1
|
Okada KI, Yokoyama D, Aiba SI, Kitayama K. Exploration capacity versus specific enzymatic activity of ectomycorrhizas in response to primary productivity and soil phosphorus availability in Bornean tropical rainforests. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2842. [PMID: 38310149 PMCID: PMC10838334 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53234-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are functionally important in biogeochemical cycles in tropical ecosystems. Extracellular enzymatic activity of ECM on a ground-area basis is the product of two attributes; exploration capacity (ECM surface-area) and specific enzymatic activity. Here, we elucidated which attribute better explained the ECM enzymatic activity in response to different levels of soil phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N) availability in five Bornean tropical rainforests. We determined the surface area of ECM root tips as well as the enzymatic activities per ECM surface area for carbon (C), N and P degrading enzymes in each site. We evaluated the relationship of ECM enzyme activities with the resource availabilities of C (Above-ground net primary production; ANPP), N, and P of ECM by a generalized linear mixed model. The ECM enzymatic activities on a ground-area basis were more significantly determined by specific enzymatic activity than by the exploration capacity. Specific enzymatic activities were generally negatively affected by C (ANPP) and soil P availability. ECM fungi enhance the specific enzyme activity rather than the exploration capacity to maintain the capacity of nutrient acquisition. The less dependence of ECM fungi on the exploration capacity in these forests may be related to the limitation of C supply from host trees. We highlighted the adaptive mechanisms of ECM fungi on nutrient acquisition in tropical ecosystems through the response of enzymatic activity to nutrient availability across the elements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kei-Ichi Okada
- Faculty of Bioindustry, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Abashiri, Japan.
- Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan.
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Daiki Yokoyama
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for Sustainable Resource Science, RIKEN, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichiro Aiba
- Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kim SW, Xu Y, Meidl P, Bi M, Zhu Y, Rillig MC. Soil Storage Conditions Alter the Effects of Tire Wear Particles on Microbial Activities in Laboratory Tests. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2022; 9:1037-1043. [PMID: 36530846 PMCID: PMC9753960 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we focused on the fact that soil storage conditions in the laboratory have never been considered as a key factor potentially leading to high variation when measuring effects of microplastics on soil microbial activity. We stored field-collected soils under four different conditions [room-temperature storage, low-temperature storage (LS), air drying (AD), and heat drying] prior to the experiment. Each soil was treated with tire wear particles (TWPs), and soil microbial activities and water aggregate stability were investigated after soil incubation. As a result, microbial activities, including soil respiration and three enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, and phosphatase), were shown to depend on soil storage conditions. Soil respiration rates increased with the addition of TWPs, and the differences from the control group (no TWPs added) were more pronounced in the AD TWP treatment than in soils stored under other conditions. In contrast, phosphatase activity followed an opposing trend after the addition of TWPs. The AD soil had higher phosphatase activity after the addition of TWPs, while the LS soil had a lower level than the control group. We suggest that microplastic effects in laboratory experiments can strongly depend on soil storage conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shin Woong Kim
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yaqi Xu
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Meidl
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mohan Bi
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yanjie Zhu
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias C. Rillig
- Institute
of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg
Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang R, Wang Y, Guerin-Laguette A, Zhang P, Colinas C, Yu F. Factors influencing successful establishment of exotic Pinus radiata seedlings with co-introduced Lactarius deliciosus or local ectomycorrhizal fungal communities. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:973483. [DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.973483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An introduction of exotic or non-native trees may fail due to a lack of suitable fungal partners. We planted exotic Pinus radiata in Xifeng, Guizhou Southwest China. Strategies to introduce P. radiata seedlings either colonized with an ectomycorrhizal fungus (EcMF), Lactarius deliciosus, or expect them to form familiar/new associations with local EcMF in a new habitat were studied to know how P. radiata could be successfully established over a period of 2.5 years. Plant height and needle nutrient acquisition, the persistence of the co-introduced L. deliciosus, and fungal community composition in rhizosphere soil and root tips were analyzed. In addition, a greenhouse bioassay experiment of local soil to assess the differences in the EcMF community between exotic and native pine seedlings was also conducted. The current results demonstrated that P. radiata could establish in the Xifeng plantation with or without co-introduced L. deliciosus. The co-introduced L. deliciosus might be naturalized with P. radiata in the new area since it has been fruited for 2 years with high relative abundance in mycorrhizosphere soil. L. deliciosus pre-colonization significantly altered the mycorrhizosphere fungal composition and it had a positive correlation with nitrogen acquisition of P. radiata. Host identity had no effect on fungal composition since exotic P. radiata and native P. massoniana recruited similar local fungal communities in early establishment or in plantation. The cosmopolitan species Suillus placidus, with high relative abundance, formed a familiar association with P. radiata. The greenhouse bioassay experiment further showed that Suillus sp. contributed relatively higher total extracellular enzymes by forming ectomycorrhizas with P. radiata and the same type of ectomycorrhiza of P. radiata and P. massoniana showed different enzymatic functions. Our study indicated that exotic P. radiata could be a suitable tree capable to get established successfully in the Xifeng plantation either by interaction with the co-introduced L. deliciosus or with a local EcMF, but we should be cautious about large-scale planting of P. radiata. L. deliciosus persisted in plantation and more attention should be paid to local EcMF community changes induced by the introduced L. deliciosus.
