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Rosario-Cruz R, Domínguez-García DI, Almazán C. Inclusion of Anti-Tick Vaccines into an Integrated Tick Management Program in Mexico: A Public Policy Challenge. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:403. [PMID: 38675785 PMCID: PMC11053712 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12040403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Acaricides are the most widely used method to control the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus. However, its use increases production costs, contaminates food and the environment, and directly affects animal and human health. The intensive use of chemical control has resulted in the selection of genes associated with resistance to acaricides, and consumers are increasingly less tolerant of food contamination. This scenario has increased the interest of different research groups around the world for anti-tick vaccine development, in order to reduce the environmental impact, the presence of residues in food, and the harmful effects on animal and human health. There is enough evidence that vaccination with tick antigens induces protection against tick infestations, reducing tick populations and acaricide treatments. Despite the need for an anti-tick vaccine in Mexico, vaccination against ticks has been limited to one vaccine that is used in some regions. The aim of this review is to contribute to the discussion on tick control issues and provide a reference for readers interested in the importance of using anti-tick vaccines encouraging concerted action on the part of Mexican animal health authorities, livestock organizations, cattle producers, and academics. Therefore, it is suggested that an anti-tick vaccine should be included as a part of an integrated tick management program in Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Rosario-Cruz
- Biotechnology in Health and Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Natural Sciences College, Autónomous Guerrero State University, Chilpancingo 39105, Guerrero, Mexico;
| | - Delia Inés Domínguez-García
- Biotechnology in Health and Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Natural Sciences College, Autónomous Guerrero State University, Chilpancingo 39105, Guerrero, Mexico;
| | - Consuelo Almazán
- Immunology and Vaccines Laboratory, College of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Santiago de Queretaro 76230, Queretaro, Mexico;
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Shah T, Li Q, Wang B, Baloch Z, Xia X. Geographical distribution and pathogenesis of ticks and tick-borne viral diseases. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1185829. [PMID: 37293222 PMCID: PMC10244671 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1185829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are obligatory hematophagous arthropods that harbor and transmit infectious pathogens to humans and animals. Tick species belonging to Amblyomma, Ixodes, Dermacentor, and Hyalomma genera may transmit certain viruses such as Bourbon virus (BRBV), Dhori virus (DHOV), Powassan virus (POWV), Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus (OHFV), Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV), Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), Heartland virus (HRTV), Kyasanur forest disease virus (KFDV), etc. that affect humans and certain wildlife. The tick vectors may become infected through feeding on viraemic hosts before transmitting the pathogen to humans and animals. Therefore, it is vital to understand the eco-epidemiology of tick-borne viruses and their pathogenesis to optimize preventive measures. Thus this review summarizes knowledge on some medically important ticks and tick-borne viruses, including BRBV, POWV, OHFV, CTFV, CCHFV, HRTV, and KFDV. Further, we discuss these viruses' epidemiology, pathogenesis, and disease manifestations during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taif Shah
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Provincial Center for Molecular Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Qian Li
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Provincial Center for Molecular Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Binghui Wang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Provincial Center for Molecular Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Zulqarnain Baloch
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Provincial Center for Molecular Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Xueshan Xia
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Provincial Center for Molecular Medicine, Kunming, China
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Šimo L. 50 Years since Kaufman and Phillips’ Groundbreaking Trilogy Elucidating Ion and Water Homeostasis in Ixodid Ticks. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030385. [PMID: 36986307 PMCID: PMC10052448 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The enormous volume of blood ingested by hard ticks during their long attachment period is without a doubt the hallmark of their biology. Maintaining a homeostatic balance between ion and water intake and loss during their feeding is critical to preventing osmotic stress and death. Exactly 50 years ago, Kaufman and Phillips published a series of three consecutive papers on “Ion and water balance in the ixodid tick Dermacentor andersoni”, Journal of Experimental Biology (1973): I. Routes of ion and water excretion, 58: 523–36; II. Mechanism and control of salivary secretion 58: 537–547; and III. Influence of monovalent ions and osmotic pressure on salivary secretion 58: 549–564. This classic series significantly expanded our knowledge of the unique regulatory processes governing ion and water balance in fed ixodid ticks, highlighting its uniqueness among the blood-feeding arthropods. Their pioneer work had an enormous impact on understanding the vital role of salivary glands in these actions, and ultimately provided a consequential stepping stone for a new era of hard tick salivary gland physiological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladislav Šimo
