New trends in the analytical determination of emerging contaminants and their transformation products in environmental waters

Effect of emerging pollutants on the gut microbiota of freshwater animals: Focusing on microplastics and pesticides

In recent years, emerging environmental pollutants have increasingly endangered the health of freshwater organisms. The gut microbiota exhibits sensitivity to medications, dietary factors and environmental pollutants, rendering it a novel target for toxicological studies. The gut microbiota can be a potential exposure route affecting the host's health. Herein, we review the current knowledge on two different but concurrent pollutants, microplastics and pesticides, regarding their impact on the gut microbiota, which includes alterations in microbial composition, gene expression, function, and health effects in the hosts. Moreover, synergetic interactions between microplastics and pesticides can exacerbate dysbiosis and health risks. We discuss health-related implications of gut microbial changes based on the consequences in metabolism, immunity, and physiology function. Further research is needed to discover the mechanisms underlying these effects and develop strategies for mitigating their harmful impacts on freshwater animals.

Loss of micropollutants on syringe filters during sample filtration: Machine learning approach for selecting appropriate filters

Prefiltration before chromatographic analysis is critical in the monitoring of environmental micropollutants (MPs). However, in an aqueous matrix, such monitoring often leads to out-of-specification results owing to the loss of MPs on syringe filters. Therefore, this study investigated the loss of seventy MPs on eight different syringe filters by employing Random Forest, a machine learning algorithm. The results indicate that the loss of MPs during filtration is filter specific, with glass microfiber and polytetrafluoroethylene filters being the most effective (<20%) compared with nylon (>90%) and others (regenerated-cellulose, polyethersulfone, polyvinylidene difluoride, cellulose acetate, and polypropylene). The Random Forest classifier showed outstanding performance (accuracy range 0.81-0.95) for determining whether the loss of MPs on filters exceeded 20%. Important factors in this classification were analyzed using the SHapley Additive exPlanation value and Kruskal-Wallis test. The results show that the physicochemical properties (LogKow/LogD, pKa, functional groups, and charges) of MPs are more important than the operational parameters (sample volume, filter pore size, diameter, and flow rate) in determining the loss of most MPs on syringe filters. However, other important factors such as the implications of the roles of pH for nylon and pre-rinsing for PTFE syringe filters should not be ignored. Overall, this study provides a systematic framework for understanding the behavior of various MP classes and their potential losses on syringe filters.

Contaminants of emerging concern: Occurrence, analytical techniques, and removal with electrochemical advanced oxidation processes with special emphasis in Latin America

The occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in environmental systems is gradually more studied worldwide. However, in Latin America, the presence of contaminants of emerging concern, together with their environmental and toxicological impacts, has recently been gaining wide interest in the scientific community. This paper presents a critical review about the source, fate, and occurrence of distinct emerging contaminants reported during the last two decades in various countries of Latin America. In recent years, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia are the main countries that have conducted research on the presence of these pollutants in biological and aquatic compartments. Data gathered indicated that pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and personal care products are the most assessed CECs in Latin America, being the most common compounds the followings: atrazine, acenaphthene, caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, diuron, estrone, losartan, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Most common analytical methodologies for identifying these compounds were HPLC and GC coupled with mass spectrometry with the potential to characterize and quantify complex substances in the environment at low concentrations. Most CECs' monitoring and detection were observed near to urban areas which confirm the out-of-date wastewater treatment plants and sanitization infrastructures limiting the removal of these pollutants. Therefore, the implementation of tertiary treatment should be required. In this tenor, this review also summarizes some studies of CECs removal using electrochemical advanced oxidation processes that showed satisfactory performance. Finally, challenges, recommendations, and future perspectives are discussed.

Establishing performance metrics for quantitative non-targeted analysis: a demonstration using per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances

Non-targeted analysis (NTA) is an increasingly popular technique for characterizing undefined chemical analytes. Generating quantitative NTA (qNTA) concentration estimates requires the use of training data from calibration "surrogates," which can yield diminished predictive performance relative to targeted analysis. To evaluate performance differences between targeted and qNTA approaches, we defined new metrics that convey predictive accuracy, uncertainty (using 95% inverse confidence intervals), and reliability (the extent to which confidence intervals contain true values). We calculated and examined these newly defined metrics across five quantitative approaches applied to a mixture of 29 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). The quantitative approaches spanned a traditional targeted design using chemical-specific calibration curves to a generalizable qNTA design using bootstrap-sampled calibration values from "global" chemical surrogates. As expected, the targeted approaches performed best, with major benefits realized from matched calibration curves and internal standard correction. In comparison to the benchmark targeted approach, the most generalizable qNTA approach (using "global" surrogates) showed a decrease in accuracy by a factor of ~4, an increase in uncertainty by a factor of ~1000, and a decrease in reliability by ~5%, on average. Using "expert-selected" surrogates (n = 3) instead of "global" surrogates (n = 25) for qNTA yielded improvements in predictive accuracy (by ~1.5×) and uncertainty (by ~70×) but at the cost of further-reduced reliability (by ~5%). Overall, our results illustrate the utility of qNTA approaches for a subclass of emerging contaminants and present a framework on which to develop new approaches for more complex use cases.

Assessing the transformation products and fate of Oxytetracycline by simulated aerobic degradation tests

Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a widely used broad-spectrum antibiotic, whose presence in water and sediments was reported in various regions of the world. The effects of OTC and other tetracyclines on the environment have been intensively studied although many of their transformation products (TPs) formed in the environment and their impact have not been yet fully characterized. Abiotic and biotic degradation tests under aerobic conditions at two pH values were carried out using OTC in artificial water/sediment systems to assess the effect of these variables on the environmental fate of the pollutant. HPLC-MSn was employed to detect and identify the main degradation products and pathways. Several transformations involved in the process were identified including alcohol oxidation, decarbonylation and hydroxylation. Differences in TPs and kinetics were found among degradation conditions, remarking a faster degradation of both OTC and TPs in the presence of microorganisms and at lower pH values. In summary, a total of 44 TPs were detected and structures were proposed for 20 of them, none of them having been previously reported. Furthermore, OTC degradation generated 24 TPs which remained in either solution or sediment, although none of them displayed higher algae toxicity than OTC. These results might be useful for planning future remediation and monitoring strategies.

