hetero-aggregates formed with diatoms derived extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The content of EPS varied from 10.5 to 105 mgC L-1 and nAg were dispersed at 4 mg L-1 in a freshwater medium. Good recoveries (∼ 76.9 ± 8.4 %) of nAg-EPS were obtained from AF4-DAD signals, but an anomalous elution was observed as EPS concentration increased: AF4 retention times decreased despite average gyration radii measured by MALS for nAg-EPS increased (from 16 nm to 24 nm), which suggests a change in the aggregation state, as evaluated by UV-Vis scans obtained from DAD. A regular Brownian relaxation of nAg-EPS was proven for each EPS concentration using these 2 detectors. The comparison of on-line and batch DLS measurements validated in addition, that no (dis)aggregation occurs upon injections. After a thorough comparison with classical AF4 using standards, the frit-inlet-AF4 was used. Slightly higher recovery (79.6 ± 4.6 %) was obtained but similar deviation of nAg-EPS elution occurred, excluding the implication of membrane differential fouling of nAg-EPS /conditioning effects of EPS. The investigation of physico-chemical parameters controlling the Brownian relaxation of nAg-EPS suggests the influence of nAg-EPS structure and EPS loading. This study demonstrates the suitable use of AF4 coupled to multiple detectors to probe-out eco-corona formation and characterize polydisperse systems containing NPs, EPS and their hetero-aggregates in freshwaters, even under a non-ideal size-fractionation scenario.

Nanoplastics in focus: Exploring interdisciplinary approaches and future directions

Nanoplastics (NPs) are gaining increasing attention due to their widespread distribution and potential environmental and biological impacts. Spanning a variety of ecosystems - from soils and rivers to oceans and polar ice - NPs interact with complex biological and geochemical processes, posing risks to organisms across multiple trophic levels. Despite their growing presence, understanding the behavior, transport, and toxicity of nanoplastics remains challenging due to their diverse physical and chemical properties as well as the heterogeneity of environmental matrices. Currently, nanoplastics are often studied alongside microplastics as a single, homogeneous group, which obscures the nuanced behavior of NPs, particularly in terms of their colloidal properties and interactions within ecosystems. This perspective aims to highlight the critical gaps in nanoplastics research, stressing the importance for field studies and advanced detection/quantification methods to better capture their behavior across environmental interfaces. We advocate for a more integrated approach that account for the dynamic interactions between nanoplastics and surrounding biological, chemical, and physical environments, especially across key ecological gradients. Furthermore, long-term and transgenerational studies are essential to assess the chronic impacts of low-concentration nanoplastics exposure. Innovative and appropriate methodologies are needed to explore NP fate, transport, and toxicity in realistic environmental conditions. By combining advanced experimental tools, field studies, and ecological modeling frameworks, this paper outlines provides a roadmap for advancing our understanding of nanoplastics and their broader ecological impacts, ultimately shaping more effective environmental monitoring and mitigation strategies.

Detection of micro- and nanoplastic particles in leafy green vegetables by SERS coupled with gold-silver core-shell nanoparticles

A sensitive and accurate method has been developed for detecting and quantifying polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene (PE) in food samples using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) with a simple preparation process. The method is designed to effectively detect and quantify mixtures of these polymers in varying ratios within the food matrix. By employing gold-silver core-shell nanoparticles (Au@Ag NPs) as the enhancing substrate, the SERS method demonstrated superior sensitivity in detecting trace amounts of micro- and nanoplastic particles (MNPs). For 1-µm PS microparticles, the limit of detection (LOD) values range from 12 to 50 mg/L or mg/kg in water, spinach, and kale, while for 100-nm PS nanoparticles, the LOD values range from 18 to 47 mg/L or mg/kg. For 1-µm PE microparticles, the LOD values range from 173 to 416 mg/L or mg/kg in the same matrices, whereas for 65-nm PE nanoparticles, the values range from 446 to 744 mg/L or mg/kg. The mixtures of PS and PE in varying ratios were also tested, with both plastics detectable even at trace levels, emphasizing the method's precision in detecting plastic contaminants. These findings highlight the potential of SERS as a powerful tool for monitoring MNP contamination in food products by detecting both individual plastics and their mixtures, enabling precise quantification of contamination and contributing to improved food safety.

Nanoplastic Sample Cleanup by Micro-Electromembrane Extraction across Free Liquid Membranes

Sample preparation techniques enabling the separation and cleanup of nanoplastics removing other components present in complex sample matrices are scarce. Herein, micro-electromembrane extraction (μ-EME) has been explored for this purpose based on the extraction of nanoplastic particles across a free liquid membrane (FLM). The extraction unit is based on a perfluoroalkoxy tube sequentially filled with the acceptor solution (20 μL 5 mM phosphate buffer, pH 10.7), FLM (10 μL 1-pentanol), and donor solution (20 μL sample/standard solution). Sulfonated polystyrene beads (200 nm particle size) were selected as a model mimicking negatively charged nanoplastics. At 700 V, nanoplastics transferred from the donor solution into the FLM before moving across the FLM into the acceptor solution. Quantitative nanoplastic measurements after μ-EME were performed by injecting the acceptor solution into a capillary electrophoresis system with diode array detection. μ-EME allowed the rapid nanoplastic sample cleanup, requiring an extraction time of just 90 s and obtaining a nanoplastic transfer yield through the FLM of 60% with RSD values below 9%. The μ-EME technique enabled the efficient sample matrix cleanup of nanoplastics spiked in different tea matrices. Nanoplastic transfer yield through the FLM for black tea and flavored tea matrices were 56% and 47%, respectively, with complete sample matrix removal of UV-absorbing compounds.

