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Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS): A Cytoarchitectural Common Neurobiological Trait of All Addictions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111529. [PMID: 34770047 PMCID: PMC8582845 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol and other substance use disorders share comorbidity with other RDS disorders, i.e., a reduction in dopamine signaling within the reward pathway. RDS is a term that connects addictive, obsessive, compulsive, and impulsive behavioral disorders. An estimated 2 million individuals in the United States have opioid use disorder related to prescription opioids. It is estimated that the overall cost of the illegal and legally prescribed opioid crisis exceeds one trillion dollars. Opioid Replacement Therapy is the most common treatment for addictions and other RDS disorders. Even after repeated relapses, patients are repeatedly prescribed the same opioid replacement treatments. A recent JAMA report indicates that non-opioid treatments fare better than chronic opioid treatments. Research demonstrates that over 50 percent of all suicides are related to alcohol or other drug use. In addition to effective fellowship programs and spirituality acceptance, nutrigenomic therapies (e.g., KB220Z) optimize gene expression, rebalance neurotransmitters, and restore neurotransmitter functional connectivity. KB220Z was shown to increase functional connectivity across specific brain regions involved in dopaminergic function. KB220/Z significantly reduces RDS behavioral disorders and relapse in human DUI offenders. Taking a Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) test combined with a the KB220Z semi-customized nutrigenomic supplement effectively restores dopamine homeostasis (WC 199).
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Braun K, Bock J, Wainstock T, Matas E, Gaisler-Salomon I, Fegert J, Ziegenhain U, Segal M. Experience-induced transgenerational (re-)programming of neuronal structure and functions: Impact of stress prior and during pregnancy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 117:281-296. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Effects of early life stress on biochemical indicators of the dopaminergic system: A 3 level meta-analysis of rodent studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 95:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Prenatal stress and models explaining risk for psychopathology revisited: Generic vulnerability and divergent pathways. Dev Psychopathol 2018; 30:1041-1062. [PMID: 30068410 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579418000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The present review revisits three hypothesized models that potentially could explain how prenatal maternal stress influences fetal development, birth outcomes, and subsequent developmental psychopathology. These models were mostly based on animal models, and new evidence for these models from human studies is evaluated. Furthermore, divergent trajectories from prenatal exposure to adversities to offspring affected outcomes are reviewed, including the comparison of studies on prenatal maternal stress with research on maternal substance use and maternal malnutrition during pregnancy. Finally, new directions in research on the mechanism underlying prenatal stress effects on human offspring is summarized. While it is concluded that there is abundant evidence for the negative associations between prenatal maternal stress and offspring behavioral, brain, and psychopathological outcomes in humans, there is no consistent evidence for specific mechanisms or specific outcomes in relation to stress exposure in utero. Rather, principles of multifinality and equifinality best describe the consequences for the offspring, suggesting a generic vulnerability and different pathways from prenatal adversities to developmental psychopathology, which complicates the search for underlying mechanisms. New and promising directions for research are provided to get a better understanding of how prenatal stress gets under the skin to affect fetal development.
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Aswathy B, Kumar VM, Gulia KK. Immature sleep pattern in newborn rats when dams encountered sleep restriction during pregnancy. Int J Dev Neurosci 2018; 69:60-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- B.S. Aswathy
- Division of Sleep ResearchBiomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and TechnologyTrivandrum695012KeralaIndia
| | - Velayudhan M. Kumar
- Biomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and TechnologyTrivandrum695012KeralaIndia
| | - Kamalesh K. Gulia
- Division of Sleep ResearchBiomedical Technology Wing, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and TechnologyTrivandrum695012KeralaIndia
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Aswathy B, Kumar VM, Gulia KK. The effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation during late pregnancy on newborns' sleep. J Sleep Res 2017; 27:197-205. [DOI: 10.1111/jsr.12564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B.S. Aswathy
- Division of Sleep Research; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology; Trivandrum Kerala India
| | - Velayudhan M. Kumar
- Biomedical Technology Wing; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology; Trivandrum Kerala India
| | - Kamalesh K. Gulia
- Division of Sleep Research; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology; Trivandrum Kerala India
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Abstract
BACKGROUND A previous survey of the literature of fMRI brain activation for two risk factors, impulsivity and craving, for addiction were lateralized to the right and left hemispheres respectively. Most articles reported these findings without consideration of how lateral asymmetries might be relevant to understanding the underlying factors leading to addiction. OBJECTIVE The current survey is intended to extend these observations by demonstrating hemispheric asymmetry of development due to pre-natal or adolescent/adult exposure to drugs of abuse. METHOD Articles that reported either pre-natal or adolescent/adult exposure to drugs of abuse were collected and the hemisphere of the affected structures was tabulated to determine if, and which, drugs affected more structures in one hemisphere or the other or both together. RESULTS Some drugs, notably cocaine and alcohol, differentially affected left or right hemisphere structures which significantly differed depending on whether individuals were exposed prenatally or as an adolescent/adult. Cocaine tended to affect more left hemisphere structures when exposed prenatally and significantly affected more in the right when exposed as adults. Alcohol had the reverse pattern. The difference in patterns of effect between pre-natal or adult exposure was significant for both. CONCLUSION The results in this survey demonstrate that some drugs of abuse appear to have a right/left differential effect on structures of the brain. Further investigation into the reasons for this asymmetry may provide new insights into underlying factors of drug-seeking and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold W Gordon
- Epidemiology Research Branch, Division of Epidemiology, Services, and Prevention Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse
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Gatzke-Kopp LM. Diversity and representation: Key issues for psychophysiological science. Psychophysiology 2017; 53:3-13. [PMID: 26681612 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This Special Issue is devoted to the illustration and discussion of three key demographic variables (sex/gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status) that have been shown to moderate associations between psychophysiological processes and behavior. The introduction to the issue discusses the role of phenotypic plasticity in the emergence of different neural processes that achieve the same behavioral outcome, with emphasis on how these relatively stable developmental contexts affect brain/behavior associations without necessarily resulting in difference in behavior. These findings have profound significance for the implications of generalization and call into question the presumption that diverse samples produce an average result that is appropriately reflective of the individuals themselves. Increasing diversity within psychophysiological research is critical in elucidating mechanisms by which the human brain can accomplish cognitive and affective behaviors. This article further examines the logistical and ethical challenges faced in achieving this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Gatzke-Kopp
- Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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Yates NJ, Robertson D, Rodger J, Martin-Iverson MT. Effects of Neonatal Dexamethasone Exposure on Adult Neuropsychiatric Traits in Rats. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167220. [PMID: 27936175 PMCID: PMC5147874 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of early life stress in utero or in neonates has long-term consequences on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axis function and neurodevelopment. These effects extend into adulthood and may underpin a variety of mental illnesses and be related to various developmental and cognitive changes. We examined the potential role of neonatal HPA axis activation on adult psychopathology and dopamine sensitivity in the mature rat using neonatal exposure to the synthetic glucocorticoid receptor agonist and stress hormone, dexamethasone. We utilized a comprehensive battery of assessments for behaviour, brain function and gene expression to determine if elevated early life HPA activation is associated with adult-onset neuropsychiatric traits. Dexamethasone exposure increased startle reactivity under all conditions tested, but decreased sensitivity of sensorimotor gating to dopaminergic disruption–contrasting with what is observed in several neuropsychiatric diseases. Under certain conditions there also appeared to be mild long-term changes in stress and anxiety-related behaviours with neonatal dexamethasone exposure. Electrophysiology revealed that there were no consistent neuropsychiatric abnormalities in auditory processing or resting state brain function with dexamethasone exposure. However, neonatal dexamethasone altered auditory cortex glucocorticoid activation, and auditory cortex synchronization. Our results indicate that neonatal HPA axis activation by dexamethasone alters several aspects of adult brain function and behaviour and may induce long-term changes in emotional stress-reactivity. However, neonatal dexamethasone exposure is not specifically related to any particular neuropsychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael J. Yates
- School of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Donald Robertson
- School of Anatomy, Physiology, and Human Biology, Faculty of Science, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jennifer Rodger
- School of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Mathew T. Martin-Iverson
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
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D'Souza S, Thompson JMD, Slykerman R, Marlow G, Wall C, Murphy R, Ferguson LR, Mitchell EA, Waldie KE. Environmental and genetic determinants of childhood depression: The roles of DAT1 and the antenatal environment. J Affect Disord 2016; 197:151-8. [PMID: 26991370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Research on adolescent and adult populations has linked depression to variation in several monoaminergic genes, but genetic association studies on depression in children are limited. Additionally, few studies have investigated whether stressors occurring very early in development moderate the influence of certain genes on depression. The aim of this study was to investigate whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from monoaminergic genes interacted with measures of early life stress to influence depressive symptoms in children. Participants were members of the Auckland Birthweight Collaborative cohort. Small for gestational age (SGA) and maternal stress during pregnancy were measured at birth and used as indicators of early life stress. At age 11, depressive symptoms were measured using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC) and DNA samples were collected for genotyping. A two-way ANOVA revealed that SGA and a SNP from the dopamine transporter gene DAT1 had an interactive effect on children's depressive symptoms. Specifically, symptoms were greater in children born SGA who are T homozygous for the rs1042098 SNP. These findings suggest that adverse intrauterine environments leading to low birth weight also seem to exacerbate the effects of certain DAT1 variants on depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D'Souza
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - John M D Thompson
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Rebecca Slykerman
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Gareth Marlow
- Discipline of Nutrition and Dietetics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Clare Wall
- Discipline of Nutrition and Dietetics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Rinki Murphy
- Department of Medicine, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Lynnette R Ferguson
- Discipline of Nutrition and Dietetics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Edwin A Mitchell
- Department of Paediatrics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Karen E Waldie
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Said N, Lakehayli S, Khachibi ME, Ouahli ME, Nadifi S, Hakkou F, Tazi A. Effect of prenatal stress on memory, nicotine withdrawal and 5HT1A expression in raphe nuclei of adult rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 2015; 43:92-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2015.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- N. Said
- Laboratory of PharmacologyFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
| | - S. Lakehayli
- Laboratory of PharmacologyFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
| | - M. El Khachibi
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology LaboratoryFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
| | - M. El Ouahli
- Sultan My Slimane UniversityFac Sciences & Tecniques Beni‐MellalLife SciencesMorocco
| | - S. Nadifi
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology LaboratoryFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
| | - F. Hakkou
- Laboratory of PharmacologyFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
| | - A. Tazi
- Laboratory of PharmacologyFaculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca19 Rue Tarik Bnou ZiadCasablancaMorocco
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12
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Prenatal stress and adult drug-seeking behavior: interactions with genes and relation to nondrug-related behavior. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 10:75-100. [PMID: 25287537 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1372-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Addiction inflicts large personal, social, and economic burdens, yet its etiology is poorly defined and effective treatments are lacking. As with other neuropsychiatric disorders, addiction is characterized by a core set of symptoms and behaviors that are believed to be influenced by complex gene-environment interactions. Our group focuses on the interaction between early stress and genetic background in determining addiction vulnerability. Prior work by our group and others has indicated that a history of prenatal stress (PNS) in rodents elevates adult drug seeking in a number of behavioral paradigms. The focus of the present chapter is to summarize work in the area of PNS and addiction models as well as our recent studies of PNS on drug seeking in different strains of mice as a strategy to dissect gene-environment interactions underlying cocaine addiction vulnerability. These studies indicate that ability of PNS to elevate adult cocaine seeking is strain dependent. Further, PNS also alters other nondrug behaviors in a fashion that is dependent on different strains and independent from the strain dependence of drug seeking. Thus, it appears that the ability of PNS to alter behavior related to different psychiatric conditions is orthogonal, with similar nonspecific susceptibility to prenatal stress across genetic backgrounds but with the genetic background determining the specific nature of the PNS effects. Finally, the advent of recombinant inbred mouse strains is allowing us to determine the genetic bases of these gene-environment interactions. Understanding these effects will have broad implications to determining the nature of vulnerability to addiction and perhaps other disorders.