Singlet oxygen in the removal of organic pollutants: An updated review on the degradation pathways based on mass spectrometry and DFT calculations

The degradation of pollutants by a non-radical pathway involving singlet oxygen (1O2) is highly relevant in advanced oxidation processes. Photosensitizers, modified photocatalysts, and activated persulfates can generate highly selective 1O2 in the medium. The selective reaction of 1O2 with organic pollutants results in the evolution of different intermediate products. While these products can be identified using mass spectrometry (MS) techniques, predicting a proper degradation mechanism in a 1O2-based process is still challenging. Earlier studies utilized MS techniques in the identification of intermediate products and the mechanism was proposed with the support of theoretical calculations. Although some reviews have been reported on the generation of 1O2 and its environmental applications, a proper review of the degradation mechanism by 1O2 is not yet available. Hence, we reviewed the possible degradation pathways of organic contaminants in 1O2-mediated oxidation with the support of density functional theory (DFT). The Fukui function (FF, f-, f+, and f0), HOMO-LUMO energies, and Gibbs free energies obtained using DFT were used to identify the active site in the molecule and the degradation mechanism, respectively. Electrophilic addition, outer sphere type single electron transfer (SET), and addition to the hetero atoms are the key mechanisms involved in the degradation of organic contaminants by 1O2. Since environmental matrices contain several contaminants, it is difficult to experiment with all contaminants to identify their intermediate products. Therefore, the DFT studies are useful for predicting the intermediate compounds during the oxidative removal of the contaminants, especially for complex composition wastewater.

Pollutants in aquatic system: a frontier perspective of emerging threat and strategies to solve the crisis for safe drinking water

Water is an indispensable natural resource and is the most vital substance for the existence of life on earth. However, due to anthropogenic activities, it is being polluted at an alarming rate which has led to serious concern about water shortage across the world. Moreover, toxic contaminants released into water bodies from various industrial and domestic activities negatively affect aquatic and terrestrial organisms and cause serious diseases such as cancer, renal problems, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and nausea in humans. Therefore, water treatments that can eliminate toxins are very crucial. Unfortunately, pollution treatment remains a difficulty when four broad considerations are taken into account: effectiveness, reusability, environmental friendliness, and affordability. In this situation, protecting water from contamination or creating affordable remedial techniques has become a serious issue. Although traditional wastewater treatment technologies have existed since antiquity, they are both expensive and inefficient. Nowadays, advanced sustainable technical approaches are being created to replace traditional wastewater treatment processes. The present study reviews the sources, toxicity, and possible remediation techniques of the water contaminants.

Evaluation of ceramic passive samplers using a mixed-mode strong cation-exchange sorbent to monitor polar contaminants in river water

Although most of the analytical methods developed for the monitoring of contaminants in environmental waters are based on discrete grab sampling, an alternative of increasing interest is the use of passive sampling. Methods based on passive sampling provide the sampling and pre-concentration of the analytes in-situ, which makes the sample treatment less time consuming and costly than using discrete grab sampling. In this study, ceramic passive samplers (CPSs) using mixed-mode strong cation-exchange sorbent (Oasis MCX) as retention phase were evaluated for the determination of a group of 21 therapeutic and illicit drugs and some of their metabolites in river water samples that were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. After assessing the stability of the analytes, the CPSs were calibrated for 9 days with bottled water and river water, obtaining, for the 19 stable compounds, sample rates (Rs) ranging between 0.180 and 1.767 mL/day and diffusion coefficients (De) between 2.02E-8 and 2.81E-7 cm2/s. Once calibrated, CPSs were deployed for the determination of contaminants in the Ebre River, with good reproducibility, and some of the analytes were determined, including amongst others, gabapentin at 76 ng/L, caffeine at 203 ng/L or diclofenac amine at 57 ng/L. The passive sampling method herein presented is simple and feasible and allows the time-integrated analysis of pharmaceuticals and drugs at trace levels in river water. This study opens the possibility of using other mixed-mode sorbents or other types of sorbents as retaining phase on CPSs for the determination of very polar contaminants in water.

Analysis of environmental pollutants using ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry: A review

The rise of emerging pollutants in the current environment and requirements of trace analysis in complex substrates pose challenges to modern analytical techniques. Ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (IC-MS) is the preferred tool for analyzing emerging pollutants due to its excellent separation ability for polar and ionic compounds with small molecular weight and high detection sensitivity and selectivity. This paper reviews the progress of sample preparation and ion-exchange IC-MS methods in the analysis of several major categories of environmental polar and ionic pollutants including perchlorate, inorganic and organic phosphorus compounds, metalloids and heavy metals, polar pesticides, and disinfection by-products in past two decades. The comparison of various methods to reduce the influence of matrix effect and improve the accuracy and sensitivity of analysis are emphasized throughout the process from sample preparation to instrumental analysis. Furthermore, the human health risks of these pollutants in the environment with natural concentration levels in different environmental medias are also briefly discussed to raise public attention. Finally, the future challenges of IC-MS for analysis of environmental pollutants are briefly discussed.

Occurrence of emerging contaminants in surface water bodies of a coastal province in Ecuador and possible influence of tourism decline caused by COVID-19 lockdown

Emerging contaminants in water bodies is an issue of concern due to their impact on the ecosystem and human health. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced the implementation of protective measures such as social distancing, lockdowns, and remote work, which have affected the tourism influx. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of emerging pollutants in bodies of water in Esmeraldas, a coastal province of Ecuador, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in a highly touristic region. For this purpose, surface waters from 14 beaches and ten river mouths were sampled at two-time points in November 2019 and November 2020. Compounds widely consumed in Ecuador: acetaminophen, caffeine, sodium diclofenac, trimethoprim, and sulfamethoxazole were extracted from water samples by solid phase extraction SPE and detected with a UPLC-QTOF-MS system. We found a decrease in the occurrence of caffeine from 100 % to 4.2 % of caffeine and 25 % to 0 % of diclofenac, likely related to the decline in tourist afflux due to the lockdown measures. Most of the compounds diminished in terms of frequency and/or concentration; however, as COVID-19 treatments make use of different pharmaceutical compounds such as antivirals, antibiotics, antiparasitics, or glucocorticoids, future studies should include these to assess their environmental impact.

Utility of a non-target screening method to explore the chlorination of similar sulfonamide antibiotics: Pathways and NCl intermediates

Sulfonamides (SAs) are ubiquitous antibiotics that are increasingly detected in aquatic environments and can react with free available chlorine to produce transformation products (TPs) during disinfection. However, the TPs generated during chlorination remains poorly understood. Here, a non-target screening method based on the PyHRMS program was used to assess the transformation pathways of five SAs, particularly the transient NCl intermediates, during a simulated chlorination process. We observed 210 TPs during SA chlorination using a non-target screening method based on high-resolution mass spectrometry, and the reaction mechanisms mainly included chlorine substitution, desulfonation, and hydroxylation. Among the TPs, 87 were tentatively proposed to be NCl intermediates as they instantly disappeared after quenching with Na₂S₂O₃. The MS² spectra of 13 of these potential NCl intermediates were obtained, and all displayed an [M-Cl]⁺ fragment. A diagnostic fragment ion (DFI) strategy was applied to explore the structural relationship between parent compounds and TPs. Based on the result, five SAs and 101 TPs (if their MS² spectra were available) could be connected through the same fragments, and this method was also proved effective in a real wastewater treatment plant effluent sample. We believe this novel method can help explore the TPs of organic compounds during chlorination in drinking water plants.