Material-specific binding peptides empower sustainable innovations in plant health, biocatalysis, medicine and microplastic quantification

Material-binding peptides (MBPs) have emerged as a diverse and innovation-enabling class of peptides in applications such as plant-/human health, immobilization of catalysts, bioactive coatings, accelerated polymer degradation and analytics for micro-/nanoplastics quantification. Progress has been fuelled by recent advancements in protein engineering methodologies and advances in computational and analytical methodologies, which allow the design of, for instance, material-specific MBPs with fine-tuned binding strength for numerous demands in material science applications. A genetic or chemical conjugation of second (biological, chemical or physical property-changing) functionality to MBPs empowers the design of advanced (hybrid) materials, bioactive coatings and analytical tools. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview comprising naturally occurring MBPs and their function in nature, binding properties of short man-made MBPs (<20 amino acids) mainly obtained from phage-display libraries, and medium-sized binding peptides (20-100 amino acids) that have been reported to bind to metals, polymers or other industrially produced materials. The goal of this review is to provide an in-depth understanding of molecular interactions between materials and material-specific binding peptides, and thereby empower the use of MBPs in material science applications. Protein engineering methodologies and selected examples to tailor MBPs toward applications in agriculture with a focus on plant health, biocatalysis, medicine and environmental monitoring serve as examples of the transformative power of MBPs for various industrial applications. An emphasis will be given to MBPs' role in detecting and quantifying microplastics in high throughput, distinguishing microplastics from other environmental particles, and thereby assisting to close an analytical gap in food safety and monitoring of environmental plastic pollution. In essence, this review aims to provide an overview among researchers from diverse disciplines in respect to material-(specific) binding of MBPs, protein engineering methodologies to tailor their properties to application demands, re-engineering for material science applications using MBPs, and thereby inspire researchers to employ MBPs in their research.

An optimized multi-technique based analytical platform for identification, characterization and quantification of nanoplastics in water

Nanoplastics (NPs) have been identified as an emerging concern for the environment and our food chains in recent years. Monitoring the concentration and size of nanoplastics is essential to assess the potential risks that nanoplastic particles may pose. In this study, we presented a multi-technique based analytical platform to identify, characterize and quantify nanoplastics in water samples through a combination of sample pre-concentration, asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation coupled with multi-angle light scattering (AF4-MALS) and pyrolysis-GC/MS (Py-GC/MS). Models for predicting NPs concentration and particle number in unknown samples were established and validated using NPs standards of known size and AF4-MALS response. Py-GC/MS was applied for further identification of polymer type and quantification of mass concentration. Filtration conditions for pre-concentration were optimized to ensure a high recovery rate with minimal effect on original particle size. The addition of 0.05% SDS prior to filtration, using controlled filtration procedures, effectively improved the recovery. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the application of the analytical platform for the characterization and quantification of different nanoparticles (e.g. spiked PMMA and PS NPs) in the size range 60 nm-350 nm with detection limits down to 0.01 ppm in water samples. The established analytical platform can fill an analytical gap by offering a solution for quantifying size-resolved mass concentrations of nanoplastics and providing comprehensive data on size distribution, particle number and mass quantification with high sensitivity for detection.

Rapid and green discrimination of bovine milk according to fat content, thermal treatment, brand and manufacturer via colloidal fingerprinting

Addressing food safety and detecting food fraud while fulfilling greenness requisites for analysis is a challenging but necessary task. The use of sustainable techniques, with limited pretreatment, non-toxic chemicals, high throughput results, is recommended. A combination of Field Flow Fractionation (FFF), working in saline carrier and with minimal preprocessing, and chemometrics was for the first time applied to bovine milk grouping. A set of 47 bovine milk samples was analyzed: a single analysis yielded a characteristic multidimensional colloidal dataset, that once processed with multivariate tools allowed simultaneously for different discriminations: fat content, thermal treatment, brand and manufacturing plant. The analytical methodology is fast, green, simple, and inexpensive and could offer great help in the field of quality control and frauds identification. This work represents also the first attempt to identify milk sub-typologies based on colloidal profiles, and the most complete study concerning multivariate analysis of FFF fingerprint.

Influence of artificial digestion on characteristics and intestinal cellular effects of micro-, submicro- and nanoplastics

The production of plastics is rising since they have been invented. Micro, submicro- and nanoplastics are produced intentionally or generated by environmental processes, and constitute ubiquitous contaminants which are ingested orally by consumers. Reported health concerns include intestinal translocation, inflammatory response, oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. Every digestive milieu in the gastrointestinal tract does have an influence on the properties of particles and can cause changes in their effect on biological systems. In this study, we subjected plastic particles of different materials (polylactic acid, polymethylmethacrylate, melamine formaldehyde) and sizes (micro- to nano-range) to a complex artificial digestion model consisting of three intestinal fluid simulants (saliva, gastric and intestinal juice). We monitored the impact of the digestion process on the particles by performing Dynamic Light Scattering, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Asymmetric Flow Field-Flow Fractionation. An in vitro model of the intestinal epithelial barrier was used to monitor cellular effects and translocation behavior of (un)digested particles. In conclusion, artificial digestion decreased cellular interaction and slightly increased transport of all particles across the intestinal barrier. The interaction with organic matter resulted in clear differences in the agglomeration behavior. Moreover, we provide evidence for polymer-, size- and surface-dependent cellular effects of the test particles.

A plasmonic gold nano-surface functionalized with the estrogen receptor for fast and highly sensitive detection of nanoplastics

Nanoplastics are a global emerging environmental problem whose effects might pose potential threats to the human's health. Despite the relevance of the issue, fast, reliable and quantitative in situ analytical approaches to determine nanoplastics are not yet available. The aim of this work was to devise an optical sensor with the goal of direct detecting and quantifying nanoplastics in seawater without sample pre-treatments. To this purpose, a nano-plasmonic biosensor was developed by exploiting an Estrogen Receptor (ER) recognition element grafted onto a polymer-based gold nanograting (GNG) plasmonic platform. The ER-GNG biosensor required just minute sample volumes (2 μL), allowed rapid detection (3 min) and enabled to determine nanoplastics in simulated seawater with a linear dynamic concentrations range of 1-100 ng/mL, thus encompassing the expected environmental loads. The nanostructured grating (GNG) provided remarkable performance enhancements, extending the measurement range across five orders of magnitude, thanks to the both the SPR and the localized SPR phenomena occurring at the GNG chip. At last, the ER-GNG biosensor was tested on real seawater samples collected in the Naples area and the results (∼30 ng/mL) were verified by a conventional approach (filtration and evaporation), confirming the ER-GNG sensor offers a straightforward and highly sensitive method for the direct in-field nanoplastics monitoring.