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Boersma GJ, Moghadam AA, Cordner ZA, Tamashiro KL. Prenatal stress and stress coping style interact to predict metabolic risk in male rats. Endocrinology 2014; 155:1302-12. [PMID: 24467745 PMCID: PMC3959611 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Both prenatal stress (PNS) exposure and a passive stress-coping style have been identified as risk factors for insulin resistance in rats. In the current study, we test the hypothesis that PNS and stress-coping style may interact in predicting susceptibility for metabolic disease. To test this hypothesis, adult male control and PNS offspring were behaviorally characterized using a defensive burying test to have either a passive or proactive stress-coping style. In adulthood, all rats were fed either a standard chow or a high-fat diet for 3 weeks. After 3 weeks of diet exposure, glucose and insulin levels were assessed during an oral glucose tolerance test. Under high-fat diet conditions, PNS rats display elevated glucose and insulin responses to the oral glucose tolerance test, indicative of glucose intolerance. Interestingly, these effects of PNS were far more pronounced in rats characterized by a passive stress-coping style. Additionally, the passively coping PNS rats also gained more weight on the high-fat diet than all other rats tested. This observation suggests that a stressful prenatal environment in combination with a passive stress-coping strategy may prime an individual to be sensitive to diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gretha J Boersma
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences (G.J.B., A.A.M., Z.A.C., K.L.T.), and The Mood Disorders Center (G.J.B., Z.A.C., K.L.T.), Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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Abstract
Gestational factors play a role in the development of several neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and autism. In utero conditions influence future mental health through epigenetic mechanisms, which alter gene expression without affecting DNA coding sequence. Environmental factors account for at least 60% of the risk for developing major depression, and earlier onset of depressive illness has been observed over the past decades. I speculate that gestational factors may play a greater role in programing depression than previously recognized. Here, I examine recent evidence for a role for gestational factors in programing mood disorders, and how epigenetic mechanisms mediate this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie C Dulawa
- Committee on Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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15
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Peña CJ, Neugut YD, Calarco CA, Champagne FA. Effects of maternal care on the development of midbrain dopamine pathways and reward-directed behavior in female offspring. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 39:946-956. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Jensen Peña
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute; Mount Sinai School of Medicine; New York NY USA
| | - Yael D. Neugut
- Department of Psychology; Columbia University; 406 Schermerhorn Hall, 1190 Amsterdam Avenue New York NY 10027 USA
| | | | - Frances A. Champagne
- Department of Psychology; Columbia University; 406 Schermerhorn Hall, 1190 Amsterdam Avenue New York NY 10027 USA
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Money KM, Stanwood GD. Developmental origins of brain disorders: roles for dopamine. Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:260. [PMID: 24391541 PMCID: PMC3867667 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 12/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, such as dopamine, participate in a wide range of behavioral and cognitive functions in the adult brain, including movement, cognition, and reward. Dopamine-mediated signaling plays a fundamental neurodevelopmental role in forebrain differentiation and circuit formation. These developmental effects, such as modulation of neuronal migration and dendritic growth, occur before synaptogenesis and demonstrate novel roles for dopaminergic signaling beyond neuromodulation at the synapse. Pharmacologic and genetic disruptions demonstrate that these effects are brain region- and receptor subtype-specific. For example, the striatum and frontal cortex exhibit abnormal neuronal structure and function following prenatal disruption of dopamine receptor signaling. Alterations in these processes are implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders, and emerging studies of neurodevelopmental disruptions may shed light on the pathophysiology of abnormal neuronal circuitry in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli M Money
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN, USA ; Vanderbilt Medical Scientist Training Program, Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Gregg D Stanwood
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN, USA ; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN, USA
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Cory-Slechta DA, Virgolini MB, Liu S, Weston D. Enhanced stimulus sequence-dependent repeated learning in male offspring after prenatal stress alone or in conjunction with lead exposure. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:1188-202. [PMID: 22796262 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Both lead (Pb) exposure and prenatal stress (PS) can produce cognitive deficits, and in a prior study we demonstrated enhanced cognitive deficits in repeated learning of female rats exposed to both of these developmental insults (Cory-Slechta et al., 2010). However, PS can also lead to improved cognitive outcomes that are both gender- and context-dependent. Thus, the current study examined whether Pb ± PS likewise produced repeated learning deficits in males, either after maternal or lifetime Pb exposure. Repeated learning was evaluated using a multiple schedule of repeated learning and performance that required learning 3-response sequences in male offspring that had been subjected to either maternal Pb (0 or 150 ppm) or lifetime Pb exposure (0 or 50 ppm) beginning two months prior to dam breeding, to prenatal immobilization restraint stress (gestational days 16-17), or to both Pb and PS. Blood Pb, corticosterone, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor density and brain monoamines were also measured. In contrast to outcomes in females, sequence-specific enhancements of repeated learning accuracy were produced by PS, particularly when combined with Pb, results that appeared to be more robust in combination with lifetime than maternal Pb exposure. A common behavioral mechanism of these improvements appears to be an increased reinforcement density associated with increased response rates and shorter session times seen with PS ± Pb that could shorten time to reinforcement. Trends toward lower levels of nucleus accumbens dopamine activity seen after both maternal Pb and lifetime Pb combined with PS suggest a possible role for this region/neurotransmitter in enhanced accuracy, whereas PS ± Pb-induced corticosterone changes did not exhibit an obvious systematic relationship to accuracy enhancements. While PS ± Pb-based increases in accuracy appear to be an improved outcome, the benefits of increased response rate are by no means universal, but highly context-dependent and can lead to adverse behavioral effects in other conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Cory-Slechta
- Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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The effects of allostatic load on neural systems subserving motivation, mood regulation, and social affiliation. Dev Psychopathol 2011; 23:975-99. [PMID: 22018077 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579411000459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe term allostasis, which is defined as stability through change, has been invoked repeatedly by developmental psychopathologists to describe long-lasting and in some cases permanent functional alterations in limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis responding following recurrent and/or prolonged exposure to stress. Increasingly, allostatic load models have also been invoked to describe psychological sequelae of abuse, neglect, and other forms of maltreatment. In contrast, neural adaptations to stress, including those incurred by monoamine systems implicated in (a) mood and emotion regulation, (b) behavioral approach, and (c) social affiliation and attachment, are usually not included in models of allostasis. Rather, structural and functional alterations in these systems, which are exquisitely sensitive to prolonged stress exposure, are usually explained as stress mediators, neural plasticity, and/or programming effects. Considering these mechanisms as distinct from allostasis is somewhat artificial given overlapping functions and intricate coregulation of monoamines and the limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. It also fractionates literatures that should be mutually informative. In this article, we describe structural and functional alterations in serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic neural systems following both acute and prolonged exposure to stress. Through increases in behavioral impulsivity, trait anxiety, mood and emotion dysregulation, and asociality, alterations in monoamine functioning have profound effects on personality, attachment relationships, and the emergence of psychopathology.