Novel method in emerging environmental contaminants detection: Fiber optic sensors based on microfluidic chips

Recently, human industrial practices and certain activities have caused the widespread spread of emerging contaminants throughout the environmental matrix, even in trace amounts, which constitute a serious threat to human health and environmental ecology, and have therefore attracted the attention of research scholars. Different traditional techniques are used to monitor water pollutants, However, they still have some disadvantages such as high costs, ecological problems and treatment times, and require technicians and researchers to operate them effectively. There is therefore an urgent need to develop simple, inexpensive and highly sensitive methods to sense and detect these toxic environmental contaminants. Optical fiber microfluidic coupled sensors offer different advantages over other detection technologies, allowing manipulation of light through controlled microfluidics, precise detection results and good stability, and have therefore become a logical device for screening and identifying environmental contaminants. This paper reviews the application of fiber optic microfluidic sensors in emerging environmental contaminant detection, focusing on the characteristics of different emerging contaminant types, different types of fiber optic microfluidic sensors, methodological principles of detection, and specific emerging contaminant detection applications. The optical detection methods in fiber optic microfluidic chips and their respective advantages and disadvantages are analyzed in the discussion. The applications of fiber optic biochemical sensors in microfluidic chips, especially for the detection of emerging contaminants in the aqueous environment, such as personal care products, endocrine disruptors, and perfluorinated compounds, are reviewed. Finally, the prospects of fiber optic microfluidic coupled sensors in environmental detection and related fields are foreseen.

Wastewater treatment and emerging contaminants: Bibliometric analysis

In recent years, emerging contaminants have been found in the wastewater, surface water, and even drinking water, which should be treated to ensure the safety of our living environment. In this study, we provide a comprehensive summary of wastewater treatment and emerging contaminants research from 1998 to 2021 by using the bibliometric analysis. This study is conducted based on the Web of Science Core Collection Database. The bibliometix R-package, VOSviewer and CiteSpace software are used for bibliometric analysis and science mapping. A dataset of 10, 605 publications has been retrieved. The analysis results show that China has produced the most publications. China and the United States have the closest cooperation. Analysis of the most cited papers reveals that the purification or removal techniques such as ozonation or membrane filtration can effectively remove pharmaceutical compounds from the water environment. We also found that the efficient detection of emerging contaminants and the optimization of removal methods are current challenges. Finally, future research directions are discussed.

Substances of emerging concern in Baltic Sea water: Review on methodological advances for the environmental assessment and proposal for future monitoring

The Baltic Sea is among the most polluted seas worldwide. Anthropogenic contaminants are mainly introduced via riverine discharge and atmospheric deposition. Regional and international measures have successfully been employed to reduce concentrations of several legacy contaminants. However, current Baltic Sea monitoring programs do not address compounds of emerging concern. Hence, potentially harmful pharmaceuticals, UV filters, polar pesticides, estrogenic compounds, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or naturally produced algal toxins are not taken into account during the assessment of the state of the Baltic Sea. Herein, we conducted literature searches based on systematic approaches and compiled reported data on these substances in Baltic Sea surface water and on methodological advances for sample processing and chemical as well as effect-based analysis of these analytically challenging marine pollutants. Finally, we provide recommendations for improvement of future contaminant and risk assessment in the Baltic Sea, which revolve around a combination of both chemical and effect-based analyses.

Electronic tongue applications for wastewater and soil analysis

Assessment of water and soil quality is critical for the health, economy, and sustainability of any community. The release of a range of life-threatening pollutants from agriculture, industries, and the residential communities themselves into the different water resources and soil requires of analytical methods intended for their detection. Given the challenge that represents coping with the monitoring of such a diverse and large number of compounds (with over 100,000 chemicals registered, yet in continuous increase), holistic solutions such as electronic tongues (ETs) are emerging as a promising tool for a sustainable, simple, and green monitoring of soil and water resources. In this direction, this review aims to present and critically provide an overview of the basic concepts of ETs, followed by some relevant applications recently reported in the literature in environmental analysis, more specifically, the monitoring of water and wastewater, their quality and the detection of water pollutants as well as soil analysis.

Emerging contaminants of high concern for the environment: Current trends and future research

Wastewater is contaminated water that must be treated before it may be transferred into other rivers and lakes in order to prevent further groundwater pollution. Over the last decade, research has been conducted on a wide variety of contaminants, but the emerging contaminants are those caused primarily by micropollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and toxins, as well as industrially-related synthetic dyes and dye-containing hazardous pollutants. Most emerging pollutants did not have established guidelines, but even at low concentrations they could have harmful effects on humans and aquatic organisms. In order to combat the above ecological threats, huge efforts have been done with a view to boosting the effectiveness of remediation procedures or developing new techniques for the detection, quantification and efficiency of the samples. The increase of interest in biotechnology and environmental engineering gives an opportunity for the development of more innovative ways to water treatment remediation. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of emerging sources of contaminants, detection technologies, and treatment strategies. The goal of this review is to evaluate adsorption as a method for treating emerging pollutants, as well as sophisticated and cost-effective approaches for treating emerging contaminants.

Systematic identification of trimethoprim metabolites in lettuce

Antibiotics are some of the most widely used drugs. Their release in the environment is of great concern since their consumption is a major factor for antibiotic resistance, one of the most important threats to human health. Their occurrence and fate in agricultural systems have been extensively investigated in recent years. Yet whilst their biotic and abiotic degradation pathways have been thoroughly researched, their biotransformation pathways in plants are less understood, such as in case of trimethoprim. Although trimethoprim has been reported in the environment, its fate in higher plants still remains unknown. A bench-scale experiment was performed and 30 trimethoprim metabolites were identified in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), of which 5 belong to phase I and 25 to phase II. Data mining yielded a list of 1018 ions as possible metabolite candidates, which was filtered to a final list of 87 candidates. Molecular structures were assigned for 19 compounds, including 14 TMP metabolites reported for the first time. Alongside well-known biotransformation pathways in plants, additional novel pathways were suggested, namely, conjugation with sesquiterpene lactones, and abscisic acid as a part of phase II of plant metabolism. The results obtained offer insight into the variety of phase II conjugates and may serve as a guideline for studying the metabolization of other chemicals that share a similar molecular structure or functional groups with trimethoprim. Finally, the toxicity and potential contribution of the identified metabolites to the selective pressure on antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial communities via residual antimicrobial activity were evaluated.