Generation of Simulated "Natural" Nanoplastics from Polypropylene Food Packaging as the Experimental Standard

Current toxicology research on nanoplastics (NPs) generally uses commercial spherical NPs. However, the physicochemical characteristics of commercial NPs are significantly different from those of NPs formed under natural conditions, possibly affecting the validity of the results. In analytical chemistry, a reference sample is selected such that its physicochemical properties are as similar as possible to the target. Therefore, a simulated "natural" NP synthesized in the laboratory that closely resembles naturally derived NPs would be used as an authentic standard. Here, we established the assay of scanning electron microscope (SEM)-particle size distribution analyzer (PSDA)-surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to detect NPs and prepared simulated "natural" NPs from polypropylene food packaging material using a method that mimics natural conditions. Nanofiltration was used to isolate three sets of simulated NPs with particle sizes ranging from 50-100 nm, 100-200 nm, and 200-400 nm. These simulated "natural" NPs were more similar to naturally occurring counterparts when compared with commercial NPs. These new standard NPs, which should be scalable for large-scale use, will improve the accuracy, reliability, and translatability of toxicological studies of NPs.

Recent Study of Separation and Identification of Micro- and Nanoplastics for Aquatic Products

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are polymeric compounds widely used in industry and daily life. Although contamination of aquatic products with MNPs exists, most current research on MNPs focuses on environmental, ecological, and toxicological studies, with less on food safety. Currently, the extent to which aquatic products are affected depends primarily on the physical and chemical properties of the consumed MNPs and the content of MNPs. This review presents new findings on the occurrence of MNPs in aquatic products in light of their properties, carrier effects, chemical effects, seasonality, spatiality, and differences in their location within organisms. The latest studies have been summarized for separation and identification of MNPs for aquatic products as well as their physical and chemical properties in aquatic products using fish, bivalves, and crustaceans as models from a food safety perspective. Also, the shortcomings of safety studies are reviewed, and guidance is provided for future research directions. Finally, gaps in current knowledge on MNPs are also emphasized.

A critical review on nanoplastics and its future perspectives in the marine environment

Nanoplastics (plastic particles smaller than 1 μm) are the least-known type of marine litter. Nanoplastics (NPs) have attracted much interest in recent years because of their prevalence in the environment and the potential harm they can cause to living organisms. This article focuses on understanding NPs and their fate in the marine environment. Sources of NPs have been identified, including accidental release from products or through nano-fragmentation of larger plastic debris. As NPs have a high surface area, they may retain harmful compounds. The presence of harmful additives in NPs poses unique practical challenges for studies on their toxicity. In this review, several methods specifically adapted for the physical and chemical characterization of NPs have been discussed. Furthermore, the review provides an overview of the translocation and absorption of NPs into organisms, along with an evaluation of the release of potential toxins from NPs. Further, we have provided an overview about the existing methods suggested for the possible degradation of these NPs. We conclude that the hazards of NPs are plausible but unknown, necessitating a thorough examination of NPs' sources, fate, and effects to better mitigate and spread awareness about this emerging contaminant.

Morphological and lipid metabolism alterations in macrophages exposed to model environmental nanoplastics traced by high-resolution synchrotron techniques

The release of nanoplastics (NPs) in the environment is a significant health concern for long-term exposed humans. Although their usage has certainly revolutionized several application fields, at nanometer size, NPs can easily interact at the cellular level, resulting in potential harmful effects. Micro/Nanoplastics (M/NPs) have a demonstrated impact on mammalian endocrine components, such as the thyroid, adrenal gland, testes, and ovaries, while more investigations on prenatal and postnatal exposure are urgently required. The number of literature studies on the NPs' presence in biological samples is increasing. However, only a few offer a close study on the model environmental NP-immune system interaction exploited by advanced microscopy techniques. The present study highlights substantial morphological and lipid metabolism alterations in human M1 macrophages exposed to labeled polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride nanoparticles (PP and PVC NPs) (20 μg/ml). The results are interpreted by advanced microscopy techniques combined with standard laboratory tests and fluorescence microscopy. We report the accurate detection of polymeric nanoparticles doped with cadmium selenide quantum dots (CdSe-QDs NPs) by following the Se (L line) X-ray fluorescence emission peak at higher sub-cellular resolution, compared to the supportive light fluorescence microscopy. In addition, scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) imaging successfully revealed morphological changes in NP-exposed macrophages, providing input for Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyses, which underlined the chemical modifications in macromolecular components, specifically in lipid response. The present evidence was confirmed by quantifying the lipid droplet (LD) contents in PP and PVC NPs-exposed macrophages (0-100 μg/ml) by Oil Red O staining. Hence, even at experimental NPs' concentrations and incubation time, they do not significantly affect cell viability; they cause an evident lipid metabolism impairment, a hallmark of phagocytosis and oxidative stress.

Field-Flow Fractionation in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

Field-flow fractionation (FFF) is a family of single-phase separative techniques exploited to gently separate and characterize nano- and microsystems in suspension. These techniques cover an extremely wide dynamic range and are able to separate analytes in an interval between a few nm to 100 µm size-wise (over 15 orders of magnitude mass-wise). They are flexible in terms of mobile phase and can separate the analytes in native conditions, preserving their original structures/properties as much as possible. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that studies the molecular basis of biological activity, while biotechnology deals with the technological applications of biology. The areas where biotechnologies are required include industrial, agri-food, environmental, and pharmaceutical. Many species of biological interest belong to the operational range of FFF techniques, and their application to the analysis of such samples has steadily grown in the last 30 years. This work aims to summarize the main features, milestones, and results provided by the application of FFF in the field of molecular biology and biotechnology, with a focus on the years from 2000 to 2022. After a theoretical background overview of FFF and its methodologies, the results are reported based on the nature of the samples analyzed.

Microplastics in food - a critical approach to definition, sample preparation, and characterisation

The ubiquity of microplastics (MPs) is a more and more frequently brought up topic. The fact that such particles are present in food raises particular concern. Information regarding the described contamination is incoherent and difficult to interpret. Problems appear already at the level of the definition of MPs. This paper will discuss ways of explaining the concept of MPs and methods used for its analysis. Isolation of characterised particles is usually performed using filtration, etching and/or density separation. Spectroscopic techniques are commonly applied for analysis, whereas visual evaluation of the particles is possible thanks to microscopic analysis. Basic information about the sample can be obtained by the combination of Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy or Raman spectroscopy and microscopy or using the thermal method combined with spectroscopy or chromatography. The unification of the research methodology will allow a credible assessment of the influence of this pollution coming from food on health.