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Prenatal stress: role in psychotic and depressive diseases. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 214:89-106. [PMID: 20949351 PMCID: PMC3050113 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2035-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The birth of neurons, their migration to appropriate positions in the brain, and their establishment of the proper synaptic contacts happen predominately during the prenatal period. Environmental stressors during gestation can exert a major impact on brain development and thereby contribute to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric illnesses, such as depression and psychotic disorders including schizophrenia. OBJECTIVE The objectives here are to present recent preclinical studies of the impact of prenatal exposure to gestational stressors on the developing fetal brain and discuss their relevance to the neurobiological basis of mental illness. The focus is on maternal immune activation, psychological stresses, and malnutrition, due to the abundant clinical literature supporting their role in the etiology of neuropsychiatric illnesses. RESULTS Prenatal maternal immune activation, viral infection, unpredictable psychological stress, and malnutrition all appear to foster the development of behavioral abnormalities in exposed offspring that may be relevant to the symptom domains of schizophrenia and psychosis, including sensorimotor gating, information processing, cognition, social function, and subcortical hyperdopaminergia. Depression-related phenotypes, such as learned helplessness or anxiety, are also observed in some model systems. These changes appear to be mediated by the presence of proinflammatory cytokines and/or corticosteroids in the fetal compartment that alter the development the neuroanatomical substrates involved in these behaviors. CONCLUSION Prenatal exposure to environmental stressors alters the trajectory of brain development and can be used to generate animal preparations that may be informative in understanding the pathophysiological processes involved in several human neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Rodrigues AJ, Leão P, Carvalho M, Almeida OFX, Sousa N. Potential programming of dopaminergic circuits by early life stress. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 214:107-20. [PMID: 21088961 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2085-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Stress and high levels of glucocorticoids during pre- and early postnatal life seem to alter developmental programs that assure dopaminergic transmission in the mesolimbic, mesocortical, and nigrostriatal systems. The induced changes are likely to be determined by the ontogenetic state of development of these brain regions at the time of stress exposure and their stability is associated with increased lifetime susceptibility to psychiatric disorders, including drug addiction. This article is intended to serve as a starting point for future studies aimed at the attenuation or reversal of the effects of adverse early life events on dopamine-regulated behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-João Rodrigues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
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Frye CA, Paris JJ, Osborne DM, Campbell JC, Kippin TE. Prenatal Stress Alters Progestogens to Mediate Susceptibility to Sex-Typical, Stress-Sensitive Disorders, such as Drug Abuse: A Review. Front Psychiatry 2011; 2:52. [PMID: 22022315 PMCID: PMC3195272 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 09/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternal-offspring interactions begin prior to birth. Experiences of the mother during gestation play a powerful role in determining the developmental programming of the central nervous system. In particular, stress during gestation alters developmental programming of the offspring resulting in susceptibility to sex-typical and stress-sensitive neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, neither these effects, nor the underlying mechanisms, are well understood. Our hypothesis is that allopregnanolone, during gestation, plays a particularly vital role in mitigating effects of stress on the developing fetus and may mediate, in part, alterations apparent throughout the lifespan. Specifically, altered balance between glucocorticoids and progestogens during critical periods of development (stemming from psychological, immunological, and/or endocrinological stressors during gestation) may permanently influence behavior, brain morphology, and/or neuroendocrine-sensitive processes. 5α-reduced progestogens are integral in the developmental programming of sex-typical, stress-sensitive, and/or disorder-relevant phenotypes. Prenatal stress (PNS) may alter these responses and dysregulate allopregnanolone and its normative effects on stress axis function. As an example of a neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and/or neurodegenerative process, this review focuses on responsiveness to drugs of abuse, which is sensitive to PNS and progestogen milieu. This review explores the notion that allopregnanolone may effect, or be influenced by, PNS, with consequences for neurodevelopmental-, neuropsychiatric-, and/or neurodegenerative- relevant processes, such as addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany-State University of New York Albany, NY, USA
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The canary in the coalmine: the sensitivity of mesolimbic dopamine to environmental adversity during development. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 35:794-803. [PMID: 20888857 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has been the focus of extensive research with regard to the phenotypic plasticity this system shows in response to environmental influences on mammalian development. This review proposes that the mesolimbic dopamine system is similarly reactive to indicators of environmental adversity during development. Physical, physiological, and toxicological stressors encountered during perinatal development have been routinely demonstrated to affect dopamine neurophysiology, most likely through consequent exposure to maternal glucocorticoids or a reduction in oxygen supply. However, findings remain inconsistent with regard to the nature of impact these events have on the dopamine system. Both hyper- and hypo-dopaminergic changes have been noted. This review argues that the directionality of change is a function of chronicity and severity of the insult, and that both resultant phenotypes are adaptive developmental responses, despite their potential for conferring vulnerability for psychopathology in humans.
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Carboni E, Barros V, Ibba M, Silvagni A, Mura C, Antonelli M. Prenatal restraint stress: an in vivo microdialysis study on catecholamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience 2010; 168:156-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 01/13/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Silvagni A, Barros VG, Mura C, Antonelli MC, Carboni E. Prenatal restraint stress differentially modifies basal and stimulated dopamine and noradrenaline release in the nucleus accumbens shell: an ‘in vivo’ microdialysis study in adolescent and young adult rats. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 28:744-58. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06364.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
Early environmental events have profound influences on a wide range of adult behavior. In the current study, we assessed the influence of maternal stress during gestation on psychostimulant and neurochemical responsiveness to cocaine, cocaine self-administration, and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking in adult offspring. Pregnant, female Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to either no treatment or to restraint stress three times per day for the last 7 days of gestation and cocaine-related behavior was assessed in offspring at 10 weeks of age. Relative to controls, a noncontingent cocaine injection elevated locomotor activity as well as nucleus accumbens levels of extracellular dopamine and glutamate to a greater extent in both cocaine-naive and cocaine-experienced prenatal stress (PNS) rats and elevated prefrontal cortex dopamine in cocaine-experienced PNS rats. To assess the impact of PNS on cocaine addiction-related behavior, rats were trained to lever press for intravenous (i.v.) infusions of cocaine (0.25, 0.5, or 1 mg/kg/infusion), with each infusion paired with a light+tone-conditioned stimulus. Lever-pressing was extinguished and cocaine-seeking reinstated by re-exposure to the conditioned cues or by intraperitoneal cocaine-priming injections (5 or 10 mg/kg). PNS elevated active lever responding both during extinction and cocaine-primed reinstatement, but not during self-administration or conditioned-cued reinstatement. PNS also did not alter intake during self-administration. These findings demonstrate that PNS produces enduring nervous system alterations that increase the psychomotor stimulant, motivational, and neurochemical responsiveness to noncontingent cocaine. Thus, early environmental factors contribute to an individual's initial responsiveness to cocaine and propensity to relapse to cocaine-seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychology, The Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660, USA.
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Adrover E, Berger MA, Pérez AA, Tarazi FI, Antonelli MC. Effects of prenatal stress on dopamine D2 receptor asymmetry in rat brain. Synapse 2007; 61:459-62. [PMID: 17372983 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ezequiela Adrover
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Weinstock M. Gender differences in the effects of prenatal stress on brain development and behaviour. Neurochem Res 2007; 32:1730-40. [PMID: 17406975 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9339-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2006] [Accepted: 03/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An increased incidence of anxiety, depression and attention deficits in children has been linked to psychological stress during pregnancy. Subjection of a pregnant rat to stress at a time when the foetal limbic and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axes develop results in anxiogenic and depressive behaviour and learning and attention deficits in the offspring, which depend on its gender, intensity and timing of the maternal stress and behaviour being tested. Maternal stress increases corticosterone levels in the foetal brain, decreases foetal testosterone and brain aromatase activity in males, and alters brain catecholamine activity to that in females. Learning deficits, reductions in hippocampal neurogenesis, LTP and dendritic spine density in the prefrontal cortex are more readily seen in prenatally-stressed males, while anxiety, depression and increased response of the HPA axis to stress are more prevalent in females. Genders may differ in the sensitivity of developing brain areas to stress hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Weinstock
- Department of Pharmacology, Hebrew University Medical Centre, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel.