Collapse
|
4
|
Sallaku G, Rewald B, Sandén H, Balliu A. Scions impact biomass allocation and root enzymatic activity of rootstocks in grafted melon and watermelon plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:949086. [PMID: 36247619 PMCID: PMC9558002 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.949086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Vegetable grafting is increasingly recognized as an effective and sustainable plant production alternative. Grafted plants usually show increased uptake of water and minerals compared with self-rooted plants, mostly thought a consequence of the vigorous rootstocks selected. However, while studies frequently addressed the effects of rootstocks on the performance of scions, knowledge on the influences of scions on biomass allocation, morphology, and metabolic activity of roots is rare. In particular, the plasticity of root traits affecting resource acquisition and its efficiency remains poorly understood. Two different rootstock species, Cucurbita maxima × Cucurbita moschata and Lagenaria siceraria, were grafted in combination with melon (Cucumis melo) and watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Self-grafted rootstocks were used as control. Plant biomass and root traits were determined after destructive harvesting 30 and/or 60 days after grafting. Traits included biomass allocation, leaf and root morphology, potential activities of four extracellular enzymes on root tips and basal root segments, and root respiration. Successfully grafted scions increase the ratio of root to whole plant dry matter (RMF), and increased ratios of root length to whole plant dry matter (RLR) and to plant leaf area (RL : LA). In contrast, morphological root traits such as diameter, tissue density, and specific root length remain surprisingly stable, and thus scion-induced changes of those traits may only play a minor role for the beneficial effects of grafting in Cucurbitaceae. Incompatibility in melon/L. siceraria grafts, however, was likely responsible for the reduced root growth in combination with clear changes in root morphological traits. Reduced root respiration rates seem to be the effects of a non-compatible rootstock-scion combination rather than an active, C-efficiency increasing acclimation. In contrast, heterografts with melon and watermelon frequently resulted in root-stock-specific, often enhanced potential enzymatic activities of acid phosphatase, β-glucosidase, leucine-amino-peptidase, and N-acetyl-glucosaminidase both at root tips and basal parts of lateral roots-presenting a potential and complementary mechanism of grafted plants to enhance nutrient foraging. The studied melon and watermelon scions may thus increase the nutrient foraging capacity of grafted plants by fostering the relative allocation of C to the root system, and enhancing the extracellular enzymatic activities governed by roots or their rhizobiome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Glenda Sallaku
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
| | - Boris Rewald
- Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Hans Sandén
- Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Astrit Balliu
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Authier L, Violle C, Richard F. Ectomycorrhizal Networks in the Anthropocene: From Natural Ecosystems to Urban Planning. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:900231. [PMID: 35845640 PMCID: PMC9280895 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.900231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Trees acquire hydric and mineral soil resources through root mutualistic associations. In most boreal, temperate and Mediterranean forests, these functions are realized by a chimeric structure called ectomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are highly diversified and vary widely in their specificity toward plant hosts. Reciprocally, association patterns of ECM plants range from highly specialist to generalist. As a consequence, ECM symbiosis creates interaction networks, which also mediate plant-plant nutrient interactions among different individuals and drive plant community dynamics. Our knowledge of ECM networks essentially relies on a corpus acquired in temperate ecosystems, whereas the below-ground facets of both anthropogenic ECM forests and inter-tropical forests remain poorly investigated. Here, we successively (1) review the current knowledge of ECM networks, (2) examine the content of early literature produced in ECM cultivated forests, (3) analyze the recent progress that has been made in understanding the place of ECM networks in urban soils, and (4) provide directions for future research based on the identification of knowledge gaps. From the examined corpus of knowledge, we reach three main conclusions. First, the emergence of metabarcoding tools has propelled a resurgence of interest in applying network theory to ECM symbiosis. These methods revealed an unexpected interconnection between mutualistic plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) herbaceous plants, embedding ECM mycelia through root-endophytic interactions. This affinity of ECM fungi to bind VA and ECM plants, raises questions on the nature of the associated functions. Second, despite the central place of ECM trees in cultivated forests, little attention has been paid to these man-made landscapes and in-depth research on this topic is lacking. Third, we report a lag in applying the ECM network theory to urban soils, despite management initiatives striving to interconnect motile organisms through ecological corridors, and the highly challenging task of interconnecting fixed organisms in urban greenspaces is discussed. In particular, we observe a pauperized nature of resident ECM inoculum and a spatial conflict between belowground human pipelines and ECM networks. Finally, we identify the main directions of future research to make the needed link between the current picture of plant functioning and the understanding of belowground ECM networks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Louise Authier
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier - CNRS - EPHE - IRD, Montpellier, France
- Ilex Paysage + Urbanisme, Lyon, France
| | - Cyrille Violle
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier - CNRS - EPHE - IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Franck Richard
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier - CNRS - EPHE - IRD, Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Németh JB, Knapp DG, Kósa A, Hegedűs PÁ, Herczeg G, Vági P, Kovács GM. Micro-scale Experimental System Coupled with Fluorescence-based Estimation of Fungal Biomass to Study Utilisation of Plant Substrates. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2022; 83:714-723. [PMID: 34218293 PMCID: PMC8979871 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-021-01794-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The degradation capacity and utilisation of complex plant substrates are crucial for the functioning of saprobic fungi and different plant symbionts with fundamental functions in ecosystems. Measuring the growth capacity and biomass of fungi on such systems is a challenging task. We established a new micro-scale experimental setup using substrates made of different plant species and organs as media for fungal growth. We adopted and tested a reliable and simple titration-based method for the estimation of total fungal biomass within the substrates using fluorescence-labelled lectin. We found that the relationship between fluorescence intensity and fungal dry weight was strong and linear but differed among fungi. The effect of the plant organ (i.e. root vs. shoot) used as substrate on fungal growth differed among plant species and between root endophytic fungal species. The novel microscale experimental system is useful for screening the utilisation of different substrates, which can provide insight into the ecological roles and functions of fungi. Furthermore, our fungal biomass estimation method has applications in various fields. As the estimation is based on the fungal cell wall, it measures the total cumulative biomass produced in a certain environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julianna B Németh
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Dániel G Knapp
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Annamária Kósa
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Panna Á Hegedűs
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Gábor Herczeg
- Behavioural Ecology Group, Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Pál Vági
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Gábor M Kovács