Toxicological impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on humans: understanding the mechanistic aspect of the interaction

Plastic is a pervasive material that has become an indispensable part of our daily lives and is used in various commercial products. However, plastic waste has significantly impacted the environment, accumulating in water and land ecosystems and harming all forms of life. When plastic degrades, it breaks down into smaller particles called microplastics (MPs), which can further breakdown into nanoplastics (NPs). Due to their small size and potential toxicity to humans, NPs are of particular concern. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the production of plastic had reached unprecedented levels, including essential medical kits, food bags, and personal protective equipment (PPE), which generate MPs and NPs when burned. MPs and NPs have been detected in various locations, such as air, food, and soil, but our understanding of their potential adverse health effects is limited. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the sources, interactions, ecotoxicity, routes of exposure, toxicity mechanisms, detection methods, and future directions for the safety evaluation of MPs and NPs. This would improve our understanding of the impact of MPs and NPs on our health and environment and identify ways to address this global crisis.

Validated method for polystyrene nanoplastic separation in aqueous matrices by asymmetric-flow field flow fraction coupled to MALS and UV-Vis detectors

Plastics with nanosize (nanoplastics, NPLs) must be characterized, since they can be toxic or act as carriers of organic and inorganic pollutants, but there is a lack of reference materials and validated methods in the nanosize range. Therefore, this study has focused on the development and validation of a separation and size characterization methodology of polystyrene latex nanospheres, by using an asymmetric-flow field flow fraction system coupled to multi-angle light scattering and ultraviolet-visible detectors (AF4-MALS-UV). Hence, this work presents a fully validated methodology in the particle size range 30 to 490 nm, with bias between 95 and 109%, precision between 1 and 18%, LOD and LOQ below 0.2 and 0.3 µg respectively, except for 30-nm standard, for both detectors, and showing stable results for 100 analyses.

Current approaches, and challenges on identification, remediation and potential risks of emerging plastic contaminants: A review

Plastics are widely employed in modern civilization because of their durability, mold ability, and light weight. In the recent decade, micro/nanoplastics research has steadily increased, highlighting its relevance. However, contaminating micro/nanoplastics in marine environments, terrestrial ecosystems, and biological organisms is considered a severe threat to the environmental system. Geographical distribution, migration patterns, etymologies of formation, and ecological ramifications of absorption are just a few topics covered in the scientific literature on environmental issues. Degradable solutions from material science and chemistry are needed to address the micro/nanoplastics problem, primarily to reduce the production of these pollutants and their potential effects. Removing micro/nanoplastics from their discharge points has been a central and effective way to mitigate the adverse pollution effects. In this review, we begin by discussing the hazardous effect on living beings and the identification-characterization of micro/nanoplastics. Then, we provide a summary of the existing degradation strategies, which include bio-degradation and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and a detailed discussion of their degradation mechanisms is also represented. Finally, a persuasive summary of the evaluated work and projections for the future of this topic is provided.

Atmospheric microplastic and nanoplastic: The toxicological paradigm on the cellular system

The increasing demand for plastic in our daily lives has led to global plastic pollution. The improper disposal of plastic has resulted in a massive amount of atmospheric microplastics (MPs), which has further resulted in the production of atmospheric nanoplastics (NPs). Because of its intimate relationship with the environment and human health, microplastic and nanoplastic contamination is becoming a problem. Because microplastics and nanoplastics are microscopic and light, they may penetrate deep into the human lungs. Despite several studies demonstrating the abundance of microplastics and nanoplastics in the air, the potential risks of atmospheric microplastics and nanoplastics remain unknown. Because of its small size, atmospheric nanoplastic characterization has presented significant challenges. This paper describes sampling and characterization procedures for atmospheric microplastics and nanoplastics. This study also examines the numerous harmful effects of plastic particles on human health and other species. There is a significant void in research on the toxicity of airborne microplastics and nanoplastics upon inhalation, which has significant toxicological potential in the future. Further study is needed to determine the influence of microplastic and nanoplastic on pulmonary diseases.

Nanoplastics are significantly different from microplastics in urban waters

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are ubiquitous and intractable in urban waters. Compared with MPs, the smaller NPs have shown distinct physicochemical features, such as Brownian motion, higher specific surface area, and stronger interaction with other pollutants. Therefore, the qualitative and quantitative analysis of NPs is more challenging than that of MPs. Moreover, these characteristics endow NPs with significantly different environmental fate, interactions with pollutants, and eco-impacts from those of MPs in urban waters. Herein, we critically analyze the current advances in the difference between MPs and NPs in urban waters. Analytical challenges, fate, interactions with surrounding pollutants, and eco-impacts of MPs and NPs are comparably discussed., The characterizations and fate studies of NPs are more challenging compared to MPs. Furthermore, NPs in most cases exhibit stronger interactions with other pollutants and more adverse eco-impacts on living things than MPs. Subsequently, perspective in this field is proposed to stimulate further size-dependent studies on MPs and NPs. This review would benefit the understanding of the role of NPs in the urban water ecosystem and guide future studies on plastic pollution management.

Receptor-based detection of microplastics and nanoplastics: Current and future

Plastic pollution is an emerging environmental concern, gaining significant attention worldwide. They are classified into microplastics (MP; defined from 1 μm to 5 mm) and smaller nanoplastics (NP; <1 μm). NPs may pose higher ecological risks than MPs. Various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have been used to detect MPs, and the same methods have occasionally been used for NPs. However, they are not based on receptors, which provide high specificity in most biosensing applications. Receptor-based micro/nanoplastics (MNP) detection can provide high specificity, distinguishing MNPs from the environmental samples and, more importantly, identifying the plastic types. It can also offer a low limit of detection (LOD) required for environmental screening. Such receptors are expected to detect NPs specifically at the molecular level. This review categorizes the receptors into cells, proteins, peptides, fluorescent dyes, polymers, and micro/nanostructures. Detection techniques used with these receptors are also summarized and categorized. There is plenty of room for future research to test for broader classes of environmental samples and many plastic types, to lower the LOD, and to apply the current techniques for NPs. Portable and handheld MNP detection should also be demonstrated for field use since the current demonstrations primarily utilized laboratory instruments. Detection on microfluidic platforms will also be crucial in miniaturizing and automating the assay and, eventually, collecting an extensive database to support machine learning-based classification of MNP types.