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale, UMR BIPAR, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, INRAE, ANSES, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Wulff JP, Temeyer KB, Tidwell JP, Schlechte KG, Xiong C, Lohmeyer KH, Pietrantonio PV. Pyrokinin receptor silencing in females of the southern cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is associated with a reproductive fitness cost. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:252. [PMID: 35818078 PMCID: PMC9272880 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05349-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhipicephalus microplus is the vector of deadly cattle pathogens, especially Babesia spp., for which a recombinant vaccine is not available. Therefore, disease control depends on tick vector control. However, R. microplus populations worldwide have developed resistance to available acaricides, prompting the search for novel acaricide targets. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in the regulation of many physiological processes and have been suggested as druggable targets for the control of arthropod vectors. Arthropod-specific signaling systems of small neuropeptides are being investigated for this purpose. The pyrokinin receptor (PKR) is a GPCR previously characterized in ticks. Myotropic activity of pyrokinins in feeding-related tissues of Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ixodes scapularis was recently reported. METHODS The R. microplus pyrokinin receptor (Rhimi-PKR) was silenced through RNA interference (RNAi) in female ticks. To optimize RNAi, a dual-luciferase assay was applied to determine the silencing efficiency of two Rhimi-PKR double-stranded RNAs (dsRNA) prior to injecting dsRNA in ticks to be placed on cattle. Phenotypic variables of female ticks obtained at the endpoint of the RNAi experiment were compared to those of control female ticks (non-injected and beta-lactamase dsRNA-injected). Rhimi-PKR silencing was verified by quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR in whole females and dissected tissues. RESULTS The Rhimi-PKR transcript was expressed in all developmental stages. Rhimi-PKR silencing was confirmed in whole ticks 4 days after injection, and in the tick carcass, ovary and synganglion 6 days after injection. Rhimi-PKR silencing was associated with an increased mortality and decreased weight of both surviving females and egg masses (P < 0.05). Delays in repletion, pre-oviposition and incubation periods were observed (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Rhimi-PKR silencing negatively affected female reproductive fitness. The PKR appears to be directly or indirectly associated with the regulation of female feeding and/or reproductive output in R. microplus. Antagonists of the pyrokinin signaling system could be explored for tick control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P. Wulff
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475 USA
| | - Kevin B. Temeyer
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX 78028-9184 USA
| | - Jason P. Tidwell
- Cattle Fever Tick Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 22675 N. Moorefield Rd. Building 6419, Edinburg, TX 78541-5033 USA
| | - Kristie G. Schlechte
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX 78028-9184 USA
| | - Caixing Xiong
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475 USA
| | - Kimberly H. Lohmeyer
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX 78028-9184 USA
| | - Patricia V. Pietrantonio
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX 78028-9184 USA
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Ali A, Zeb I, Alouffi A, Zahid H, Almutairi MM, Ayed Alshammari F, Alrouji M, Termignoni C, Vaz IDS, Tanaka T. Host Immune Responses to Salivary Components - A Critical Facet of Tick-Host Interactions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:809052. [PMID: 35372098 PMCID: PMC8966233 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.809052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick sialome is comprised of a rich cocktail of bioactive molecules that function as a tool to disarm host immunity, assist blood-feeding, and play a vibrant role in pathogen transmission. The adaptation of the tick's blood-feeding behavior has lead to the evolution of bioactive molecules in its saliva to assist them to overwhelm hosts' defense mechanisms. During a blood meal, a tick secretes different salivary molecules including vasodilators, platelet aggregation inhibitors, anticoagulants, anti-inflammatory proteins, and inhibitors of complement activation; the salivary repertoire changes to meet various needs such as tick attachment, feeding, and modulation or impairment of the local dynamic and vigorous host responses. For instance, the tick's salivary immunomodulatory and cement proteins facilitate the tick's attachment to the host to enhance prolonged blood-feeding and to modulate the host's innate and adaptive immune responses. Recent advances implemented in the field of "omics" have substantially assisted