On-line 2D-RPLC x RPLC - HRMS to assess wastewater treatment in a pharmaceutical plant

Pharmaceutical effluents are complex media containing hundreds of compounds including active ingredients, intermediate products and unknown impurities. Bringing an industrial wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) into compliance with European directives requires a thorough analysis of the effluent. In this study, we demonstrate how online comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (on-line LC × LC) hyphenated to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) can be a powerful analytical methodology to monitoring the outlet water, by analysing the content of known molecules while characterizing unknown compounds. Reversed phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) was used in both dimensions, with a penta-fluoro-phenyl silica-based column at neutral pH in the first dimension (¹D) and a C18 column at acidic pH in the second one (²D). The conditions were optimized for a total analysis time of 60 min. The variability of both retention times and peak areas was evaluated. The average standard deviation on retention times was found to be less than 0.1 s in ²D. The relative standard deviation on peak area was about 7% for run-to-run analysis. This analytical approach, applied to the pharmaceutical effluents before (inlet) and after (outlet) wastewater treatment permitted to detect 240 compounds. These included 27 priority pharmaceutical products, 8 of which were of very high priority and their concentrations could be compared to target values. The comparison of 2D-LC and 1D-LC approaches clearly highlights the power of on-line RPLC x RPLC technique, which allows both targeted quantitative analysis and non-targeted qualitative analysis of pharmaceutical effluents.

Techniques for the detection and quantification of emerging contaminants

In recent years, the diverse industrial practices and human inputs widely disseminated emerging contaminants (ECs) throughout environmental matrices, which is of great concern. Even at low concentrations, ECs pose major ecological problems and threaten human health and the environment’s biota. Consequently, people’s interest and concerns on the widespread dissemination of environmentally connected ECs of great concern as developed due to their scientific understanding, technical innovation, and socioeconomic awareness. Increased detection of contaminants may occur from climatic, socioeconomic, and demographic changes and the growing sensitivity of analytical techniques. Hence, this article reviews the determination of ECs in ecological specimens, from aquatic setup (river water, marine water, and wastewater), sludge, soil, sediment, and air. Sample collection and the quality measures are summarized. The preparation of samples, including extraction and cleanup and the subsequent instrumental analysis of ECs, are all covered. Traditional and recent extraction and cleanup applications to analyze ECs in samples are reviewed here in this paper. The detection and quantification of ECs using gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) linked with various detectors, particularly mass spectrometry (MS), is also summarized and explored, as are other possible techniques. This study aims to give readers a more excellent knowledge of how new and improved approaches are being developed and serve as a resource for researchers looking for the best method for detecting ECs in their studies.

A review on effective removal of emerging contaminants from aquatic systems: Current trends and scope for further research

Wastewater is water that has already been contaminated by domestic, industrial and commercial activity that needs to be treated before it could be discharged into some other water bodies to avoid even more groundwater contamination supplies. It consists of various contaminants like heavy metals, organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants and Emerging contaminants. Research has been doing on all types of contaminates more than a decade, but this emerging contaminants is the contaminants which arises mostly from pharmaceuticals, personal care products, hormones and fertilizer industries. The majority of emerging contaminants did not have standardized guidelines, but may have adverse effects on human and marine organisms, even at smaller concentrations. Typically, extremely low doses of emerging contaminants are found in the marine environment and cause a potential risk to the aquatic animals living there. When contaminants emerge in the marine world, they are potentially toxic and pose many risks to the health of both man and livestock. The aim of this article is to review the Emerging contaminate sources, detection methods and treatment methods. The purpose of this study is to consider the adsorption as a beneficial treatment of emerging contaminants also advanced and cost effective emerging contaminates treatment methods.

Molecularly imprinted polymers - towards electrochemical sensors and electronic tongues

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are artificially synthesized materials to mimic the molecular recognition process of biological macromolecules such as substrate-enzyme or antigen-antibody. The combination of these biomimetic materials with electrochemical techniques has allowed the development of advanced sensing devices, which significantly improve the performance of bare or catalyst-modified sensors, being able to unleash new applications. However, despite the high selectivity that MIPs exhibit, those can still show some cross-response towards other compounds, especially with chemically analogous (bio)molecules. Thus, the combination of MIPs with chemometric methods opens the room for the development of what could be considered a new type of electronic tongues, i.e. sensor array systems,  based on its usage. In this direction, this review provides an overview of the more common synthetic approaches, as well as the strategies that can be used to achieve the integration of MIPs and electrochemical sensors, followed by some recent examples over different areas in order to illustrate the potential of such combination in very diverse applications.

Extended suspect screening to identify contaminants of emerging concern in riverine and coastal ecosystems and assessment of environmental risks

A suspect screening methodology was developed for the fast and reliable identification of 360 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) of anthropogenic origin in the vulnerable area of the Ebro Delta (Catalonia, Spain) and to track for potential contamination sources. The suspect screening methodology was combined with a risk assessment approach to prioritize the most ecologically relevant CECs. Out of the 360 suspects, 37 compounds were tentatively identified, 22 of which were fully confirmed using isotopically labelled standards. The detected suspect compounds included pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, stimulants and their metabolites. Pesticides were more ubiquitous in irrigation and drainage channels, while pharmaceuticals, stimulants, and personal care products were the most common in effluent wastewaters, in the receiving freshwater systems as well as in the marine environment. Ten compounds were found to be of high ecological concern, including the pharmaceuticals telmisartan, venlafaxine, and carbamazepine, the herbicides terbuthylazine, desethylterbuthylazine, and terbutryn, the fungicides azoxystrobin, tebuconazole and prochloraz and the insecticide tebufenozide. These compounds could be used as markers of anthropogenic contamination in riverine and coastal ecosystems.

PFAS Degradation in Ultrapure and Groundwater Using Non-Thermal Plasma

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent one of the most recalcitrant class of compounds of emerging concern and their removal from water is a challenging goal. In this study, we investigated the removal efficiency of three selected PFAS from water, namely, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) and pefluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) using a custom-built non-thermal plasma generator. A modified full factorial design (with 2 levels, 3 variables and the central point in which both quadratic terms and interactions between couple of variables were considered) was used to investigate the effect of plasma discharge frequency, distance between the electrodes and water conductivity on treatment efficiency. Then, the plasma treatment running on optimized conditions was used to degrade PFAS at ppb level both individually and in mixture, in ultrapure and groundwater matrices. PFOS 1 ppb exhibited the best degradation reaching complete removal after 30 min of treatment in both water matrices (first order rate constant 0.107 min^-1 in ultrapure water and 0.0633 min^-1 in groundwater), while the degradation rate of PFOA and PFHxA was slower of around 65% and 83%, respectively. During plasma treatment, the production of reactive species in the liquid phase (hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide) and in the gas phase (ozone, NO_x) was investigated. Particular attention was dedicated to the nitrogen balance in solution where, following to NO_x hydrolysis, total nitrogen (TN) was accumulated at the rate of up to 40 mg^N L^-1 h^-1.