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, Budapest, 1117, Hungary.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Clausing S, Pena R, Song B, Müller K, Mayer-Gruner P, Marhan S, Grafe M, Schulz S, Krüger J, Lang F, Schloter M, Kandeler E, Polle A. Carbohydrate depletion in roots impedes phosphorus nutrition in young forest trees. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 229:2611-2624. [PMID: 33128821 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nutrient imbalances cause the deterioration of tree health in European forests, but the underlying physiological mechanisms are unknown. Here, we investigated the consequences of decreasing root carbohydrate reserves for phosphorus (P) mobilisation and uptake by forest trees. In P-rich and P-poor beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests, naturally grown, young trees were girdled and used to determine root, ectomycorrhizal and microbial activities related to P mobilisation in the organic layer and mineral topsoil in comparison with those in nongirdled trees. After girdling, root carbohydrate reserves decreased. Root phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activities linking carbon and P metabolism increased. Root and ectomycorrhizal phosphatase activities and the abundances of bacterial genes catalysing major steps in P turnover increased, but soil enzymes involved in P mobilisation were unaffected. The physiological responses to girdling were stronger in P-poor than in P-rich forests. P uptake was decreased after girdling. The soluble and total P concentrations in roots were stable, but fine root biomass declined after girdling. Our results support that carbohydrate depletion results in reduced P uptake, enhanced internal P remobilisation and root biomass trade-off to compensate for the P shortage. As reductions in root biomass render trees more susceptible to drought, our results link tree deterioration with disturbances in the P supply as a consequence of decreased belowground carbohydrate allocation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Clausing
- Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Goettingen, Büsgenweg 2, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Rodica Pena
- Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Goettingen, Büsgenweg 2, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Bin Song
- Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Goettingen, Büsgenweg 2, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Karolin Müller
- Soil Biology Department, Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Straße 27, Stuttgart, 70593, Germany
| | - Paula Mayer-Gruner
- Soil Biology Department, Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Straße 27, Stuttgart, 70593, Germany
| | - Sven Marhan
- Soil Biology Department, Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Straße 27, Stuttgart, 70593, Germany
| | - Martin Grafe
- Research Unit for Comparative Microbiome Analyses, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schulz
- Research Unit for Comparative Microbiome Analyses, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Jaane Krüger
- Soil Ecology, University of Freiburg, Bertoldstraße 17, Freiburg (i. Br.), 79085, Germany
| | - Friederike Lang
- Soil Ecology, University of Freiburg, Bertoldstraße 17, Freiburg (i. Br.), 79085, Germany
| | - Michael Schloter
- Research Unit for Comparative Microbiome Analyses, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Ellen Kandeler
- Soil Biology Department, Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Straße 27, Stuttgart, 70593, Germany
| | - Andrea Polle
- Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Goettingen, Büsgenweg 2, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Meeds JA, Marty Kranabetter J, Zigg I, Dunn D, Miros F, Shipley P, Jones MD. Phosphorus deficiencies invoke optimal allocation of exoenzymes by ectomycorrhizas. ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:1478-1489. [PMID: 33420298 PMCID: PMC8114911 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-020-00864-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi can acquire phosphorus (P) through the production of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes (exoenzymes), but it is unclear as to the manner and extent native EM fungal communities respond to declining soil P availability. We examined the activity of six exoenzymes (xylosidase, N-acetyl glucosaminidase, β-glucosidase, acid phosphomonoesterase, acid phosphodiesterase [APD], laccase) from EM roots of Pseudotsuga menzesii across a soil podzolization gradient of coastal British Columbia. We found that APD activity increased fourfold in a curvilinear association with declining inorganic P. Exoenzyme activity was not related to organic P content, but at a finer resolution using 31P-NMR, there was a strong positive relationship between APD activity and the ratio of phosphodiesters to orthophosphate of surface organic horizons (forest floors). Substantial increases (two- to fivefold) in most exoenzymes were aligned with declining foliar P concentrations of P. menzesii, but responses were statistically better in relation to foliar nitrogen (N):P ratios. EM fungal species with consistently high production of key exoenzymes were exclusive to Podzol plots. Phosphorus deficiencies in relation to N limitations may provide the best predictor of exoenzyme investment, reflecting an optimal allocation strategy for EM fungi. Resource constraints contribute to species turnover and the assembly of distinct, well-adapted EM fungal communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin A Meeds
- Biology Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada
| | - J Marty Kranabetter
- British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, P.O. Box 9536, Stn Prov Govt, Victoria, BC, V8W 9C4, Canada.
| | - Ieva Zigg
- Biology Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada.,Chemistry Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 3187 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada
| | - Dave Dunn
- Natural Resources Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 Burnside Road West, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada
| | - François Miros
- Chemistry Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 3187 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada
| | - Paul Shipley
- Chemistry Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 3187 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada
| | - Melanie D Jones
- Biology Department, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, BC, V4V 1V7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dias T, Pimentel V, Cogo AJD, Costa R, Bertolazi AA, Miranda C, de Souza SB, Melo J, Carolino M, Varma A, Eutrópio F, Olivares FL, Ramos AC, Cruz C. The Free-Living Stage Growth Conditions of the Endophytic Fungus Serendipita indica May Regulate Its Potential as Plant Growth Promoting Microbe. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:562238. [PMID: 33072023 PMCID: PMC7536269 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.562238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Serendipita indica (former Piriformospora indica) is a non-obligate endophytic fungus and generally a plant growth and defence promoter with high potential to be used in agriculture. However, S. indica may switch from biotrophy to saprotrophy losing its plant growth promoting traits. Our aim was to understand if the free-living stage growth conditions (namely C availability) regulate S. indica’s phenotype, and its potential as plant-growth-promoting-microbe (PGPM). We grew S. indica in its free-living stage under increasing C availabilities (2–20 g L–1 of glucose or sucrose). We first characterised the effect of C availability during free-living stage growth on fungal phenotype: colonies growth and physiology (plasma membrane proton pumps, stable isotopic signatures, and potential extracellular decomposing enzymes). The effect of the C availability during the free-living stage of the PGPM was evaluated on wheat. We observed that C availability during the free-living stage regulated S. indica’s growth, ultrastructure and physiology, resulting in two distinct colony phenotypes: compact and explorer. The compact phenotype developed at low C, used peptone as the major C and N source, and displayed higher decomposing potential for C providing substrates; while the explorer phenotype developed at high C, used glucose and sucrose as major C sources and casein and yeast extract as major N sources, and displayed higher decomposing potential for N and P providing substrates. The C availability, or the C/N ratio, during the free-living stage left a legacy to the symbiosis stage, regulating S. indica’s potential to promote plant growth: wheat growth promotion by the explorer phenotype was ± 40% higher than that by the compact phenotype. Our study highlights the importance of considering microbial ecology in designing PGPM/biofertilizers. Further studies are needed to test the phenotypes under more extreme conditions, and to understand if the in vitro acquired characteristics persist under field conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Dias