our understanding of host immune modulation and immune inhibition against the molecular dynamics of tick salivary molecules in a crosstalk between the tick-host interface. A deep understanding of the tick salivary molecules, their substantial roles in multifactorial immunological cascades, variations in secretion, and host immune responses against these molecules is necessary to control these parasites. In this article, we reviewed updated knowledge about the molecular mechanisms underlying host responses to diverse elements in tick saliva throughout tick invasion, as well as host defense strategies. In conclusion, understanding the mechanisms involved in the complex interactions between the tick salivary components and host responses is essential to decipher the host defense mechanisms against the tick evasion strategies at tick-host interface which is promising in the development of effective anti-tick vaccines and drug therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abid Ali
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Ismail Zeb
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Abdulaziz Alouffi
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hafsa Zahid
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Mashal M. Almutairi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fahdah Ayed Alshammari
- College of Sciences and Literature Microbiology, Nothern Border University, Rafha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Alrouji
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia
| | - Carlos Termignoni
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Itabajara da Silva Vaz
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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Schneider CA, Calvo E, Peterson KE. Arboviruses: How Saliva Impacts the Journey from Vector to Host. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179173. [PMID: 34502092 PMCID: PMC8431069 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses, referred to collectively as arboviruses, infect millions of people worldwide each year and have the potential to cause severe disease. They are predominately transmitted to humans through blood-feeding behavior of three main groups of biting arthropods: ticks, mosquitoes, and sandflies. The pathogens harbored by these blood-feeding arthropods (BFA) are transferred to animal hosts through deposition of virus-rich saliva into the skin. Sometimes these infections become systemic and can lead to neuro-invasion and life-threatening viral encephalitis. Factors intrinsic to the arboviral vectors can greatly influence the pathogenicity and virulence of infections, with mounting evidence that BFA saliva and salivary proteins can shift the trajectory of viral infection in the host. This review provides an overview of arbovirus infection and ways in which vectors influence viral pathogenesis. In particular, we focus on how saliva and salivary gland extracts from the three dominant arbovirus vectors impact the trajectory of the cellular immune response to arbovirus infection in the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A. Schneider
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA;
| | - Eric Calvo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA;
| | - Karin E. Peterson
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA;
- Correspondence:
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van Oosterwijk JG, Wikel SK. Resistance to Ticks and the Path to Anti-Tick and Transmission Blocking Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:725. [PMID: 34358142 PMCID: PMC8310300 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9070725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The medical and veterinary public health importance of ticks and tick-borne pathogens is increasing due to the expansion of the geographic ranges of both ticks and pathogens, increasing tick populations, growing incidence of tick-borne diseases, emerging tick transmitted pathogens, and continued challenges of achieving effective and sustained tick control. The past decades show an increasing interest in the immune-mediated control of tick infestations and pathogen transmission through the use of vaccines. Bovine tick resistance induced by repeated infestations was reported over a century ago. This review addresses the phenomena and immunological underpinning of resistance to tick infestation by livestock and laboratory animals; the scope of tick countermeasures to host immune defenses; and the impact of genomics, functional genomics, and proteomics on dissecting complex tick-host-pathogen interactions. From early studies utilizing tick tissue extracts to salivary gland derived molecules and components of physiologically important pathways in tick gut and other tissues, an increased understanding of these relationships, over time, impacted the evolution of anti-tick vaccine antigen selection. Novel antigens continue to emerge, including increased interest in the tick microbiome. Anti-tick and transmission blocking vaccines targeting pathogen reservoirs have the potential to disrupt enzootic cycles and reduce human, companion, domestic animal, and wildlife exposure to infected ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen K. Wikel
- US Biologic Inc., 20 Dudley Street, Memphis, TN 38103, USA;
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518, USA
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8