Overview of Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Methods to Analysis Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Waters Matrices

In the environment, pharmaceutical residues are a field of particular interest due to the adverse effects to either human health or aquatic and soil environment. Because of the diversity of these compounds, at least 3000 substances were identified and categorized into 49 different therapeutic classes, and several actions are urgently required at multiple steps, the main ones: (i) occurrence studies of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the water cycle; (ii) the analysis of the potential impact of their introduction into the aquatic environment; (iii) the removal/degradation of the pharmaceutical compounds; and, (iv) the development of more sensible and selective analytical methods to their monitorization. This review aims to present the current state-of-the-art sample preparation methods and chromatographic analysis applied to the study of PhACs in water matrices by pinpointing their advantages and drawbacks. Because it is almost impossible to be comprehensive in all PhACs, instruments, extraction techniques, and applications, this overview focuses on works that were published in the last ten years, mainly those applicable to water matrices.

Rapid direct analysis of river water and machine learning assisted suspect screening of emerging contaminants in passive sampler extracts

A novel and rapid approach to characterise the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in river water is presented using multi-residue targeted analysis and machine learning-assisted in silico suspect screening of passive sampler extracts. Passive samplers (Chemcatcher®) configured with hydrophilic-lipophilic balanced (HLB) sorbents were deployed in the Central London region of the tidal River Thames (UK) catchment in winter and summer campaigns in 2018 and 2019. Extracts were analysed by; (a) a rapid 5.5 min direct injection targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for 164 CECs and (b) a full-scan LC coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS) method using data-independent acquisition over 15 min. From targeted analysis of grab water samples, a total of 33 pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, drug metabolites, personal care products and pesticides (including several EU Watch-List chemicals) were identified, and mean concentrations determined at 40 ± 37 ng L^-1. For targeted analysis of passive sampler extracts, 65 unique compounds were detected with differences observed between summer and winter campaigns. For suspect screening, 59 additional compounds were shortlisted based on mass spectral database matching, followed by machine learning-assisted retention time prediction. Many of these included additional pharmaceuticals and pesticides, but also new metabolites and industrial chemicals. The novelty in this approach lies in the convenience of using passive samplers together with machine learning-assisted chemical analysis methods for rapid, time-integrated catchment monitoring of CECs.

Simultaneous screening for chemically diverse micropollutants in public water bodies in Japan by high-performance liquid chromatography-Orbitrap mass spectrometry

An improved assessment of environmental risks to public water bodies requires screening a large number of micropollutants. This study reports the development of a novel target screening method based on solid-phase extraction (SPE), HPLC, and high-resolution Orbitrap MS for the analysis of micropollutants with diverse chemical properties. First, target compounds were screened for their detectability by Orbitrap MS. An optimized SPE cartridge and HPLC column maximized recovery and separated most target compounds. The sensitivity and repeatability of the method was validated by determining the detection limits and relative standard deviation (RSD). Eighty-four compounds with highly diverse properties were simultaneously detected with detection limits of 0.1-100 ng/L. Of these compounds, 52 were quantitated, with R2 ≥ 0.99 by linearity analysis and SPE recovery ratios of ≥50%. The remaining 32 compounds were qualitatively detected, with R2 < 0.99 or SPE recovery ratio of <50%. Satisfactory repeatability was obtained (RSD < 13.5%). This method was applied to the surveillance of the Arakawa River in Japan in 2019. Thirty-two compounds, including pesticides, surfactants, plasticizers, adhesives, and industrial solvents, were detected in the river. The measured concentrations of 13 compounds were compared with their predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs). Decanoic acid showed a higher concentration than the corresponding PNEC value, suggesting that its risk to the Arakawa water environment required further evaluation. The concentrations of dicyclohexylamine, 1,3-diphenylguanidine, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid were higher than their corresponding PNEC/10 values, demonstrating that these compounds were of higher priority than other compounds.

Laboratory scale UV-visible degradation of acetamiprid in aqueous marketed mixtures - Structural elucidation of photoproducts and toxicological consequences

Acetamiprid is a neonicotinoid pesticide, which is extensively used on agricultural crops, but has a high toxic effect on beneficial insects and the human body. It is exposed to sunlight irradiation on crops but also in surface waters where it is found at a high level due to its resistance to common water treatments. The aim of the present work was to study the UV-visible photodegradation of acetamiprid, alone and in two marketed mixtures (Polysect Ultra SL® and Roseclear Ultra®). Ten photoproducts were characterized using LC-HR-MS/MS analysis. Photodegradation pathways were proposed based on the chemical structures of photoproducts and kinetic measurements; a matrix effect has been evidenced for commercial mixtures. Most photoproducts exhibit potential developmental toxicity twice higher than that of the parent compound. Regarding potential mutagenicity, all photoproducts are less toxic than acetamiprid. Estimated oral rat LD50 values show that the potential toxicities of photoproducts are similar or lower than that of acetamiprid. In vitro tests on Vibrio fischeri bacteria showed that the ecotoxicities of marketed mixtures are significantly higher than that of acetamiprid in aqueous solution; they slightly increase after UV-light exposure.

Structural annotation of electro- and photochemically generated transformation products of moxidectin using high-resolution mass spectrometry

Moxidectin (MOX) is a widely used anthelmintic drug for the treatment of internal and external parasites in food-producing and companion animals. Transformation products (TPs) of MOX, formed through metabolic degradation or acid hydrolysis, may pose a potential environmental risk, but only few were identified so far. In this study, we therefore systematically characterized electro- and photochemically generated MOX TPs using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Oxidative electrochemical (EC) TPs were generated in an electrochemical reactor and photochemical (PC) TPs by irradiation with UV-C light. Subsequent HRMS measurements were performed to identify accurate masses and deduce occurring modification reactions of derived TPs in a suspected target analysis. In total, 26 EC TPs and 59 PC TPs were found. The main modification reactions were hydroxylation, (de-)hydration, and derivative formation with methanol for EC experiments and isomeric changes, (de-)hydration, and changes at the methoxime moiety for PC experiments. In addition, several combinations of different modification reactions were identified. For 17 TPs, we could predict chemical structures through interpretation of acquired MS/MS data. Most modifications could be linked to two specific regions of MOX. Some previously described metabolic reactions like hydroxylation or O-demethylation were confirmed in our EC and PC experiments as reaction type, but the corresponding TPs were not identical to known metabolites or degradation products. The obtained knowledge regarding novel TPs and reactions will aid to elucidate the degradation pathway of MOX which is currently unknown. Graphical abstract.

Bisphenol A attenuation in natural microcosm: Contribution of ecological components and identification of transformation pathways through stable isotope tracing

Residues of bisphenol A (BPA) are ubiquitously detected in the surface water due to its widespread usage. This study systematically investigated the dissipation and kinetics of BPA under simulated hydrolysis, direct and indirect photolysis, bacterial degradation, microbial degradation and natural attenuation in microcosm. Structural equation modeling (SEM) by using partial least square method in path coefficient analysis suggested that the microbial degradation was the major factor involved in the natural attenuation of BPA. The potential transformation products were identified by using liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and stable isotope tracing technique by simultaneous performing gas chromatography combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of fourteen including three novel transformation products of BPA were identified to indicate five possible pathways. An increased yield of labeled (δ¹³C) CO₂ and detection of ¹³C-labeled phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) indicated the mineralization of BPA and possible utilization of BPA or its transformation products by microbes for cellular membrane synthesis, respectively.