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Vívian Pimentel
- Laboratory of Physiology and Biochemistry of Microorganisms, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
| | | | - Raquel Costa
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Amanda Azevedo Bertolazi
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Universidade Vila Velha, Vila Velha, Brazil
| | - Camila Miranda
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Universidade Vila Velha, Vila Velha, Brazil
| | - Sávio Bastos de Souza
- Plant Physiology Lab, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
| | - Juliana Melo
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Manuela Carolino
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ajit Varma
- Amity Institute of Microbial Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
| | | | - Fábio Lopes Olivares
- Cell Tissue and Biology Lab, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Coutinho Ramos
- Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Universidade Vila Velha, Vila Velha, Brazil
| | - Cristina Cruz
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ribeiro-Kumara C, Pumpanen J, Heinonsalo J, Metslaid M, Orumaa A, Jõgiste K, Berninger F, Köster K. Long-term effects of forest fires on soil greenhouse gas emissions and extracellular enzyme activities in a hemiboreal forest. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 718:135291. [PMID: 31843307 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Fire is the most important natural disturbance in boreal forests, and it has a major role regulating the carbon (C) budget of these systems. With the expected increase in fire frequency, the greenhouse gas (GHG) budget of boreal forest soils may change. In order to understand the long-term nature of the soil-atmosphere GHG exchange after fire, we established a fire chronosequence representing successional stages at 8, 19, 34, 65, 76 and 179 years following stand-replacing fires in hemiboreal Scots pine forests in Estonia. Changes in extracellular activity, litter decomposition, vegetation biomass, and soil physicochemical properties were assessed in relation to carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Soil temperature was highest 8 years after fire, whereas soil moisture varied through the fire chronosequences without a consistent pattern. Litter decomposition and CO2 efflux were still lower 8 years after fire compared with pre-fire levels (179 years after fire). Both returned to pre-fire levels before vegetation re-established, and CO2 efflux was only strongly responsive to temperature from 19 years after fire onward. Recovery of CO2 efflux in the long term was associated with a moderate effect of fire on enzyme activity, the input of above- and below-ground litter carbon, and the re-establishment of vegetation. Soil acted as a CH4 sink and N2O source similarly in all successional stages. Compared with soil moisture and time after fire, soil temperature was the most important predictor for both GHGs. The re-establishment of overstorey and vegetation cover (mosses and lichens) might have caused an increase in CH4 and N2O effluxes in the studied areas, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Ribeiro-Kumara
- University of Helsinki, Department of Forests Sciences, PO Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, 00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Jukka Pumpanen
- University of Eastern Finland, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, PL 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jussi Heinonsalo
- University of Helsinki, Department of Forests Sciences, PO Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Finnish Meteorological Institute, Climate System Research, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marek Metslaid
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006 Tartu, Estonia; Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, PO Box 115, 1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Argo Orumaa
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kalev Jõgiste
- Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Frank Berninger
- University of Eastern Finland, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, PL 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Kajar Köster
- University of Helsinki, Department of Forests Sciences, PO Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Rosinger C, Sandén H, Godbold DL. Non-structural carbohydrate concentrations of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris fine roots are linked to ectomycorrhizal enzymatic activity during spring reactivation. MYCORRHIZA 2020; 30:197-210. [PMID: 32078049 PMCID: PMC7228962 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-020-00939-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated whether changes in fine root non-structural carbohydrate reserves of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris trees influence potential enzymatic activities of their ectomycorrhizal symbionts from winter towards spring reactivation, and whether these changes influence potential soil enzymatic activities. We analyzed sugar and starch concentrations in the fine roots of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris and potential activities of ß-glucosidase, ß-xylosidase, and cellobiohydrolase (as proxies for carbon-degrading enzymes) as well as leucine aminopeptidase and chitinase (as proxies for nitrogen-degrading enzymes) of their dominant ectomycorrhizal symbionts as well as in the soil. Sugar concentrations in the fine roots were significantly positively correlated with enzymatic activities of the ectomycorrhizal symbionts. In Pinus sylvestris, both carbon- and nitrogen-degrading enzyme activities showed significant positive correlations with fine root sugar concentrations. In Fagus sylvatica, fine root sugar concentrations were explicitly positively correlated with the activity of nitrogen-degrading enzymes. The chitinase activity in the soil was found to be strongly positively correlated with the enzymatic activity of the ectomycorrhizal symbionts as well as with fine root sugar concentrations. Fine root carbohydrate concentrations of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris trees and enzymatic activities of their associated ectomycorrhizal fungi are connected. The specific nutrient demand of the tree species during spring reactivation may affect ectomycorrhizal enzymatic activity via carbon mobilization in the fine roots of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris. Moreover, our results suggest that trees indirectly contribute to the degradation of fungal necromass by stimulating ectomycorrhizal chitinase activity in the soil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Rosinger
- Institute of Forest Ecology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Straße 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Hans Sandén
- Institute of Forest Ecology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Douglas L Godbold
- Institute of Forest Ecology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
- Department of Landscape Carbon Deposition, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Global Change Research Institute, Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Adamczyk B, Sietiö OM, Straková P, Prommer J, Wild B, Hagner M, Pihlatie M, Fritze H, Richter A, Heinonsalo J. Plant roots increase both decomposition and stable organic matter formation in boreal forest soil. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3982. [PMID: 31484931 PMCID: PMC6726645 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11993-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Boreal forests are ecosystems with low nitrogen (N) availability that store globally significant amounts of carbon (C), mainly in plant biomass and soil organic matter (SOM). Although crucial for future climate change predictions, the mechanisms controlling boreal C and N pools are not well understood. Here, using a three-year field experiment, we compare SOM decomposition and stabilization in the presence of roots, with exclusion of roots but presence of fungal hyphae and with exclusion of both roots and fungal hyphae. Roots accelerate SOM decomposition compared to the root exclusion treatments, but also promote a different soil N economy with higher concentrations of organic soil N compared to inorganic soil N accompanied with the build-up of stable SOM-N. In contrast, root exclusion leads to an inorganic soil N economy (i.e., high level of inorganic N) with reduced stable SOM-N build-up. Based on our findings, we provide a framework on how plant roots affect SOM decomposition and stabilization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bartosz Adamczyk
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland.