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Boulanger N, Wikel S. Induced Transient Immune Tolerance in Ticks and Vertebrate Host: A Keystone of Tick-Borne Diseases? Front Immunol 2021; 12:625993. [PMID: 33643313 PMCID: PMC7907174 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.625993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks and tick transmitted infectious agents are increasing global public health threats due to increasing abundance, expanding geographic ranges of vectors and pathogens, and emerging tick-borne infectious agents. Greater understanding of tick, host, and pathogen interactions will contribute to development of novel tick control and disease prevention strategies. Tick-borne pathogens adapt in multiple ways to very different tick and vertebrate host environments and defenses. Ticks effectively pharmacomodulate by its saliva host innate and adaptive immune defenses. In this review, we examine the idea that successful synergy between tick and tick-borne pathogen results in host immune tolerance that facilitates successful tick infection and feeding, creates a favorable site for pathogen introduction, modulates cutaneous and systemic immune defenses to establish infection, and contributes to successful long-term infection. Tick, host, and pathogen elements examined here include interaction of tick innate immunity and microbiome with tick-borne pathogens; tick modulation of host cutaneous defenses prior to pathogen transmission; how tick and pathogen target vertebrate host defenses that lead to different modes of interaction and host infection status (reservoir, incompetent, resistant, clinically ill); tick saliva bioactive molecules as important factors in determining those pathogens for which the tick is a competent vector; and, the need for translational studies to advance this field of study. Gaps in our understanding of these relationships are identified, that if successfully addressed, can advance the development of strategies to successfully disrupt both tick feeding and pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Boulanger
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle - UR7290, Early Bacterial Virulence, Group Borrelia, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France
| | - Stephen Wikel
- Department of Medical Sciences, Frank H. Netter, M.D., School of Medicine, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT, United States
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Transstadial Transmission from Nymph to Adult of Coxiella burnetii by Naturally Infected Hyalomma lusitanicum. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9110884. [PMID: 33113791 PMCID: PMC7693340 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9110884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii (Derrick) Philip, the causative agent of Q fever, is mainly transmitted by aerosols, but ticks can also be a source of infection. Transstadial and transovarial transmission of C. burnetii by Hyalomma lusitanicum (Koch) has been suggested. There is a close relationship between this tick species, wild animals and C. burnetii but the transmission in a natural environment has not been demonstrated. In this study, we collected 80 engorged nymphs of H. lusitanicum from red deer and wild rabbits. They moult to adults under laboratory conditions and we feed them artificially through silicone membranes after a preconditioning period. C. burnetii DNA was tested in ticks, blood and faeces samples using real-time PCR. The pathogen was found in 36.2% of fed adults, demonstrating that transstadial transmission from nymph to adult occurs in nature. The presence of DNA in the 60.0% of blood samples after artificial feeding confirms that adults transmit the bacteria during feeding. Further studies are needed about co-feeding and other possible transmission routes to define the role of this tick species in the cycle of C. burnetii.
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Brock CM, Temeyer KB, Tidwell J, Yang Y, Blandon MA, Carreón-Camacho D, Longnecker MT, Almazán C, Pérez de León AA, Pietrantonio PV. The leucokinin-like peptide receptor from the cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is localized in the midgut periphery and receptor silencing with validated double-stranded RNAs causes a reproductive fitness cost. Int J Parasitol 2019; 49:287-299. [PMID: 30673587 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini) (Acari: Ixodidae), is a one-host tick that infests primarily cattle in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. This species transmits deadly cattle pathogens, especially Babesia spp., for which a recombinant vaccine is not available. Therefore, disease control depends on tick vector control. Although R. microplus was eradicated in the USA, tick populations in Mexico and South America have acquired resistance to many of the applied acaricides. Recent acaricide-resistant tick reintroductions detected in the U.S. underscore the need for novel tick control methods. The octopamine and tyramine/octopamine receptors, both G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), are believed to be the main molecular targets of the acaricide amitraz. This provides the proof of principle that investigating tick GPCRs, especially those that are invertebrate-specific, may be a feasible strategy for discovering novel targets and subsequently new anti-tick compounds. The R. microplus leucokinin-like peptide receptor (LKR), also known as the myokinin- or kinin receptor, is such a GPCR. While the receptor was previously characterized in vitro, the function of the leucokinin signaling system in ticks remains unknown. In this work, the LKR was immunolocalized to the periphery of the female midgut and silenced through RNA interference (RNAi) in females. To optimize RNAi experiments, a dual-luciferase system was developed to determine the silencing efficiency of LKR-double stranded RNA (dsRNA) constructs prior to testing those in ticks placed on cattle. This assay identified two effective dsRNAs. Silencing of the LKR with these two validated dsRNA constructs was verified by quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) of female tick dissected tissues. Silencing was significant in midguts and carcasses. Silencing caused decreases in weights of egg masses and in the percentages of eggs hatched per egg mass, as well as delays in time to oviposition and egg hatching. A role of the kinin receptor in tick reproduction is apparent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Brock