Development of electrospun lignin nanofibers for the adsorption of pharmaceutical contaminants in wastewater

Emerging contaminants present a challenge for water preservation, threatening humans' health and all ecosystems. They consist of a variety of molecules ranging from pharmaceutical and personal care products to pesticides and endocrine disruptors detectable in wastewater, sewage effluent, surface water, drinking water, and ground waters at trace level concentrations (e.g., ng/L, μg/L). Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) possess low efficiency to remove them. Therefore, new technologies capable of removing such residues are needed. Lignin recognized as a renewable and abundant biopolymer is transformed through electrospinning into an anionic nanofibrous nonwoven adsorbent to extract those contaminants and dispose them safely. Electrospinning allows the manufacture of fibers at the micro- or nanoscale under the influence of an electric current. In this study, nanofibers of alkali lignin and a co-polymer, poly(vinyl alcohol), were developed and tested on the adsorption of a pharmaceutical contaminant (fluoxetine) in an aqueous solution. Results showed that the lignin nanofibers, of 156 nm in diameter, adsorbed 70% of fluoxetine in solution which corresponds to 32 ppm of contaminants removed in water.

Metoprolol and metoprolol acid degradation in UV/H2O2 treated wastewaters: An integrated screening approach for the identification of hazardous transformation products

Advancements on analytical strategies to determine the chemicals present in treated wastewater are necessary to clearly link their occurrence with the ecotoxicity of such effluents. This study describes the development of an integrated screening approach to determine the highest number of pharmaceutical transformation products (TPs) in a single run. The identification of TPs was based on the comparison of detected features with literature sources, compound prediction tools, in-house libraries and reference standards using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). This integrated approach allowed a better estimation (in silico) of the ecotoxicological contribution of the individual TPs identified. As a proof of concept, this methodology was applied for identification of the TPs generated from metoprolol and its main human metabolite (metoprolol acid) in pure water, hospital wastewater and industrial wastewater treated by UV/H₂O₂. Twenty-four TPs with potential ecotoxicological implications were identified and their presence was pinpointed as a function of the treated wastewater. An integrated screening approach has been developed using four different screening methodologies in the same run. Additionally, the metabolite MTPA has been considered as a target pollutant in UV/H₂O₂ experiments.

The toxicological effects of oxybenzone, an active ingredient in suncream personal care products, on prokaryotic alga Arthrospira sp. and eukaryotic alga Chlorella sp

Oxybenzone (OBZ; benzophenone-3, CAS# 131-57-7) is a known pollutant of aquatic and marine ecosystems, and is an ingredient in over 3000 personal care products, as well as many types of plastics. The aim of this study is to explore the different toxicities of OBZ on an eukaryotic (Chlorella sp.) and a prokaryotic algae (Arthrospira sp.). OBZ is a photo-toxicant, with all observed toxicities more sever in the light than in the dark. Cell growth and chlorophyll inhibition were positively correlated with increasing OBZ concentrations over time. Twenty days treatment with OBZ, as low as 22.8 ng L^-1, significantly inhibited the growth and chlorophyll synthesis of both algae. Both algae were noticeably photo-bleached after 7 days of exposure to OBZ concentrations higher than 2.28 mg L^-1. Relatively low OBZ concentrations (0.228 mg L^-1) statistically constrained photosynthetic and respiratory rates via directly inhibiting photosynthetic electron transport (PET) and respiration electron transport (RET) mechanisms, resulting in over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Transmission and scanning electron microscopy showed that the photosynthetic and respiratory membrane structures were damaged by OBZ exposure in both algae. Additionally, PET inhibition suppressed ATP production for CO₂ assimilation via the Calvin-Benson cycle, further limiting synthesis of other biomacromolecules. RET restriction limited ATP generation, restricting the energy supply used for various life activities in the cell. These processes further impacted on photosynthesis, respiration and algal growth, representing secondary OBZ-induced algal damages. The data contained herein, as well as other studies, supports the argument that global pelagic and aquatic phytoplankton could be negatively influenced by OBZ pollution.

Nontarget analysis: A new tool for the evaluation of wastewater processes

Strategies to determine the removal efficiency of micropollutants in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are widely discussed. Especially the evaluation of the potential benefit of further advanced treatment steps such as an additional tertiary treatment based on ozonation or activated carbon have come into focus. Such evaluation strategies are often based on the removal behavior of known micropollutants via target or suspected analysis. The utilization of nontarget analysis is considered to lead to a more comprehensive picture as also unknown or not expected micropollutants are analyzed. Here, the results of an evaluation via target and nontarget analysis were compared for biological treatment (BT) processes of eleven full-scale WWTPs and three different post-treatments (PTs): one sand filter (SF) and two granular activated carbon (GAC) filters. The similarity of the determined removals from target and nontarget analysis of the BTs increased significantly by excluding easily degradable "features" from the nontarget evaluation. A similar ranking of the removal trends for the BTs could also be achieved by comparing this new subset of nontarget features with a set of nine readily to moderately biodegradable micropollutants. This observation suggests that a performance ranking of BTs based either on target or nontarget analysis is plausible. In contrast to the BTs, the evaluation of the three PTs revealed that the difference of feature removal between SF and the two GACs was small, but large for the target analytes with substantially higher removal effciencies for the GACs compared to the SF. In addition to the removal behavior, the nontarget analysis provided further information about the number and quantity of transformation products (TPs) in the effluent from the BTs. For all BTs more than half (55-67%) of the features detected in the effluent were not found in the influent. A comparable proportion of TPs was also detected after GAC and sand filtration due to their microbial activities.

Assessment of Antibiotic Levels, Multi-Drug Resistant Bacteria and Genetic Biomarkers in the Waters of the Rio Grande River Between the United States-Mexico Border

BACKGROUND

The worldwide emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria has become a health crisis, as fewer or sometimes no antimicrobial agents are effective against these bacteria. The Rio Grande River is the natural boundary between the United States (US) and Mexico. It spans a border region between Texas, New Mexico and Mexico. Underserved populations on the Mexican side use the river for recreational purposes, while on the US side, the river is used for irrigation and as a source of drinking water.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the concentration of antibiotic residues, to determine the presence of genetic elements conferring antibiotic resistance and to characterize multi-drug resistant bacteria in the waters of the Rio Grande River.

METHODS

Water samples were obtained from the Rio Grande River. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from both isolated bacteria and directly from the water. Amplification of selected genetic elements was accomplished by polymerase chain reaction. Identification and isolation of bacteria was performed through MicroScan autoSCAN-4. Fecal contamination was assessed by IDEXX Colilert. Antibiotic residues were determined by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Antibiotics were found in 92% of both water and sediment samples. Antibiotic concentrations ranged from 0.38 ng/L - 742.73 ng/L and 0.39 ng/l - 66.3 ng/g dry weight in water and sediment samples, respectively. Genetic elements conferring resistance were recovered from all collection sites. Of the isolated bacteria, 91 (64.08%) were resistant to at least two synergistic antibiotic combinations and 11 (14.79%) were found to be resistant to 20 or more individual antibiotics. Fecal contamination was higher during the months of April and July.