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland.
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, PL 2, 00791, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Outi-Maaria Sietiö
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Petra Straková
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, PL 2, 00791, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, PO Box 27, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Judith Prommer
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Birgit Wild
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Wien, Austria
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marleena Hagner
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Tietotie 2, 31600, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Mari Pihlatie
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre (ViPS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hannu Fritze
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, PL 2, 00791, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andreas Richter
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Jussi Heinonsalo
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 66, Helsinki, Finland
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Climate System Research, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Queralt M, Walker JKM, de Miguel AM, Parladé J, Anderson IC, Hortal S. The ability of a host plant to associate with different symbiotic partners affects ectomycorrhizal functioning. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2019; 95:5491332. [PMID: 31101921 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiz069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some plants that associate with ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are also able to simultaneously establish symbiosis with other types of partners. The presence of alternative partners that may provide similar benefits may affect ECM functioning. Here we compared potential leucine-aminopeptidase (LA) and acid phosphatase (AP) enzyme activity (involved in N and P cycling, respectively) in ECM fungi of three hosts planted under the same conditions but differing in the type of partners: Pinus (ECM fungi only), Eucalyptus (ECM and arbuscular mycorrhizal -AM- fungi) and Acacia (ECM, AM fungi and rhizobial bacteria). We found that the ECM community on Acacia and Eucalyptus had higher potential AP activity than the Pinus community. The ECM community in Acacia also showed increased potential LA activity compared to Pinus. Morphotypes present in more than one host showed higher potential AP and LA activity when colonizing Acacia than when colonizing another host. Our results suggest that competition with AM fungi and rhizobial bacteria could promote increased ECM activity in Eucalyptus and Acacia. Alternatively, other host-related differences such as ECM community composition could also play a role. We found evidence for ECM physiological plasticity when colonizing different hosts, which might be key for adaptation to future climate scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Queralt
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología Ambiental, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Navarra, 31080 Pamplona, Spain
| | - J K M Walker
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
| | - A M de Miguel
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología Ambiental, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Navarra, 31080 Pamplona, Spain
| | - J Parladé
- Sustainable Plant Protection, Institute for Research and Technology in Food and Agriculture (IRTA). Ctra. Cabrils km 2, 08348 Cabrils (Barcelona), Spain
| | - I C Anderson
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
| | - S Hortal
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Rasmussen AL, Brewer JS, Jackson CR, Hoeksema JD. Tree thinning and fire affect ectomycorrhizal fungal communities and enzyme activities. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ann L. Rasmussen
- Department of Biology University of Mississippi University Mississippi 38677‐1848 USA
| | - J. Stephen Brewer
- Department of Biology University of Mississippi University Mississippi 38677‐1848 USA
| | - Colin R. Jackson
- Department of Biology University of Mississippi University Mississippi 38677‐1848 USA
| | - Jason D. Hoeksema
- Department of Biology University of Mississippi University Mississippi 38677‐1848 USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Shah F, Mali T, Lundell TK. Polyporales Brown Rot Species Fomitopsis pinicola: Enzyme Activity Profiles, Oxalic Acid Production, and Fe 3+-Reducing Metabolite Secretion. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e02662-17. [PMID: 29439983 PMCID: PMC5881074 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02662-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Basidiomycota fungi in the order Polyporales are specified to decomposition of dead wood and woody debris and thereby are crucial players in the degradation of organic matter and cycling of carbon in the forest ecosystems. Polyporales wood-decaying species comprise both white rot and brown rot fungi, based on their mode of wood decay. While the white rot fungi are able to attack and decompose all the lignocellulose biopolymers, the brown rot species mainly cause the destruction of wood polysaccharides, with minor modification of the lignin units. The biochemical mechanism of brown rot decay of wood is still unclear and has been proposed to include a combination of nonenzymatic oxidation reactions and carbohydrate-active enzymes. Therefore, a linking approach is needed to dissect the fungal brown rot processes. We studied the brown rot Polyporales species Fomitopsis pinicola by following mycelial growth and enzyme activity patterns and generating metabolites together with Fenton-promoting Fe3+-reducing activity for 3 months in submerged cultures supplemented with spruce wood. Enzyme activities to degrade hemicellulose, cellulose, proteins, and chitin were produced by three Finnish isolates of F. pinicola Substantial secretion of oxalic acid and a decrease in pH were notable. Aromatic compounds and metabolites were observed to accumulate in the fungal cultures, with some metabolites having Fe3+-reducing activity. Thus, F. pinicola demonstrates a pattern of strong mycelial growth leading to the active production of carbohydrate- and protein-active enzymes, together with the promotion of Fenton biochemistry. Our findings point to fungal species-level "fine-tuning" and variations in the biochemical reactions leading to the brown rot type of wood decay.IMPORTANCEFomitopsis pinicola is a common fungal species in boreal and temperate forests in the Northern Hemisphere encountered as a wood-colonizing saprotroph and tree pathogen, causing a severe brown rot type of wood degradation. However, its lignocellulose-decomposing mechanisms have remained undiscovered. Our approach was to explore both the enzymatic activities and nonenzymatic Fenton reaction-promoting activities (Fe3+ reduction and metabolite production) by cultivating three isolates of F. pinicola in wood-supplemented cultures. Our findings on the simultaneous production of versatile enzyme activities, including those of endoglucanase, xylanase, β-glucosidase, chitinase, and acid peptidase, together with generation of low pH, accumulation of oxalic acid, and Fe3+-reducing metabolites, increase the variations of fungal brown rot decay mechanisms. Furthermore, these findings will aid us in revealing the wood decay proteomic, transcriptomic, and metabolic activities of this ecologically important forest fungal species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Firoz Shah
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tuulia Mali
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Taina K Lundell