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Kawamura T, Chen J, Takahashi T, Ichitani Y, Nakahara D. Prenatal stress suppresses cell proliferation in the early developing brain. Neuroreport 2006; 17:1515-8. [PMID: 16957600 DOI: 10.1097/01.wnr.0000236849.53682.6d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Although prenatal stress has been repeatedly shown to inhibit adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of offspring, its effects on embryonic and early postnatal brain development are not well described. Here, using the cell proliferation marker 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine, we examine for the first time the effect of prenatal stress at the embryonic stage on cell proliferation in the hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and amygdala. We show that prenatal stress induces a significant decrease in density of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine-positive cells in the nucleus accumbens (40%) and hippocampus (60%), and a nonsignificant decrease in the amygdala (30%). Taken together, these results demonstrate the adverse effects of prenatal maternal stress on early development in limbic brain regions and the potential mechanisms are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Kawamura
- Department of Psychology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan
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Koenig JI. Schizophrenia: a unique translational opportunity in behavioral neuroendocrinology. Horm Behav 2006; 50:602-11. [PMID: 16870188 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2006] [Revised: 06/23/2006] [Accepted: 06/25/2006] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex and debilitating neuropsychiatric disease in which both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the pathophysiology of the disease. Epidemiological data point to the importance of the prenatal period in the genesis of schizophrenia and suggest that environmental factors, such as stress and hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, may establish a vulnerability to the disease. Unfortunately, the exact cause of this neurodevelopmental disease is unclear. In this review, data on the importance of gestational stress exposure to the etiology of schizophrenia-like behavioral, endocrine and molecular phenotypes will be presented and differences will be highlighted between the preparations that are commonly used in most laboratory investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Koenig
- Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, P.O. Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
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Pechnick RN, Kariagina A, Hartvig E, Bresee CJ, Poland RE, Chesnokova VM. Developmental exposure to corticosterone: behavioral changes and differential effects on leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) gene expression in the mouse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 185:76-83. [PMID: 16416158 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-005-0258-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2005] [Accepted: 11/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cytokines are found in both the peripheral and central nervous system. There has been increasing interest in their potential role in some of the behavioral features of depressive disorders. Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a proinflammatory cytokine, produces stimulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion in response to emotional and inflammatory stress and recently has been linked to depressive-type behavior. Both the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the immune system, including cytokine-mediated responses, appear to be susceptible to long-term programming during fetal and neonatal development. OBJECTIVE The present study was designed to characterize the effects of perinatal exposure to corticostereone on behavior, hypothalamic LIF and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA expression, and basal plasma corticosterone levels in adult female mice. METHODS Corticosterone was added to the drinking water beginning the last week of gestation and continued until weaning. Behavior in the open field and forced swim tests, baseline plasma corticosterone levels, and hypothalamic LIF and CRH gene expression were evaluated in the adult offspring. RESULTS Mice exposed to perinatal corticosterone showed increased immobility in the forced swim test and increased locomotor activity in the open field test. Although there were no differences between treatment groups in terms of basal plasma levels of corticosterone or hypothalamic CRH mRNA, LIF mRNA expression was increased in the hypothalamus. CONCLUSIONS These results show that perinatal exposure to glucocorticoids can produce long-term behavioral changes and upregulation of central LIF mRNA expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert N Pechnick
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8730 Alden Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA.
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Teodorov E, Habr-Alencar SF, Sider LH, Felicio LF, Varoli FMF, Bernardi MM. Prenatal treatment with picrotoxin promotes heterotypical sexual behavioral and neurochemical changes in male rat offspring. Brain Res 2006; 1069:113-9. [PMID: 16380098 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2005] [Revised: 11/08/2005] [Accepted: 11/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The effects of maternal prenatal exposure to picrotoxin (0.75 mg/kg S.C. days 16-19 of pregnancy) in male rat offspring were observed. Adult sexually experienced and inexperienced animals were evaluated for heterotypical sexual behavior, as well as the testosterone plasma levels and striatal neurotransmitters. In relation to sexual behavior and analysis of sexual organs, the results showed that animals treated with picrotoxin exhibited a more intense reproductive behavior, and this could be expressed by a significant decrease in the number of mounts and intromissions and increase in the numbers of ejaculation, showed that these males are most motivate for sexual behavior. Testosterone levels as well as weight for sexual organs did not differ from control group. The neurochemical analysis showed that picrotoxin did not alter DA, 5-HT, 5-HIAA and GABA in animals. The DOPAC/DA and HVA/DA relation showed that the treatment increased the DA system activity in animals sexually experienced, as well as promote a decrease in 5-HT/5-HIAA relation, that is known was an inhibitory neurotransmitter system, blockade a male sexual behavior. There are no alterations observed in GABA levels. It's could be explained by suggests that picrotoxin modification DA system activity through GABAergic system, permitting that DA system to be freely active and facilitate the heterotypical behavior of male rats. These results show that the maternal prenatal exposure to picrotoxin produced changes in the neurochemical and sexual behavior of the adult male rats. Also previous heterotypical experience leads to changes in biogenic amine concentrations in these animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Teodorov
- Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, Av Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, CEP: 05508-900, São Paulo, Brasil
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Kaiser S, Sachser N. The effects of prenatal social stress on behaviour: mechanisms and function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29:283-94. [PMID: 15811499 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we summarise experimental animal studies on the effects of the social environment during pregnancy on the offsprings' behaviour, brain, and neuroendocrine function. We show that in non-human mammals the stability of the social environment in which the pregnant females live is critical for the offsprings' social and sexual behaviour later in life as well as for reproductive functioning, endocrine state and androgen and estrogen receptor distribution in specific parts of the brain. Based on these findings, we discuss different neuroendocrine mechanisms mediating the influence of the social environment during pregnancy on the offsprings' behaviour. We conclude that maternal steroids play a decisive role in shaping foetal brain development. However, a pituitary adrenocortical pathway need not always be involved. At least in some cases an involvement of the sympathetic adrenomedullary system seems to be possible. Concerning function, we favour the hypothesis that the behavioural effects of prenatal social stress are not necessarily the 'pathological' consequences of adverse social conditions (non-adaptive explanation). Contrarily, mothers could be adjusting their offspring to the environment in which they live during pregnancy in an efficient way (adaptive explanation).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestrasse 13, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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Koenig JI, Elmer GI, Shepard PD, Lee PR, Mayo C, Joy B, Hercher E, Brady DL. Prenatal exposure to a repeated variable stress paradigm elicits behavioral and neuroendocrinological changes in the adult offspring: potential relevance to schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res 2005; 156:251-61. [PMID: 15582111 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2004.