Physicochemical characterization and quantification of nanoplastics: applicability, limitations and complementarity of batch and fractionation methods

A comprehensive physicochemical characterization of heterogeneous nanoplastic (NPL) samples remains an analytical challenge requiring a combination of orthogonal measurement techniques to improve the accuracy and robustness of the results. Here, batch methods, including dynamic light scattering (DLS), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), tunable resistive pulse sensing (TRPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as separation/fractionation methods such as centrifugal liquid sedimentation (CLS) and field-flow fractionation (FFF)-multi-angle light scattering (MALS) combined with pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (pyGC-MS) or Raman microspectroscopy (RM) were evaluated for NPL size, shape, and chemical composition measurements and for quantification. A set of representative/test particles of different chemical natures, including (i) polydisperse polyethylene (PE), (ii) (doped) polystyrene (PS) NPLs, (iii) titanium dioxide, and (iv) iron oxide nanoparticles (spherical and elongated), was used to assess the applicability and limitations of the selected methodologies. Particle sizes and number-based concentrations obtained by orthogonal batch methods (DLS, NTA, TRPS) were comparable for monodisperse spherical samples, while higher deviations were observed for polydisperse, agglomerated samples and for non-spherical particles, especially for light scattering methods. CLS and TRPS offer further insight with increased size resolution, while detailed morphological information can be derived by electron microscopy (EM)-based approaches. Combined techniques such as FFF coupled to MALS and RM can provide complementary information on physical and chemical properties by online measurements, while pyGC-MS analysis of FFF fractions can be used for the identification of polymer particles (vs. inorganic particles) and for their offline (semi)quantification. However, NPL analysis in complex samples will continue to present a serious challenge for the evaluated techniques without significant improvements in sample preparation.

Prevalence and implications of microplastics in potable water system: An update

Synthetic plastics, which are lightweight, durable, elastic, mouldable, cheap, and hydrophobic, were originally invented for human convenience. However, their non-biodegradability and continuous accumulation at an alarming rate as well as subsequent conversion into micro/nano plastic scale structures via mechanical and physio-chemical degradation pose significant threats to living beings, organisms, and the environment. Various minuscule forms of plastics detected in water, soil, and air are making their passage into living cells. High temperature and ambient humidity increase the degradation potential of plastic polymers photo-catalytically under sunlight or UV-B radiations. Microplastics (MPs) of polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride have been detected in bottled water. These microplastics are entering into the food chain cycle, causing serious harm to all living organisms. MPs entering into the food chain are usually inert in nature, possessing different sizes and shapes. Once they enter a cell or tissue, it causes mechanical damage, induces inflammation, disturbs metabolism, and even lead to necrosis. Various generation routes, types, impacts, identification, and treatment of microplastics entering the water bodies and getting associated with various pollutants are discussed in this review. It emphasizes potential detection techniques like pyrolysis, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), micro-Raman spectroscopy, and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT IR) spectroscopy for microplastics from water samples.

Nanoplastics in the soil environment: Analytical methods, occurrence, fate and ecological implications

Soils play a very important role in ecosystems sustainability, either natural or agricultural ones, serving as an essential support for living organisms of different kinds. However, in the current context of extremely high plastic pollution, soils are highly threatened. Plastics can change the chemical and physical properties of the soils and may also affect the biota. Of particular importance is the fact that plastics can be fragmented into microplastics and, to a final extent into nanoplastics. Due to their extremely low size and high surface area, nanoplastics may even have a higher impact in soil ecosystems. Their transport through the edaphic environment is regulated by the physicochemical properties of the soil and plastic particles themselves, anthropic activities and biota interactions. Their degradation in soils is associated with a series of mechanical, photo-, thermo-, and bio-mediated transformations eventually conducive to their mineralisation. Their tiny size is precisely the main setback when it comes to sampling soils and subsequent processes for their identification and quantification, albeit pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and other spectroscopic techniques have proven to be useful for their analysis. Another issue as a consequence of their minuscule size lies in their uptake by plants roots and their ingestion by soil dwelling fauna, producing morphological deformations, damage to organs and physiological malfunctions, as well as the risks associated to their entrance in the food chain, although current conclusions are not always consistent and show the same pattern of effects. Thus, given the omnipresence and seriousness of the plastic menace, this review article pretends to provide a general overview of the most recent data available regarding nanoplastics determination, occurrence, fate and effects in soils, with special emphasis on their ecological implications.

Strategies and Challenges of Identifying Nanoplastics in Environment by Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

Nanoplastics (<1000 nm) have been evidenced to be universal in a variety of environmental media. They pose a potential cytotoxicity and health risk due to their tiny size, which allows them to easily penetrate biological barriers and enter cells. Here, we briefly review the various prevalent analytical techniques or tools for identifying nanoplastics, and further move to focus on their advantages and disadvantages. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has been implemented for the identification of individual nanoparticles because of its high sensitivity to molecules and ease of rapid characterization. Therefore, we introduce the SERS technique in the following aspects, (1) principles of SERS; (2) strategies and advances in SERS detection of nanoplastics; and (3) applying SERS to real environmental samples. We put our effort into the summarization of efficient SERS substrates that essentially enable the better detection of nanoplastics, and extend to discuss how the reported nanoplastics pretreatment methodologies can bring SERS analysis to practical applications. A further step moving forward is to investigate the problems and challenges of currently applied SERS detection methods and to look at future research needs in nanoplastics detection employing SERS analysis.

MPs and NPs intake and heavy metals accumulation in tissues of Palinurus elephas (J.C. Fabricius, 1787), from NW Aegean sea, Greece

European marine waters are infested with plastic, with an average density of 1 plastic item in every four square-meters. Research relevant to MPs-NPs ingestion by wild decapods in European waters is limited, none of which regards the European spiny lobster. Totally 4102 plastic particles were extracted from the spiny lobster stomach tissues of both sexes. Out of the 63 samples analysed only three (4.8%) of them were found with no plastic particles. The range of number of MPs in stomachs was from 20 to 273 MPs individual^-1. The 98.3% were fragments. In total 3833 plastic particles were extracted from the gill tissues of both sexes. MPs were found in all samples (n = 50),99.2% of the detected particles were fragments. The MPs detected in gills ranged from 11 to 339 MPs individual^-1. The DLS method was used in order to evaluate the NPs presence. Nanoplastics were detected in 22.6% of stomachs and in the 48.1% of gills. A total of 43 polymer types were identified in both tissues. Also, our study assessed the accumulation of heavy metals at the edible tail muscle. Certain elements were detected above the EU's Maximum Residue Level, including arsenic. The present results are alarming and the potential human health implications could be serious.