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nickel UT, Weikl F, Kerner R, Schäfer C, Kallenbach C, Munch JC, Pritsch K. Quantitative losses vs. qualitative stability of ectomycorrhizal community responses to 3 years of experimental summer drought in a beech-spruce forest. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2018; 24:e560-e576. [PMID: 29063659 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Forest ecosystems in central Europe are predicted to face an increasing frequency and severity of summer droughts because of global climate change. European beech and Norway spruce often coexist in these forests with mostly positive effects on their growth. However, their different below-ground responses to drought may lead to differences in ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal community composition and functions which we examined at the individual root and ecosystem levels. We installed retractable roofs over plots in Kranzberg Forest (11°39'42″E, 48°25'12″N; 490 m a.s.l.) to impose repeated summer drought conditions and assigned zones within each plot where trees neighboured the same or different species to study mixed species effects. We found that ECM fungal community composition changed and the numbers of vital mycorrhizae decreased for both tree species over 3 drought years (2014-2016), with the ECM fungal community diversity of beech exhibiting a faster and of spruce a stronger decline. Mixed stands had a positive effect on the ECM fungal community diversity of both tree species after the third drought year. Ectomycorrhizae with long rhizomorphs increased in both species under drought, indicating long-distance water transport. However, there was a progressive decline in the number of vital fine roots during the experiment, resulting in a strong reduction in enzyme activity per unit volume of soil. Hydrolytic enzyme activities of the surviving ectomycorrhizae were stable or stimulated upon drought, but there was a large decline in ECM fungal species with laccase activity, indicating a decreased potential to exploit nutrients bound to phenolic compounds. Thus, the ectomycorrhizae responded to repeated drought by maintaining or increasing their functionality at the individual root level, but were unable to compensate for quantitative losses at the ecosystem level. These findings demonstrate a strong below-ground impact of recurrent drought events in forests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Uwe T Nickel
- Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Allergens in Ecosystems, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Fabian Weikl
- Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Allergens in Ecosystems, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - René Kerner
- Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Allergens in Ecosystems, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Cynthia Schäfer
- Forest Growth and Yield Science, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | | | - Jean C Munch
- Grassland Science, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Karin Pritsch
- Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Allergens in Ecosystems, Neuherberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ulm F, Hellmann C, Cruz C, Máguas C. N/P imbalance as a key driver for the invasion of oligotrophic dune systems by a woody legume. OIKOS 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.03810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Ulm
- Faculdade de Ciencias da Universidade de Lisboa, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Campo Grande, C2 PT-1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Christine Hellmann
- Experimental and Systems Ecology; Univ. of Bielefeld; Bielefeld Germany
- Dept of Ecosystem Physiology; Univ. of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
| | - Cristina Cruz
- Faculdade de Ciencias da Universidade de Lisboa, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Campo Grande, C2 PT-1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Cristina Máguas
- Faculdade de Ciencias da Universidade de Lisboa, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Campo Grande, C2 PT-1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Moeller HV, Peay KG. Competition-function tradeoffs in ectomycorrhizal fungi. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2270. [PMID: 27547573 PMCID: PMC4974999 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. The extent to which ectomycorrhizal fungi mediate primary production, carbon storage, and nutrient remineralization in terrestrial ecosystems depends upon fungal community composition. However, the factors that govern community composition at the root system scale are not well understood. Here, we explore a potential tradeoff between ectomycorrhizal fungal competitive ability and enzymatic function. Methods. We grew Pinus muricata (Bishop Pine) seedlings in association with ectomycorrhizal fungi from three different genera in a fully factorial experimental design. We measured seedling growth responses, ectomycorrhizal abundance, and the root tip activity of five different extracellular enzymes involved in the mobilization of carbon and phosphorus. Results. We found an inverse relationship between competitiveness, quantified based on relative colonization levels, and enzymatic activity. Specifically, Thelephora terrestris, the dominant fungus, had the lowest enzyme activity levels, while Suillus pungens, the least dominant fungus, had the highest. Discussion. Our results identify a tradeoff between competition and function in ectomycorrhizal fungi, perhaps mediated by the competing energetic demands associated with competitive interactions and enzymatic production. These data suggest that mechanisms such as active partner maintenance by host trees may be important to maintaining "high-quality" ectomycorrhizal fungal partners in natural systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holly V. Moeller
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA
- Ecology, Evolution & Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Kabir G. Peay
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Moeller HV, Peay KG. Competition-function tradeoffs in ectomycorrhizal fungi. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2270. [PMID: 27547573 DOI: 10.7717/peerj2270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. The extent to which ectomycorrhizal fungi mediate primary production, carbon storage, and nutrient remineralization in terrestrial ecosystems depends upon fungal community composition. However, the factors that govern community composition at the root system scale are not well understood. Here, we explore a potential tradeoff between ectomycorrhizal fungal competitive ability and enzymatic function. Methods. We grew Pinus muricata (Bishop Pine) seedlings in association with ectomycorrhizal fungi from three different genera in a fully factorial experimental design. We measured seedling growth responses, ectomycorrhizal abundance, and the root tip activity of five different extracellular enzymes involved in the mobilization of carbon and phosphorus. Results. We found an inverse relationship between competitiveness, quantified based on relative colonization levels, and enzymatic activity. Specifically, Thelephora terrestris, the dominant fungus, had the lowest enzyme activity levels, while Suillus pungens, the least dominant fungus, had the highest. Discussion. Our results identify a tradeoff between competition and function in ectomycorrhizal fungi, perhaps mediated by the competing energetic demands associated with competitive interactions and enzymatic production. These data suggest that mechanisms such as active partner maintenance by host trees may be important to maintaining "high-quality" ectomycorrhizal fungal partners in natural systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holly V Moeller
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA; Ecology, Evolution & Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Kabir G Peay
- Department of Biology, Stanford University , Stanford , CA , USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Hupperts SF, Karst J, Pritsch K, Landhäusser SM. Host phenology and potential saprotrophism of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the boreal forest. Funct Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan F. Hupperts
- Department of Renewable Resources University of Alberta Edmonton AlbertaT6G 2H1 Canada
| | - Justine Karst