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2003] [Revised: 03/24/2004] [Accepted: 05/26/2004] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to stress during gestation induces marked changes in the behavior of the affected offspring. Examining the consequences of prenatal stress may prove useful in understanding more about the origins of schizophrenia because a number of clinical investigations have suggested that developmental insults are associated with an increased incidence of schizophrenia. The purpose of these studies is to investigate the effects of stress during gestation on the behaviors of the adult male rat offspring with an emphasis on developing a heuristic animal model of schizophrenia. Pregnant female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to a novel variable stress paradigm during either the second or third week of gestation. Behavioral and neuroendocrinological consequences of prenatal stress exposure were evaluated in the male offspring on postnatal day 35 or 56. Prenatal stress exposure during the third week of pregnancy caused adult male rats to exhibit prolonged elevation in plasma glucocorticoid levels following acute exposure to restraint stress indicative of diminished glucocorticoid negative feedback. Similarly, exposure to stress during the third week of pregnancy elicited an enhanced locomotor response to the psychomotor stimulant amphetamine on postnatal day 56 but not on postnatal day 35. In addition, prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response was diminished across a range of prepulse stimulus intensities in prenatally stressed adult male rats. Similarly, prenatally stressed rats showed evidence of a disruption in auditory sensory gating as measured by the N40 response. Taken together, these findings suggest that prenatal stress exposure significantly changed many facets of adult rat behavior. Interestingly, the behaviors that are altered have been used to validate animal models of schizophrenia and therefore, suggest that this preparation may be useful to learn more about some aspects of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Koenig
- Department of Psychiatry, Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, P.O. Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
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Gutteling BM, de Weerth C, Willemsen-Swinkels SHN, Huizink AC, Mulder EJH, Visser GHA, Buitelaar JK. The effects of prenatal stress on temperament and problem behavior of 27-month-old toddlers. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 14:41-51. [PMID: 15756515 DOI: 10.1007/s00787-005-0435-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/20/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
AIM To examine, in a prospective study, the influence of prenatal stress on infant temperament and problem behavior. METHOD Self-report data on stress and anxiety, and levels of cortisol in saliva were collected from nulli-parous women during pregnancy. Temperament of the child was measured at 27 months by parent report on the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. Behavior of the child was assessed by direct observation during the administration of the Bayley Scales of Development 2-30, and by parent report on the Child Behavior Checklist 2-3. RESULTS Complete data were available for 103 healthy toddlers. Logistic regression analyses were performed and results were adjusted for possible prenatal, perinatal and postnatal confounders. Perceived stress during pregnancy was a predictor of lower levels of restless/disruptive temperament (OR=0.77), more total behavioral problems (OR=1.17), and more externalizing behavioral problems (OR=1.12) in 2-year-olds. Fear of bearing a handicapped child was a predictor of higher levels of restless/disruptive temperament (OR=1.39) and more attention regulation problems in toddlers (OR=1.46). CONCLUSIONS Increased levels of maternal prenatal stress appear to be associated with temperamental and behavioral problems in toddlers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M Gutteling
- Dept. of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Utrecht University Medical Center and the Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Lesting J, Neddens J, Busche A, Teuchert-Noodt G. Hemisphere-specific effects on serotonin but not dopamine innervation in the nucleus accumbens of gerbils caused by isolated rearing and a single early methamphetamine challenge. Brain Res 2005; 1035:168-76. [PMID: 15722056 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2004] [Revised: 12/08/2004] [Accepted: 12/11/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was twofold: We examined whether serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) innervations of the nucleus accumbens are lateralised and whether the environment or the combination with an early pharmacological impact might interfere with the postnatal maturation of the monoaminergic innervation. Male gerbils were assigned to either enriched rearing (ER) or isolated rearing (IR). Animals from both rearing conditions additionally received a single dose of either methamphetamine [MA (50 mg/kg ip)] or saline on postnatal day 14. DA and 5-HT fibres of the adult animals (postnatal day 90-110) were immunocytochemically stained and fibre densities were quantified in nucleus accumbens core and shell of both the left and right hemisphere. Our data demonstrate that the DA and 5-HT innervation is not lateralised in saline-treated animals of both rearing conditions. IR increases the DA fibre density in both hemispheres of saline controls, whereas an additional MA treatment reverses this effect. In both ER and IR groups, MA provokes an excessive 5-HT fibre in growth of only the right hemisphere. The combination of IR with MA induces right-side asymmetries of the 5-HT fibre density in both the core and shell. From the data obtained, we conclude that the maturation of the monoaminergic innervation of the nucleus accumbens is vulnerable to postnatal stimuli. The subtle "innervation imbalance" observed in our studies is consistent with previously reported effects in other brain regions of this animal model and may be causative for behavioural disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Lesting
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Biology, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstr. 25, D-33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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Henry AL, Beach AJ, Stowe ZN, Newport DJ. The Fetus and Maternal Depression: Implications for Antenatal Treatment Guidelines. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2004; 47:535-46. [PMID: 15326416 DOI: 10.1097/01.grf.0000135341.48747.f9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Autumn L Henry
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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Bakos J, Duncko R, Makatsori A, Pirnik Z, Kiss A, Jezova D. Prenatal immune challenge affects growth, behavior, and brain dopamine in offspring. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1018:281-7. [PMID: 15240379 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1296.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
It is known that the development and plasticity of the neuroendocrine system can be affected by many factors, and that adverse events during the prenatal period can result in long-lasting changes in adulthood. This study was aimed at evaluating the possible consequences for offspring from chronic inflammation during pregnancy. Chronic inflammation was simulated by treatment with increasing doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to dams on days 15 through 19 of pregnancy. Attempts were made to prevent possible negative alterations by keeping animals in an enriched environment (EE). Maternal exposure to LPS resulted in a significant reduction of body weight of male offspring during the weaning period. This difference remained until the age of 63 days in controls (C), but not in animals reared in EE. The content of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens was found to be lower in prenatally stressed (PS) adult males. Furthermore, prenatal exposure to maternal immune challenge was associated with lower locomotor activity in elevated plus maze and increased number of skips in the beam-walking test, as observed in female offspring. No differences in ACTH and corticosterone concentrations with regard to prenatal treatment were found; however, both groups kept in EE showed increased levels of corticosterone as well as enlarged adrenal glands. Thus, immune activation during pregnancy may induce long-term changes in brain catecholamines and behavior, but it is not harmful to basal hormone secretion in the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Bakos
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vlarska 3, 833 06, Bratislava, Slovakia