Finding the tiny plastic needle in the haystack: how field flow fractionation can help to analyze nanoplastics in food

While the exact health risks associated with nanoplastics are currently the focus of intense research, there is no doubt that humans are exposed to nanoplastics and that food could be a major source of exposure. Nanoplastics are released from plastic materials and articles used during food production, processing, storage, preparation, and serving. They are also likely to enter the food chain via contaminated water, air, and soil. However, very limited exposure data for risk assessment exists so far due to the lack of suitable analytical methods. Nanoplastic detection in food poses a great analytical challenge due to the complexity of plastics and food matrices as well as the small size and expectedly low concentration of the plastic particles. Multidetector field flow fractionation has emerged as a valuable analytical technique for nanoparticle separation over the last decades, and the first studies using the technique for analyzing nanoplastics in complex matrices are emerging. In combination with online detectors and offline analysis, multidetector field flow fractionation is a powerful platform for advanced characterization of nanoplastics in food by reducing sample complexity, which otherwise hampers the full potential of most analytical techniques. The focus of this article is to present the current state of the art of multidetector field flow fractionation for nanoplastic analysis and to discuss future trends and needs aiming at the analysis of nanoplastics in food.

Extraction and quantification of polystyrene nanoplastics from biological samples

Accurate quantification of nanoplastics (NPs) in complex matrices remains a challenge, especially for biological samples containing high content of organic matters. Herein, a new method extracting and quantifying polystyrene (PS) NPs from biological samples was developed. The extraction included alkaline digestion, centrifugation, and cloud point extraction (CPE), and the quantification included gold nanoparticles formation and labeling on surfaces of the extracted NPs and thereafter measurement with single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS). Results show that 25% tetramethylammonium hydroxide solution was an effective alkaline digestion solution for biological matrices, and CPE after centrifugation (3000 rpm, 10 min) was applicable to purify and enrich PS NPs with different sizes (100 and 500 nm) and surface functionalities (-COOH and -NH₂ modifications) from the digestion solution. The efficiency of Au labeling on PS NPs surface was improved by about 70% in the presence of 100 μM cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. The performance of the quantification method was examined by extraction and measurement of PS NPs spiked in four representative organism samples including bacteria, algae, nematode, and earthworm, and was further validated by analyzing the accumulated PS NPs in exposed nematodes. Good recovery rates (65 ± 10%-122 ± 22%) were achieved for spiking levels of 5-50 μg g^-1; the limit of detection was 3.7 × 10⁷ particles g^-1, corresponding to the mass concentration of about 0.02 and 2.5 μg g^-1 for the 100 nm and 500 nm PS NPs, respectively. The established extraction and quantification methods are efficient and sensitive, providing a useful approach for further exploring the environmental behavior and toxicity of NPs.

Nanoplastics: Detection and impacts in aquatic environments - A review

The rise in the global production of plastics has led to severe concerns about the impacts of plastics in aquatic environments. Although plastic materials degrade over extreme long periods, they can be broken down through physical, chemical, and/or biological processes to form microplastics (MPs), defined here as particles between 1 μm and 5 mm in size, and later to form nanoplastics (NPls), defined as particles <1 μm in size. We know little about the abundance and effects of NPls, even though a lot of research has been conducted on the ecotoxicological impacts of MPs on both aquatic biota. Nevertheless, there is evidence that NPls can both bypass the cell membranes of microorganisms and bioaccumulate in the tissues and organs of higher organisms. This review analyzes 150 publications collected by searching through the databases Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar using keywords such as nanoplastics*, aquatic*, detection*, toxic*, biofilm*, formation*, and extracellular polymeric substance* as singular or plural combinations. We highlight and critically synthesize current studies on the formation and degradation of NPls, NPls' interactions with aquatic biota and biofilm communities, and methods of detection. One reason for the missing data and studies in this area of research is the lack of a protocol for the detection of, and suitable methods for the characterization of, NPls in the field. Our primary aim is to identify gaps in knowledge throughout the review and define future directions of research to address the impacts of NPls in aquatic environments. The development of consistent and standardized sets of procedures would address the gaps in knowledge regarding the formation and degradation of NPls as well as sampling and characterizing natural NPls needed to observe the full extent of NPls on aquatic biota and biofilm communities.

Trophic Transfer and Accumulation of Microplastics in Freshwater Ecosystem: Risk to Food Security and Human Health

Plastic pollution is not at all a novel matter to the scientific as well as the public community. However, the knowledge of the general public when it comes to microplastic pollution is still in its infancy. The major sources of these tiny plastic particles in the aquatic environment are laundry, abrasion of household plastics, cosmetics, personal care products, tyre wear, food wrappings, and so on. However, the public is not much aware that they are part of these major emission sources and how much they are contributing to it. Also, the vast majority of research conducted to date on plastic pollution in all size fractions has focused more on marine ecosystems than freshwater ecosystems. Hence, people are more associated with freshwater ecosystems than marine ecosystems; it should be given additional importance.Rather than the effect on aquatic organisms through ingestion and other ways, the ecological risks posed by micro and nanoplastics as vectors for chemical contaminants and their accumulation through trophic transfer are more serious and of utmost importance. Aquatic life or aquatic ecosystem is already affected by a multitude of environmental stressors, and now microplastics and nanoplastics may represent a significant additional risk to food security. Micro and nanoplastics have already invaded our diet in various ways. Even if it does not show any immediate effect on human health, long-term exposure may pose a serious threat to the human population. Hence, identifying the possible sources and reducing exposure to these sources is of utmost importance.

Electrokinetic separation techniques for studying nano- and microplastics

In recent years, microplastics have been found in seawater, soil, food, and even human blood and tissues. The ubiquity of microplastics is alarming, but the health and environmental impacts of microplastics are just beginning to be understood. Accordingly, sampling, separating, and quantifying exposure to microplastics to devise a total risk assessment is the focus of ongoing research. Unfortunately, traditional separation methods (i.e., size- and density-based methods) unintentionally exclude the smallest microplastics (<10 μm). Limited data about the smallest microplastics is problematic because they are likely the most pervasive and have distinct properties from their larger plastic counterparts. To that end, in this Perspective, we discuss using electrokinetic methods for separating the smallest microplastics. Specifically, we describe three methods for forming electric field gradients, discuss key results within the field for continuously separating microplastics, and lastly discuss research avenues which we deem critical for advancing electrokinetic separation platforms for targeting the smallest microplastics.