- Department of Renewable Resources University of Alberta Edmonton AlbertaT6G 2H1 Canada
| | - Karin Pritsch
- Helmholtz Zentrum München GmbH German Research Center for Environmental Health Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1 85764 Neuherberg Germany
| | - Simon M. Landhäusser
- Department of Renewable Resources University of Alberta Edmonton AlbertaT6G 2H1 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Shvaleva A, Siljanen HMP, Correia A, Costa e Silva F, Lamprecht RE, Lobo-do-Vale R, Bicho C, Fangueiro D, Anderson M, Pereira JS, Chaves MM, Cruz C, Martikainen PJ. Environmental and microbial factors influencing methane and nitrous oxide fluxes in Mediterranean cork oak woodlands: trees make a difference. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1104. [PMID: 26528257 PMCID: PMC4604323 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cork oak woodlands (montado) are agroforestry systems distributed all over the Mediterranean basin with a very important social, economic and ecological value. A generalized cork oak decline has been occurring in the last decades jeopardizing its future sustainability. It is unknown how loss of tree cover affects microbial processes that are consuming greenhouse gases in the montado ecosystem. The study was conducted under two different conditions in the natural understory of a cork oak woodland in center Portugal: under tree canopy (UC) and open areas without trees (OA). Fluxes of methane and nitrous oxide were measured with a static chamber technique. In order to quantify methanotrophs and bacteria capable of nitrous oxide consumption, we used quantitative real-time PCR targeting the pmoA and nosZ genes encoding the subunit of particulate methane mono-oxygenase and catalytic subunit of the nitrous oxide reductase, respectively. A significant seasonal effect was found on CH4 and N2O fluxes and pmoA and nosZ gene abundance. Tree cover had no effect on methane fluxes; conversely, whereas the UC plots were net emitters of nitrous oxide, the loss of tree cover resulted in a shift in the emission pattern such that the OA plots were a net sink for nitrous oxide. In a seasonal time scale, the UC had higher gene abundance of Type I methanotrophs. Methane flux correlated negatively with abundance of Type I methanotrophs in the UC plots. Nitrous oxide flux correlated negatively with nosZ gene abundance at the OA plots in contrast to that at the UC plots. In the UC soil, soil organic matter had a positive effect on soil extracellular enzyme activities, which correlated positively with the N2O flux. Our results demonstrated that tree cover affects soil properties, key enzyme activities and abundance of microorganisms and, consequently net CH4 and N2O exchange.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alla Shvaleva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de LisboaOeiras, Portugal
| | - Henri M. P. Siljanen
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Eastern FinlandKuopio, Finland
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | - Filipe Costa e Silva
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | - Richard E. Lamprecht
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Eastern FinlandKuopio, Finland
| | - Raquel Lobo-do-Vale
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | - Catarina Bicho
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de LisboaOeiras, Portugal
| | - David Fangueiro
- Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | | | - João S. Pereira
- Centro de Estudos Florestais, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria M. Chaves
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de LisboaOeiras, Portugal
| | - Cristina Cruz
- Centre for Ecology Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de LisboaLisboa, Portugal
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kennedy PG, Walker JKM, Bogar LM. Interspecific Mycorrhizal Networks and Non-networking Hosts: Exploring the Ecology of the Host Genus Alnus. ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-7395-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
|
23
|
Valentín L, Rajala T, Peltoniemi M, Heinonsalo J, Pennanen T, Mäkipää R. Loss of diversity in wood-inhabiting fungal communities affects decomposition activity in Norway spruce wood. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:230. [PMID: 24904544 PMCID: PMC4032996 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Hundreds of wood-inhabiting fungal species are now threatened, principally due to a lack of dead wood in intensively managed forests, but the consequences of reduced fungal diversity on ecosystem functioning are not known. Several experiments have shown that primary productivity is negatively affected by a loss of species, but the effects of microbial diversity on decomposition are less studied. We studied the relationship between fungal diversity and the in vitro decomposition rate of slightly, moderately and heavily decayed Picea abies wood with indigenous fungal communities that were diluted to examine the influence of diversity. Respiration rate, wood-degrading hydrolytic enzymes and fungal community structure were assessed during a 16-week incubation. The number of observed OTUs in DGGE was used as a measure of fungal diversity. Respiration rate increased between early- and late-decay stages. Reduced fungal diversity was associated with lower respiration rates during intermediate stages of decay, but no effects were detected at later stages. The activity of hydrolytic enzymes varied among decay stages and fungal dilutions. Our results suggest that functioning of highly diverse communities of the late-decay stage were more resistant to the loss of diversity than less diverse communities of early decomposers. This indicates the accumulation of functional redundancy during the succession of the fungal community in decomposing substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lara Valentín
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute Vantaa, Finland ; Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Barcelona, Spain
| | - Tiina Rajala
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute Vantaa, Finland
| | - Mikko Peltoniemi
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute Vantaa, Finland
| | - Jussi Heinonsalo
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland
| | - Taina Pennanen
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute Vantaa, Finland
| | - Raisa Mäkipää
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute Vantaa, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Walker JKM, Cohen H, Higgins LM, Kennedy PG. Testing the link between community structure and function for ectomycorrhizal fungi involved in a global tripartite symbiosis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2014; 202:287-296. [PMID: 24320607 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/10/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Alnus trees associate with ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi and nitrogen-fixing Frankia bacteria and, although their ECM fungal communities are uncommonly host specific and species poor, it is unclear whether the functioning of Alnus ECM fungal symbionts differs from that of other ECM hosts. We used exoenzyme root tip assays and molecular identification to test whether ECM fungi on Alnus rubra differed in their ability to access organic phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) when compared with ECM fungi on the non-Frankia host Pseudotsuga menziesii. At the community level, potential acid phosphatase (AP) activity of ECM fungal root tips from A. rubra was significantly higher than that from P. menziesii, whereas potential leucine aminopeptidase (LA) activity was significantly lower for A. rubra root tips at one of the two sites. At the individual species level, there was no clear relationship between ECM fungal relative root tip abundance and relative AP or LA enzyme activities on either host. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that ECM fungal communities associated with Alnus trees have enhanced organic P acquisition abilities relative to non-Frankia ECM hosts. This shift, in combination with the chemical conditions present in Alnus forest soils, may drive the atypical structure of Alnus ECM fungal communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer K M Walker