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Patin V, Vincent A, Lordi B, Caston J. Does prenatal stress affect the motoric development of rat pups? BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 149:85-92. [PMID: 15063088 DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2003.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2003] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Pregnant rats were exposed to an acute or a repeated stress (presence of a cat) either at the 10th or the 14th gestational day, and the development of their offspring was studied during the first 2 weeks of life. Motor development was measured by different tests: rooting reflex, vibrissae placing response, righting reflex, negative geotaxis. Other landmarks such as eye opening and spontaneous locomotor activity were also recorded. The results showed that, except for the rooting reflex which was most often enhanced (while not significantly) in prenatally stressed rats, the development of the vibrissae placing response, the righting reflex and the negative geotaxis behavior was delayed in the offspring of dams stressed at the 10th gestational day and not (or almost not) in the offspring of dams stressed at the 14th gestational day, the delay being more severe when the prenatal stress was repeated than when it was acutely administered. The spontaneous motor activity was also altered in repeatedly prenatally stressed rats, whatever the day of pregnancy when it was administered, while it was unaffected in acutely prenatally stressed animals. The delay in motor reflexes development was interpreted as alterations in maturation of nervous structures sustaining motor skills, while permanent decrease of spontaneous motor activity was explained by emotional and motivational alterations due to prenatal stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Patin
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie de l'Apprentissage, UPRES PSY. CO 1780, France
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Huizink AC, Mulder EJH, Buitelaar JK. Prenatal stress and risk for psychopathology: specific effects or induction of general susceptibility? Psychol Bull 2004; 130:115-42. [PMID: 14717652 DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on prenatal stress as a risk factor for psychopathology. Evidence from animal studies is summarized, and the relevance of prenatal stress models in animals for human studies is discussed. In the offspring of prenatally stressed animals, overactivity and impaired negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis are consistent findings and may reflect a pathophysiological mechanism involved in the development of psychopathology. Reduced activity of the opioid GABA/benzodiazepine, serotonin, and dopamine systems and increased activity of the sympathico-adrenal system have been found as well. These alterations have been linked to a diverse spectrum of psychopathology. Therefore, the evidence supports the view that exposure to prenatal stress may result in a general susceptibility to psychopathology, rather than exerting a direct effect on a specific form of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja C Huizink
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neurosciences, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether prenatal stress affects the pituitary-testicular axis in relation to testicular descent in rat fetuses, as maternal stress can alter the plasma testosterone concentration and inhibit testicular descent in male rat fetuses. MATERIALS AND METHODS Pregnant rats were divided into two groups and kept in reverse light-dark cycles, with lights-off at 08.00 hours and on at 20.00 hours. In group 1, 15 pregnant females were placed three times daily for 60 min each session in plastic rat-holders (13 x 6 x 8 cm) illuminated by two 150-W flood lights during the dark phase, from day 14 to 18 of gestation. In group 2, 10 pregnant females were not handled and thus were used as controls. At 19 days of gestation, five pregnant rats had a Caesarean section in each group, and both testes and the pituitary gland were removed from male fetuses at 10.00-11.00 hours. The tissue homogenates were analysed for testicular testosterone and pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) by a radioimmunoassay. Thereafter, at 21 and 30 days of age, testicular descent was assessed in the remaining male offspring. Student's t- and the chi-square test were used to assess the results. RESULTS The mean (sd) concentration of fetal testicular testosterone was significantly lower in group 1, at 312.9 (26.2) pg/mg, than in group 2, at 532.5 (18.2) pg/mg (P < 0.05); that of pituitary LH was also significantly lower in group 1, at 130.6 (22.7) and 295.6 (35.2) pg/mg, respectively (P < 0.05). The completion rate of testicular descent was 14% in group 1 (36 male rats) and 64% in group 2 (28 male rats) at 21 days old, and thereafter they were 81% and 100%, respectively, at 30 days old (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Maternal stress might inhibit the pituitary-testicular axis, thereby resulting in abnormal testicular descent in male fetuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Shono
- Paediatric Surgery, Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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41
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Dafotakis M, Vehoff J, Korr H, Schmitz C. Prenatal Programming of Depression and Schizophrenia? Neuroembryology Aging 2002. [DOI: 10.1159/000063531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Keck ME, Welt T, Müller MB, Erhardt A, Ohl F, Toschi N, Holsboer F, Sillaber I. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation increases the release of dopamine in the mesolimbic and mesostriatal system. Neuropharmacology 2002; 43:101-9. [PMID: 12213264 DOI: 10.1016/s0028-3908(02)00069-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is suggested to be a potentially useful treatment in major depression. In order to optimize rTMS for therapeutic use, it is necessary to understand the neurobiological mechanisms involved, particularly the nature of the neurochemical changes induced. Using intracerebral microdialysis in urethane-anesthetized and conscious adult male Wistar rats, we monitored the effects of acute rTMS (20 Hz) on the intrahippocampal, intraaccumbal and intrastriatal release patterns of dopamine and its metabolites (homovanillic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid). The stimulation parameters were adjusted according to the results of accurate MRI-based computer-assisted reconstructions of the current density distributions induced by rTMS in the rat brain, ensuring stimulation of frontal brain regions. In the dorsal hippocampus, the shell of the nucleus accumbens and the dorsal striatum the extracellular concentration of dopamine was significantly elevated in response to rTMS. Taken together, these data provide the first in vivo evidence that acute rTMS of frontal brain regions has a modulatory effect on both the mesolimbic and the mesostriatal dopaminergic systems. This increase in dopaminergic neurotransmission may contribute to the beneficial effects of rTMS in the treatment of affective disorders and Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Keck
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804, Munich, Germany.
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43
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Weinstock M. Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Prog Neurobiol 2001; 65:427-51. [PMID: 11689280 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(01)00018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 554] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Retrospective studies in humans suggest that chronic maternal stress during pregnancy, associated with raised plasma levels of CRH, ACTH and cortisol may increase the likelihood of preterm birth, developmental delays and behavioural abnormalities in the children. In adulthood, it may contribute to the significant association between the incidence of schizophrenia, increased left or mixed handedness, reduction in cerebral asymmetry and anomalies in brain morphology. Our studies and others have shown that prenatal stress in rats can mimic these developmental and behavioural alterations. These rats show a reduced propensity for social interaction, increased anxiety in intimidating or novel situations and a reduction in cerebral asymmetry and dopamine turnover, consistent with those in schizophrenic humans. Prenatally-stressed (PS) rats also show behaviour consistent with depression, including a phase-shift in their circadian rhythm for corticosterone, sleep abnormalities, a hedonic deficit and greater acquisition of learned helplessness under appropriate conditions. These behavioural abnormalities are associated with impaired regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress and increased CRH activity. PS males may show demasculinisation and feminisation of their sexual behaviour. The developmental and behavioural abnormalities in PS offspring could occur through sensitisation of the foetal brain by maternal stress hormones to the action of glucocorticoid and CRH and to neurotransmitters affected by them. This may have long-lasting consequences and could explain the precipitation of depressive symptoms or schizophrenia by psychosocial stress in later life. The character of the behavioural abnormalities probably depends on the timing of the maternal stress in relation to development of the particular neuronal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Weinstock
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Hebrew University Medical Centre, Ein Kerem, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel.