Removal of nanoplastics in water treatment processes: A review

Nanoplastics are drawing a significant attention as a result of their propensity to spread across the environment and pose a threat to all organisms. The presence of nanoplastics in water is given attention nowadays as the transit of nanoplastics occurs through the aquatic ecosphere besides terrestrial mobility. The principal removal procedures for macro-and micro-plastic particles are effective, but nanoparticles escape from the treatment, increasing in the water and significantly influencing the society. This critical review is aimed to bestow the removal technologies of nanoplastics from aquatic ecosystems, with a focus on the treatment of freshwater, drinking water, and wastewater, as well as the importance of transit and its impact on health concerns. Still, there exists a gap in providing a collective knowledge on the methods available for nanoplastics removal. Hence, this review offered various nanoplastic removal technologies (microorganism-based degradation, membrane separation with a reactor, and photocatalysis) that could be the practical/effective measures along with the traditional procedures (filtration, coagulation, centrifugation, flocculation, and gravity settling). From the analyses of different treatment systems, the effectiveness of nanoplastics removal depends on various factors, source, size, and type of nanoplastics apart from the treatment method adopted. Combined removal methods, filtration with coagulation offer great scope for the removal of nanoplastics from drinking water with >99 % efficiency. The collected data could serve as base-line information for future research and development in water nanoplastics cleanup.

Plants oxidative response to nanoplastic

Pollution of the environment with plastic is an important concern of the modern world. It is estimated that annually over 350 million tonnes of this material are produced, wherein, despite the recycling methods, a significant part is deposited in the environment. The plastic has been detected in the industrial areas, as well as farmlands and gardens in many world regions. Larger plastic pieces degraded in time into smaller pieces including microplastic (MP) and nanoplastic particles (NP). Nanoplastic is suggested to pose the most serious danger as due to the small size, it is effectively taken up from the environment by the biota and transported within the organisms. An increasing number of reports show that NP exert toxic effects also on plants. One of the most common plant response to abiotic stress factors is the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). On the one hand, these molecules are engaged in cellular signalling and regulation of genes expression. On the other hand, ROS in excess lead to oxidation and damage of various cellular compounds. This article reviews the impact of NP on plants, with special emphasis on the oxidative response.

Analytical and toxicological aspects of nanomaterials in different product groups: Challenges and opportunities

The widespread integration of engineered nanomaterials into consumer and industrial products creates new challenges and requires innovative approaches in terms of design, testing, reliability, and safety of nanotechnology. The aim of this review article is to give an overview of different product groups in which nanomaterials are present and outline their safety aspects for consumers. Here, release of nanomaterials and related analytical challenges and solutions as well as toxicological considerations, such as dose-metrics, are discussed. Additionally, the utilization of engineered nanomaterials as pharmaceuticals or nutraceuticals to deliver and release cargo molecules is covered. Furthermore, critical pathways for human exposure to nanomaterials, namely inhalation and ingestion, are discussed in the context of risk assessment. Analysis of NMs in food, innovative medicine or food contact materials is discussed. Specific focus is on the presence and release of nanomaterials, including whether nanomaterials can migrate from polymer nanocomposites used in food contact materials. With regard to the toxicology and toxicokinetics of nanomaterials, aspects of dose metrics of inhalation toxicity as well as ingestion toxicology and comparison between in vitro and in vivo conclusions are considered. The definition of dose descriptors to be applied in toxicological testing is emphasized. In relation to potential exposure from different products, opportunities arising from the use of advanced analytical techniques in more unique scenarios such as release of nanomaterials from medical devices such as orthopedic implants are addressed. Alongside higher product performance and complexity, further challenges regarding material characterization and safety, as well as acceptance by the general public are expected.

Size characterization of nanomaterials in environmental and biological matrices through non-electron microscopic techniques

Engineered nanomaterials (ENs) can enter the environment, and accumulate in food chains, thereby causing environmental and health problems. Size characterization of ENs is critical for further evaluating the interactions among ENs in biological and ecological systems. Although electron microscope is a powerful tool in obtaining the size information, it has limitations when studying nanomaterials in complex matrices. In this review, we summarized non-electron microscope-based techniques, including chromatography-based, mass spectrometry-based, synchrotron radiation- and neutron-based techniques for detecting the size of ENs in environmental and biological matrices. The advantages and disadvantages of these techniques were highlighted. The perspectives on size characterization of ENs in complex matrices were also presented.

Microplastic sample purification methods - Assessing detrimental effects of purification procedures on specific plastic types

In search of effective, fast, and cheap methods to purify environmental samples for microplastic analysis, scientific literature provides various purification protocols. However, while most of these protocols effectively purify the samples, some may also degrade the targeted polymers. This study was conducted to systematically compare the effects of purification protocols based on acidic, alkaline, oxidative, and enzymatic digestion and extraction via density separation on eight of the most relevant plastic types. It offers insights into how specific purification protocols may compromise microplastic detection by documenting visible and gravimetric effects, analyzing potential surface degradation using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and bulk erosion on a molecular level using gel permeation chromatography (GPC). For example, protocols using strong acids and high temperatures are likely to completely dissolve or cause strong degradation to a wide range of polymers (PA, PC, PET, PS, PUR & PVC), while strong alkaline solutions may damage PC and PET. Contrarily, Fenton's reagent, multiple enzymatic digestion steps, as well as treatment with a zinc chloride solution frequently used for density-separation, do not degrade the eight polymers tested here. Therefore, their implementation in microplastic sample processing may be considered an essential stepping-stone towards a standardized protocol for future microplastics analyses.

Analytical Methods for Nanomaterial Determination in Biological Matrices

Nanomaterials are materials in which at least one of the three dimensions ranges from 1 to 100 nm, according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Nanomaterials can be categorized according to various parameters, such as their source, their shape, and their origin. Their increasing use in industrial settings, everyday items, electronic devices, etc. poses an environmental and biological risk that needs to be assessed and appropriately addressed. The development of reliable analytical methods for both characterization and quantification of nanomaterials in various matrices is essential. This review summarized the recent trends in analytical methodologies for the characterization and determination of nanoparticles in biological matrices.

Nanoplastics: Status and Knowledge Gaps in the Finalization of Environmental Risk Assessments

Nanoplastics (NPs) are particles ranging in size between 1 and 1000 nm, and they are a form of environmental contaminant of great ecotoxicological concern. Although NPs are widespread across ecosystems, they have only recently garnered growing attention from both the scientific community and regulatory bodies. The present study reviews scientific literature related to the exposure and effects of NPs and identifies research gaps that impede the finalization of related environmental risk assessments (ERAs). Approximately 80 articles published between 2012 and 2021 were considered. Very few studies (eight articles) focused on the presence of NPs in biotic matrices, whereas the majority of the studies (62 articles) assessed the lethal and sublethal effects of NPs on aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Whilst many studies focused on nude NPs, only a few considered their association with different aggregates. Amongst NPs, the effects of polystyrene are the most extensively reported to date. Moreover, the effects of NPs on aquatic organisms are better characterized than those on terrestrial organisms. NP concentrations detected in water were close to or even higher than the sublethal levels for organisms. An ERA framework specifically tailored to NPs is proposed.