CONCLUSIONS

The 26 km segment of the Rio Grande River from Sunland Park NM to El Paso, TX and Juarez, Mexico is an area of concern due to poor water quality. The presence of multidrug resistant bacteria, antibiotics and mobile genetic elements may be a health hazard for the surrounding populations of this binational border region. Policies need to be developed for the appropriate management of the environmental natural resources in this border region.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Prediction of Transformation Products of Monensin by Electrochemistry Compared to Microsomal Assay and Hydrolysis

The knowledge of transformation pathways and identification of transformation products (TPs) of veterinary drugs is important for animal health, food, and environmental matters. The active agent Monensin (MON) belongs to the ionophore antibiotics and is widely used as a veterinary drug against coccidiosis in broiler farming. However, no electrochemically (EC) generated TPs of MON have been described so far. In this study, the online coupling of EC and mass spectrometry (MS) was used for the generation of oxidative TPs. EC-conditions were optimized with respect to working electrode material, solvent, modifier, and potential polarity. Subsequent LC/HRMS (liquid chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry) and MS/MS experiments were performed to identify the structures of derived TPs by a suspected target analysis. The obtained EC-results were compared to TPs observed in metabolism tests with microsomes and hydrolysis experiments of MON. Five previously undescribed TPs of MON were identified in our EC/MS based study and one TP, which was already known from literature and found by a microsomal assay, could be confirmed. Two and three further TPs were found as products in microsomal tests and following hydrolysis, respectively. We found decarboxylation, O-demethylation and acid-catalyzed ring-opening reactions to be the major mechanisms of MON transformation.

The role of analytical chemistry in exposure science: Focus on the aquatic environment

Exposure science, in its broadest sense, studies the interactions between stressors (chemical, biological, and physical agents) and receptors (e.g. humans and other living organisms, and non-living items like buildings), together with the associated pathways and processes potentially leading to negative effects on human health and the environment. The aquatic environment may contain thousands of compounds, many of them still unknown, that can pose a risk to ecosystems and human health. Due to the unquestionable importance of the aquatic environment, one of the main challenges in the field of exposure science is the comprehensive characterization and evaluation of complex environmental mixtures beyond the classical/priority contaminants to new emerging contaminants. The role of advanced analytical chemistry to identify and quantify potential chemical risks, that might cause adverse effects to the aquatic environment, is essential. In this paper, we present the strategies and tools that analytical chemistry has nowadays, focused on chromatography hyphenated to (high-resolution) mass spectrometry because of its relevance in this field. Key issues, such as the application of effect direct analysis to reduce the complexity of the sample, the investigation of the huge number of transformation/degradation products that may be present in the aquatic environment, the analysis of urban wastewater as a source of valuable information on our lifestyle and substances we consumed and/or are exposed to, or the monitoring of drinking water, are discussed in this article. The trends and perspectives for the next few years are also highlighted, when it is expected that new developments and tools will allow a better knowledge of chemical composition in the aquatic environment. This will help regulatory authorities to protect water bodies and to advance towards improved regulations that enable practical and efficient abatements for environmental and public health protection.

Roles of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in improving metabolism and cometabolism of trace organic chemicals in biological wastewater treatment processes: A review

While there has been a significant recent improvement in the removal of pollutants in natural and engineered systems, trace organic chemicals (TrOCs) are posing a major threat to aquatic environments and human health. There is a critical need for developing potential strategies that aim at enhancing metabolism and/or cometabolism of these compounds. Recently, knowledge regarding biodegradation of TrOCs by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) has been widely developed. This review aims to delineate an up-to-date version of the ecophysiology of AOB and outline current knowledge related to biodegradation efficiencies of the frequently reported TrOCs by AOB. The paper also provides an insight into biodegradation pathways by AOB and transformation products of these compounds and makes recommendations for future research of AOB. In brief, nitrifying WWTFs (wastewater treatment facilities) were superior in degrading most TrOCs than non-nitrifying WWTFs due to cometabolic biodegradation by the AOB. To fully understand and/or enhance the cometabolic biodegradation of TrOCs by AOB, recent molecular research has focused on numerous crucial factors including availability of the compounds to AOB, presence of growth substrate (NH₄-N), redox potentials, microorganism diversity (AOB and heterotrophs), physicochemical properties and operational parameters of the WWTFs, molecular structure of target TrOCs and membrane-based technologies, may all significantly impact the cometabolic biodegradation of TrOCs. Still, further exploration is required to elucidate the mechanisms involved in biodegradation of TrOCs by AOB and the toxicity levels of formed products.

Environmentally-related contaminants of high concern: Potential sources and analytical modalities for detection, quantification, and treatment

In recent years, emerging contaminants (ECs) of high concern are broadly distributed throughout the environmental matrices because of various industrial practices and anthropogenic inputs, i.e., human-made activities. With ever increasing scientific knowledge, technological advancement, socio-economic awareness, people are now more concern about the widespread distribution of environmentally related ECs of high concern. As, ECs possess serious ecological threats and potential risks to human health and aquatic life, even at minor concentrations. The controlled or uncontrolled discharge and long-term persistence of ECs that includes micro-pollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, toxins, and industrially-related synthetic dyes and dyes-containing hazardous pollutants, etc. pose a significant challenge to policy regulators, engineers, and scientific community. The conventional treatment technologies are proved ineffective for the complete elimination and removal of an array of contaminants of emerging environmental concern in various biological and environmental samples. In order to overcome the aforementioned ecological threats, tremendous research efforts have been made to boost the efficiency of remediation techniques or develop new modalities to detect, quantify and treat the samples efficiently. The boom in biotechnology and environmental engineering offers potential opportunities to develop advanced and innovative remediation techniques in the field of water treatment. This review discusses the environmental and health hazards associated with a widespread distribution of micro-pollutants, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and industrially-related synthetic dyes and dyes-containing hazardous pollutants, etc. in the water bodies, i.e., surface water, groundwater, and industrial wastewater streams. Life-cycle distribution of emerging (micro)-pollutants with suitable examples from various industrial sources viewpoints is also discussed. The later part of the review focuses on innovative and cost-effective remediation (removal) approaches from phase-changing treatment technologies for these ECs of high concern.