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Newport DJ, Wilcox MM, Stowe ZN. Antidepressants during pregnancy and lactation: defining exposure and treatment issues. Semin Perinatol 2001; 25:177-90. [PMID: 11453615 DOI: 10.1053/sper.2001.24901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The majority of psychiatric illness onsets early in an individual's life, typically before or during the reproductive years. The increased incidence of major depression, dysthymia, and panic disorder in women compared with men underscores the likelihood that the clinician will encounter the clinical dilemma of medication use during pregnancy and lactation. The emergence of specialized clinics at several academic centers specifically to investigate and address issues in Perinatal psychiatry illustrates this conundrum best. The extant literature derived from human studies suggests that maternal mental illness and stress may have an adverse impact on obstetrical outcome. These clinical investigations are complemented by a burgeoning series of laboratory studies in rodents and nonhuman primates, showing the profound deleterious impact of maternal stress during the perinatal and neonatal periods on the development of the offspring. Data obtained from pharmaceutical registries, cohort studies, toxicology centers, and case series have consistently failed to show an adverse effect associated with in utero antidepressant exposure. Despite these advances and treatment guidelines proposed by the various academic leaders, investigations describing the extent of fetal/neonatal exposure, clinical methods for minimizing such exposure, and clinical treatment guidelines that include the physiological impact of pregnancy are sparse. The available literature shows distinct pharmacokinetic profiles of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in placental passage and breast milk. Preliminary animal studies have shown higher than expected central nervous system concentrations associated with exposure during pregnancy and mathematical modelling for calculating infant exposure when nursing. The clinical import of these data will require further investigations of central nervous system bioavailability in the fetus and neonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Newport
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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45
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Abstract
Maternal stress during pregnancy produced behavioral alterations in both sexes with regard to sexual behavior, aggressive, maternal, lateralization and depression. In the present paper, sex differences for depression in mice was studied. No sex differences between female and male mice groups were observed either in swimming-induced immobility or in the open-field test (ambulation, rearing and boluses). Prenatal stress produced: 1) an increase of immobility time in female mice for swimming-induced immobility, but not in male mice; 2) an increase of ambulation in female mice for open-field test, but not in male mice; 3) there were no significant differences in rearing and boluses between stress and control groups either for female or male mice. Prenatal stress increases the risk of depression and locomotor activity in adult female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Alonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands (Spain)
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46
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Lehmann J, Stöhr T, Feldon J. Long-term effects of prenatal stress experiences and postnatal maternal separation on emotionality and attentional processes. Behav Brain Res 2000; 107:133-44. [PMID: 10628737 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(99)00122-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Postnatal environmental manipulations naturally occur on the background of prenatal experiences. In the laboratory rat, both pre- and postnatal environmental manipulations have been shown to alter adult behaviour. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the consequences of postnatal manipulations can be altered by previous prenatal stress experience (PS). In the present study, we investigated long-term behavioural consequences of combined PS and postnatal experience, namely repeated maternal separation (MS). PS primarily increases emotionality and fear-related behaviour, while postnatal repeated MS has been previously reported to affect primarily attentional processes. Thus, we tested adult male and female Wistar rats on paradigms involving both emotionality and attention, namely open field, prepulse inhibition (PPI), and latent inhibition (LI) in the active avoidance and the conditioned emotional response paradigms. In line with previous reports, PS decreased open-field locomotion and impaired avoidance learning (increased emotionality), while MS enhanced LI (selective attention) and improved avoidance learning. Further, PS also increased PPI. There was little interaction between the two manipulations: The increased PPI seen after PS was normalised by MS, and the MS-induced enhancement of LI (using the active avoidance paradigm) was not evident in subjects previously subjected to PS. Taken together, these results suggest that the effects of PS and repeated MS are not synergistic in any of the investigated paradigms but can antagonise each other. Thus, in assessing the effects of postnatal manipulations, attention should be paid to the inadvertent occurrence of prenatal stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lehmann
- Behavioural Biology Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
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47
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Abstract
In this review, we will examine the most recent preclinical evidence in support of the fact that both acute and chronic stress may have a detrimental impact on the normal function of the dopaminergic system. In recent decades, the term stress has changed its meaning from that of a 'non-specific body response' to a 'monitoring system of internal and external cues'; that is a modality of reaction of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) which is critical to the adaptation of the organism to its environment. Compelling results have demonstrated that the dopaminergic system is important not only for hedonic impact or reward learning but also, in a broader sense, for reactivity to perturbation in environmental conditions, for selective information processing, and for general emotional responses, which are essential functions in the ability (or failure) to cope with the external world. In this, stress directly influences several basic behaviors which are mediated by the dopaminergic system such as locomotor activity, sexual activity, appetite, and cross sensitization with drugs of abuse. Studies using rat lines which are genetically different in dopamine (DA) physiology, have shown that even small alterations in the birth procedure or early life stress events may contribute to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders-in particular those involving central DA dysfunction-and may cause depression or psychotic derangement in the offspring. Finally, the fact that the dopaminergic system after stress responds, preferentially, in the medial prefrontal cortex (MFC), is thought to serve, in humans, as a protection against positive psychotic symptoms, since the increased DA activity in the MFC suppresses limbic DA transmission. However, excessive MFC dopaminergic activity has a negative impact on the cognitive functions of primates, making them unable to select and process significant environmental stimuli. Thus it appears that a critical range of DA turnover is necessary for optimal cognitive functioning after stress, in the response of the CNS to ever-changing environmental demands. Molecular Psychiatry (2000) 5, 14-21.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Pani
- CNR Center for Neuropharmacology and 'BB Brodie' Department of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
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48
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Poland RE, Cloak C, Lutchmansingh PJ, McCracken JT, Chang L, Ernst T. Brain N-acetyl aspartate concentrations measured by H MRS are reduced in adult male rats subjected to perinatal stress: preliminary observations and hypothetical implications for neurodevelopmental disorders. J Psychiatr Res 1999; 33:41-51. [PMID: 10094239 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3956(98)00043-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to determine if the concentration of brain N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA), a putative neuronal marker, is reduced in adult rats subjected to stress during the perinatal period. As the prenatal stressor, pregnant rats were subjected to restraint stress for one hour twice daily from days 14-21 of gestation; stressed offspring were reared by normal dams and studied as adults. As the postnatal stressor, normal pups were reared by prenatally 'stressed' dams and studied as adults. As compared to non-stressed controls (n=6), NAA concentrations were significantly reduced 21 and 25% in left frontal cortex from the prenatal (n=4) and postnatal (n=6) stress groups. respectively. The data suggest that in perinatally stressed adult offspring permanent neuronal damage or loss has occurred. While no direct causal associations between perinatal stress and the developmental of particular disorders can be inferred from these limited data, the effects of perinatal stress on subsequent brain neuropathology are reviewed. particularly in relation to NAA. For hypothesis-generating purposes, the possible relevance of stress and NAA to the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia is discussed in greater detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Poland
- Department of Psychiatry, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA 90509, USA.
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49
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Braastad BO. Effects of prenatal stress on behaviour of offspring of laboratory and farmed mammals. Appl Anim Behav Sci 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1591(98)00188-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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50
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Silva MR, Oliveira CA, Felicio LF, Nasello AG, Bernardi MM. Perinatal treatment with picrotoxin induces sexual, behavioral, and neuroendocrine changes in male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1998; 60:203-8. [PMID: 9610943 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(97)00582-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The effects of maternal exposure to picrotoxin (PT) during the prenatal and postnatal periods of sexual brain differentiation were studied. Behavioral (sexual behavior), physical (sexual maturation, body, and organ weights) and neurochemical (striatal and hypothalamic monoamine and respective metabolite levels) data were assessed in the offspring of PT-treated dams. The following results were obtained: 1) sexual maturation as measured by the day of testis descent and testis weight comparison was unchanged; 2) a decrease in male sexual behavior occurred, as well as a decrease in body, ductus deferens, and seminal vesicle weights and in plasma testosterone levels of adult male offspring; 3) striatal dopamine (DA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) levels were decreased and hypothalamic norepinephrine (NE) levels were increased. These results indicate that perinatal exposure to PT during the critical periods of male brain sexual differentiation has long-term effects on the reproductive physiology and behavior of male rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Silva
- Departamento de Farmacologia do Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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