Detection, Identification and Size Distribution of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) in Milk and Migration Study for Breast Milk Storage Bags

The engineered silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been widely used in various food contact materials (FCMs) based on their antibacterial properties. This widespread use of nanosilver has, however, increased the risk of exposure of AgNPs to human due to their migration from FCMs causing a potential hazard present in foods. Therefore, it is important to establish a reliable and practical method for the detection of AgNPs in food matrices to support risk assessment on AgNPs exposure. Taking the examples of milk and AgNPs-containing breast milk storage bags, this study established an approach for size characterization and quantification of AgNPs in milk and evaluated the relevant silver migration, based on enzymatic digestion and the analysis by asymmetric flow field–flow fractionation (AF4) hyphenated with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS). No migration of AgNPs was found from breast milk storage bags under various simulated storage conditions as well as extreme scenarios. The suitability and reliability of this method were also validated by the determination of multiple parameters, including accuracy, repeatability, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), and recovery, for AF4-ICP-MS and SP-ICP-MS, respectively, with good and overall acceptable evaluation results obtained for all. The established and validated approach was demonstrated to be suitable for the characterization and quantitation of AgNPs in milk as well as the analysis of their migration from breast milk storage bags.

Nanoplastics and Human Health: Hazard Identification and Biointerface

Nanoplastics are associated with several risks to the ecology and toxicity to humans. Nanoplastics are synthetic polymers with dimensions ranging from 1 nm to 1 μm. They are directly released to the environment or secondarily derived from plastic disintegration in the environment. Nanoplastics are widely detected in environmental samples and the food chain; therefore, their potentially toxic effects have been widely explored. In the present review, an overview of another two potential sources of nanoplastics, exposure routes to illustrate hazard identification of nanoplastics, cell internalization, and effects on intracellular target organelles are presented. In addition, challenges on the study of nanoplastics and future research areas are summarized. This paper also summarizes some approaches to eliminate or minimize the levels of nanoplastics to ensure environmental safety and improve human health.

The micro-, submicron-, and nanoplastic hunt: A review of detection methods for plastic particles

Plastic particle pollution has been shown to be almost completely ubiquitous within our surrounding environment. This ubiquity in combination with a variety of unique properties (e.g. density, hydrophobicity, surface functionalization, particle shape and size, transition temperatures, and mechanical properties) and the ever-increasing levels of plastic production and use has begun to garner heightened levels of interest within the scientific community. However, as a result of these properties, plastic particles are often reported to be challenging to study in complex (i.e. real) environments. Therefore, this review aims to summarize research generated on multiple facets of the micro- and nanoplastics field; ranging from size and shape definitions to detection and characterization techniques to generating reference particles; in order to provide a more complete understanding of the current strategies for the analysis of plastic particles. This information is then used to provide generalized recommendations for researchers to consider as they attempt to study plastics in analytically complex environments; including method validation using reference particles obtained via the presented creation methods, encouraging efforts towards method standardization through the reporting of all technical details utilized in a study, and providing analytical pathway recommendations depending upon the exact knowledge desired and samples being studied.

Extraction method development for nanoplastics from oyster and fish tissues

Nanoplastics are now found in some environmental media and consumer products. However, very limited data on nanoplastics are available for one of the main human consumption sources of microplastics: seafood. Unlike microplastics, a method for extracting nanoplastics from seafood is still lacking. Herein, a combination of common extraction techniques including enzymatic digestion, sequential membrane filtration, centrifugal concentration, and purification (dialysis and sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) incubation), was developed to extract nanoplastics from oyster and fish tissues. Corolase with subsequent lipase treatment achieved the highest digestion efficiencies (88- 89%) for non-homogenized tissues compared to other proteases and additional cellulase or H₂O₂ treatment. With the exception of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), enzymatic digestion did not change the morphology or structure of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), or polystyrene (PS) nanoplastic particles, and the subsequent extraction procedures had good recoveries of 71- 110% for fluorescence-labeled 76-nm PVC and 100- and 750-nm PS, as validated by a Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA). Few of the 10¹¹ digested residual particles of 150- 300 nm in diameter per oyster or per serving of fish tissue were left in the method blank. Consequently, this efficient approach could be used as a pretreatment protocol for current potential nanoplastic detection methods.

To Waste or Not to Waste: Questioning Potential Health Risks of Micro- and Nanoplastics with a Focus on Their Ingestion and Potential Carcinogenicity

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are recognized as emerging contaminants, especially in food, with unknown health significance. MNPs passing through the gastrointestinal tract have been brought in context with disruption of the gut microbiome. Several molecular mechanisms have been described to facilitate tissue uptake of MNPs, which then are involved in local inflammatory and immune responses. Furthermore, MNPs can act as potential transporters ("vectors") of contaminants and as chemosensitizers for toxic substances ("Trojan Horse effect"). In this review, we summarize current multidisciplinary knowledge of ingested MNPs and their potential adverse health effects. We discuss new insights into analytical and molecular modeling tools to help us better understand the local deposition and uptake of MNPs that might drive carcinogenic signaling. We present bioethical insights to basically re-consider the "culture of consumerism." Finally, we map out prominent research questions in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations.

Separation and characterization of microplastic and nanoplastic particles in marine environment

Microplastics (<5 mm) are divided into primary and secondary microplastics, which are further degraded into nanoplastics. The microplastic particles are widely distributed in marine environment, terrestrial ecosystem and biological organism, leading to damages to whole environmental system. Microplastics are not only difficult to degrade, but also able to adsorb pollutants. Due to the tiny size and various properties, the separation and characterization of microplastic particles has become more and more challenging. This review introduces the sources and destinations of the microplastic particles and summarizes the general methods for the sorting and characterization of microplastics, especially the manipulation of microplastic particles on microfluidic chip, showing possibility to deal with smaller nanoplastic particles over traditional methods. This review focuses on studies of the size-based separation and property-dependent characterization of microplastics in marine environment by utilizing the microfluidic chip device.