Systematic screening and identification of the chlorinated transformation products of aromatic pharmaceuticals and personal care products using high-resolution mass spectrometry

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are an emerging concern because of the large amount of PPCPs that is discharged and its potential ecological effects on the aquatic environment. Chlorination has proven efficient for removing some aromatic PPCPs from wastewater, but the formation of by-products has not been thoroughly investigated partly because of analytical difficulties. This study developed a method for systematically screening and identifying the transformation products (TPs) of multiple aromatic PPCPs through high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). We spiked an environmentally relevant concentration (5000 ng/L) of three anti-inflammatory drugs, four parabens, bisphenol A, oxybenzone, and triclosan in the Milli-Q water and water containing natural organic matter (NOM). Low-dose chlorination (0.2-0.7 mg/L) was performed. We compared the chemical profiles of the chlorinated and untreated water and selected the ions to be identified based on the results of t-test and the ratio of signal intensities. Compound matching and isotopic pattern comparison were applied to characterising the molecular formulae of TPs. The fragmentation of the PPCPs and TPs was used in elucidating the structures of the TPs. The confirmation of TPs was achieved by comparing the retention time and fragment patterns of TPs with the isomer standards. In the chlorinated water, the aromatic PPCPs were substantially removed, except for the anti-inflammatory drugs (removal rates -5.2%-26%). Even with moderate chlorine dosages, all of the aromatic PPCPs, except for acetylsalicylic acid, were transformed into chlorinated derivatives in the Milli-Q water, and so were some PPCPs in the NOM-added water. The results of structure elucidation and compound confirmation as well as the increases in log K_ow suggested that chlorination could transform aromatic PPCPs into more persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic TPs. The presence of these TPs in the effluents where the PPCPs are removed through chlorination may pose increased risks to aquatic organisms.

Comparison of emerging contaminants in receiving waters downstream of a conventional wastewater treatment plant and a forest-water reuse system

Forest-water reuse (FWR) systems treat municipal, industrial, and agricultural wastewaters via land application to forest soils. Previous studies have shown that both large-scale conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and FWR systems do not completely remove many contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) before release of treated wastewater. To better characterize CECs and potential for increased implementation of FWR systems, FWR systems need to be directly compared to conventional WWTPs. In this study, both a quantitative, targeted analysis and a nontargeted analysis were utilized to better understand how CECs release to waterways from an FWR system compared to a conventional treatment system. Quantitatively, greater concentrations and total mass load of CECs was exhibited downstream of the conventional WWTP compared to the FWR. Average summed concentrations of 33 targeted CECs downstream of the conventional system were ~ 1000 ng/L and downstream of the FWR were ~ 30 ng/L. From a nontargeted chemical standpoint, more tentatively identified chemicals were present, and at a greater relative abundance, downstream of the conventional system as well. Frequently occurring contaminants included phthalates, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. These data indicate that FWR systems represent a sustainable wastewater treatment alternative and that emerging contaminant release to waterways was lower at a FWR system than a conventional WWTP.

Does the antidiabetic drug metformin affect embryo development and the health of brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario)?

BACKGROUND

Due to the rising number of type 2 diabetes patients, the antidiabetic drug, metformin is currently among those pharmaceuticals with the highest consumption rates worldwide. Via sewage-treatment plants, metformin enters surface waters where it is frequently detected in low concentrations (µg/L). Since possible adverse effects of this substance in aquatic organisms have been insufficiently explored to date, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of metformin on health and development in brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) and its microbiome.

RESULTS

Brown trout embryos were exposed to 0, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 µg/L metformin over a period from 48 days post fertilisation (dpf) until 8 weeks post-yolk sac consumption at 7 °C (156 dpf) and 11 °C (143 dpf). Chemical analyses in tissues of exposed fish showed the concentration-dependent presence of metformin in the larvae. Mortality, embryonic development, body length, liver tissue integrity, stress protein levels and swimming behaviour were not influenced. However, compared to the controls, the amount of hepatic glycogen was higher in larvae exposed to metformin, especially in fish exposed to the lowest metformin concentration of 1 µg/L, which is environmentally relevant. At higher metformin concentrations, the glycogen content in the liver showed a high variability, especially for larvae exposed to 1000 µg/L metformin. Furthermore, the body weight of fish exposed to 10 and 100 µg/L metformin at 7 °C and to 1 µg/L metformin at 11 °C was decreased compared with the respective controls. The results of the microbiome analyses indicated a shift in the bacteria distribution in fish exposed to 1 and 10 µg/L metformin at 7 °C and to 100 µg/L metformin at 11 °C, leading to an increase of Proteobacteria and a reduction of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, weight reduction and the increased glycogen content belong to the described pharmaceutical effects of the drug in humans, but this study showed that they also occur in brown trout larvae. The impact of a shift in the intestinal microbiome caused by metformin on the immune system and vitality of the host organism should be the subject of further research before assessing the environmental relevance of the pharmaceutical.

Role of in-situ nitrite ion formation on the sonochemical transformation of para-aminosalicylic acid

The sonochemical transformation of para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS), a widely used antibiotic and an identified Emerging Pollutant (EP) under the class of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs), have been investigated in aqueous medium. Ultrasound having frequency of 350kHz and power of 80W was utilized for the degradation of PAS. A complete degradation (100%) of PAS after 60min and about 83% of COD removal after 120min of sonication, were obtained. Fourteen intermediate products were identified using LC-Q-TOF-MS. On a comparison with UV/H₂O₂ method, it is understood that four products out of fourteen were nitro derivatives which are formed only in the sonolysis, and the rest are from hydroxyl radicals. The involvement of nitrite which is formed from the sonolysis of solution containing PAS, in the formation of the other four nitro products has been established from the control studies. Nitrite ion partially scavenge hydroxyl radical in the course of the reaction to form nitrite radical which is the reactive species for the production of nitro compounds. It is, therefore, proposed that in addition to hydroxyl radical, contribution of in-situ generated nitrite also plays an important role in the sonochemical transformation of PAS.

Evaluation of nitrate effects in the aqueous photodegradability of selected phenolic pollutants

The effect of nitrate in the aqueous photodegradation of five phenolic environmental pollutants (ortho-phenylphenol, OPP; methyl paraben, MeP; propyl paraben, PrP; Triclosan, TCS and bisphenol A, BPA) is evaluated. Time-course of precursor compounds and formation of transformation products (TPs) were investigated by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Nitrate showed a positive effect in the removal of selected pollutants. Observed TPs resulted from hydroxylation, aromatic nitration (with or without molecule cleavage) and nitro dehalogenation processes. The above reactions involved the participation of ·OH and ·NO₂ radicals arising from photolysis of nitrate. Nitro TPs were produced in a different extent depending on the structure of the precursor pollutant, nitrate concentration, light source (254 nm UV and solar light) and water matrix (ultrapure, surface and urban wastewater). Some of these nitro TPs were also observed during UV irradiation of untreated and unbuffered wastewater, either naturally polluted with parent phenolic compounds or spiked with these species at the sub μg L^-1 level. Nitration reactions were particularly favourable for OPP with the generated nitro TPs displaying a higher stability than the precursor molecule and the hydroxylated TPs of the same compound.