- Department of Biology, Lewis and Clark College, 0615 SW Palatine Hill Rd, Portland, OR, 97219, USA
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Hannah Cohen
- Department of Biology, Lewis and Clark College, 0615 SW Palatine Hill Rd, Portland, OR, 97219, USA
| | - Logan M Higgins
- Department of Biology, Lewis and Clark College, 0615 SW Palatine Hill Rd, Portland, OR, 97219, USA
| | - Peter G Kennedy
- Department of Biology, Lewis and Clark College, 0615 SW Palatine Hill Rd, Portland, OR, 97219, USA
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Velmala SM, Rajala T, Heinonsalo J, Taylor AFS, Pennanen T. Profiling functions of ectomycorrhizal diversity and root structuring in seedlings of Norway spruce (Picea abies) with fast- and slow-growing phenotypes. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2014; 201:610-622. [PMID: 24117652 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We studied the role of taxonomical and functional ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal diversity in root formation and nutrient uptake by Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings with fast- and slow-growing phenotypes. Seedlings were grown with an increasing ECM fungal diversity gradient from one to four species and sampled before aboveground growth differences between the two phenotypes were apparent. ECM fungal colonization patterns were determined and functional diversity was assayed via measurements of potential enzyme activities of eight exoenzymes probably involved in nutrient mobilization. Phenotypes did not vary in their receptiveness to different ECM fungal species. However, seedlings of slow-growing phenotypes had higher fine-root density and thus more condensed root systems than fast-growing seedlings, but the potential enzyme activities of ectomycorrhizas did not differ qualitatively or quantitatively. ECM species richness increased host nutrient acquisition potential by diversifying the exoenzyme palette. Needle nitrogen content correlated positively with high chitinase activity of ectomycorrhizas. Rather than fast- and slow-growing phenotypes exhibiting differing receptiveness to ECM fungi, our results suggest that distinctions in fine-root structuring and in the belowground growth strategy already apparent at early stages of seedling development may explain later growth differences between fast- and slow-growing families.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tiina Rajala
- Finnish Forest Research Institute - Metla, PO Box 18, 01301 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Jussi Heinonsalo
- Viikki Biocenter, Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, PO Box 56, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andy F S Taylor
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Cruickshank Building, St Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3UU, UK
| | - Taina Pennanen
- Finnish Forest Research Institute - Metla, PO Box 18, 01301 Vantaa, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Tedersoo L, Naadel T, Bahram M, Pritsch K, Buegger F, Leal M, Kõljalg U, Põldmaa K. Enzymatic activities and stable isotope patterns of ectomycorrhizal fungi in relation to phylogeny and exploration types in an afrotropical rain forest. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 195:832-843. [PMID: 22758212 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04217.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi obtain both mineral and simple organic nutrients from soil and transport these to plant roots. Natural abundance of stable isotopes (¹⁵N and ¹³C) in fruit bodies and potential enzymatic activities of ECM root tips provide insights into mineral nutrition of these mutualistic partners. By combining rDNA sequence analysis with enzymatic and stable isotope assays of root tips, we hypothesized that phylogenetic affinities of ECM fungi are more important than ECM exploration type, soil horizon and host plant in explaining the differences in mineral nutrition of trees in an African lowland rainforest. Ectomycorrhizal fungal species belonging to extraradical mycelium-rich morphotypes generally displayed the strongest potential activities of degradation enzymes, except for laccase. The signature of ¹⁵N was determined by the ECM fungal lineage, but not by the exploration type. Potential enzymatic activities of root tips were unrelated to ¹⁵N signature of ECM root tip. The lack of correlation suggests that these methods address different aspects in plant nutrient uptake. Stable isotope analysis of root tips could provide an additional indirect assessment of fungal and plant nutrition that enables enhancement of taxonomic coverage and control for soil depth and internal nitrogen cycling in fungal tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leho Tedersoo
- Natural History Museum of Tartu University, 46 Vanemuise, 51005 Tartu, Estonia
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 14a Ravila, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Triin Naadel
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 14a Ravila, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Mohammad Bahram
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 14a Ravila, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Karin Pritsch
- Institute of Soil Ecology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstrasse 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Franz Buegger
- Institute of Soil Ecology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Ingolstaedter Landstrasse 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Miguel Leal
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Plot 802, Kiwafu Road (Kansanga), PO Box 7487, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Urmas Kõljalg
- Natural History Museum of Tartu University, 46 Vanemuise, 51005 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kadri Põldmaa
- Natural History Museum of Tartu University, 46 Vanemuise, 51005 Tartu, Estonia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Vaario LM, Heinonsalo J, Spetz P, Pennanen T, Heinonen J, Tervahauta A, Fritze H. The ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma matsutake is a facultative saprotroph in vitro. MYCORRHIZA 2012; 22:409-418. [PMID: 22005782 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-011-0416-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Tricholoma matsutake is an economically important ectomycorrhizal fungus of coniferous woodlands. Mycologists suspect that this fungus is also capable of saprotrophic feeding. In order to evaluate this hypothesis, enzyme and chemical assays were performed in the field and laboratory. From a natural population of T. matsutake in southern Finland, samples of soil-mycelium aggregate (shiro) were taken from sites of sporocarp formation and nearby control (PCR-negative) spots. Soil organic carbon and activity rates of hemicellulolytic enzymes were measured. The productivity of T. matsutake was related to the amount of utilizable organic carbon in the shiro, where the activity of xylosidase was significantly higher than in the control sample. In the laboratory, sterile pieces of bark from the roots of Scots pine were inoculated with T. matsutake and the activity rates of two hemicellulolytic enzymes (xylosidase and glucuronidase) were assayed. Furthermore, a liquid culture system showed how T. matsutake can utilize hemicellulose as its sole carbon source. Results linked and quantified the general relationship between enzymes secreted by T. matsutake and the degradation of hemicellulose. Our findings suggest that T. matsutake lives mainly as an ectomycorrhizal symbiont but can also feed as a saprotroph. A flexible trophic ecology confers T. matsutake with a clear advantage in a heterogeneous environment and during sporocarp formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Min Vaario
- Finnish Forest Research Institute, PL 18, FI-01301, Vantaa, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|