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Kevin B Temeyer
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, 2700 Fredericksburg Road Kerrville, TX 78028-9184, USA
| | - Jason Tidwell
- Cattle Fever Tick Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, 22675 N. Moorefield Rd. Building 6419 Edinburg, TX 78541-5033, USA
| | - Yunlong Yang
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Maria A Blandon
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Diana Carreón-Camacho
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, CP87000 Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Michael T Longnecker
- Department of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA
| | - Consuelo Almazán
- Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, CP87000 Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Adalberto A Pérez de León
- Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, 2700 Fredericksburg Road Kerrville, TX 78028-9184, USA
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11
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Nuttall PA. Wonders of tick saliva. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 10:470-481. [PMID: 30459085 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Saliva of ticks is arguably the most complex saliva of any animal. This is particularly the case for ixodid species that feed for many days firmly attached to the same skin site of their obliging host. Sequencing and spectrometry technologies combined with bioinformatics are enumerating ingredients in the saliva cocktail. The dynamic and expanding saliva recipe is helping decipher the wonderous activities of tick saliva, revealing how ticks stealthily hide from their hosts while satisfying their gluttony and sharing their individual resources. This review takes a tick perspective on the composition and functions of tick saliva, covering water balance, gasket and holdfast, control of host responses, dynamics, individuality, mate guarding, saliva-assisted transmission, and redundancy. It highlights areas sometimes overlooked - feeding aggregation and sharing of sialomes, and the contribution of salivary gland storage granules - and questions whether the huge diversity of tick saliva molecules is 'redundant' or more a reflection on the enormous adaptability wonderous saliva confers on ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Nuttall
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK and Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK.
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12
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de Abreu RMM, de Abreu MR, Santos JP, Hebling LMGF, Anholeto LA, de Souza JRL, Camargo-Mathias MI. Morphological evaluation of the liver in Wistar rats inoculated with Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae) salivary gland extracts. Microsc Res Tech 2018; 81:1332-1338. [PMID: 30295366 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.23142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The Rhipicephalus sanguineus is considered a species of medical and veterinary importance. The feeding process of these animals occurs due to the combined action of their mouthparts and the saliva produced by the salivary glands, vital organs for the biological success of the ticks. In addition, these glands act as storage sites for the pathogens transmitted to the host through the inoculation of the saliva. In this sense, the present study had the objective to analyze the behavior of male Wistar rat hepatic cells submitted to in vivo application of the salivary gland extract (SGE) obtained from R. sanguineus female ticks. The study involved five groups (four male adults each): CG (non-inoculated individuals); PBS1 (one phosphate buffer saline injection); PBS2 (two PBS injections); SGE1 (one injection of SGE at 0.04 μg/μL) and SGE2 (two injections of SGE at 0.04 μg/μL). After the exposures, the livers were removed and submitted to the following histological and histochemical stains: HE, toluidine blue, Xylidine Ponceau, alcian blue/PAS, and osmium-imidazole. The results showed that both the PBS and the SGE caused hepatic moderate alterations, such as: (a) emergence of lipid plaques among the hepatic cords; (b) cytoplasmic vacuolation of the hepatic cells; (c) hepatocytes showing pyknotic nuclei; (d) presence of homogeneous or granular secretion in the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes. Despite the slight morphological alterations observed in the hepatic cells and tissue, the latter did not show signs of disorganization after the exposure to the extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marina Rodrigues de Abreu
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juan Parente Santos
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Luís Adriano Anholeto
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José Ribamar Lima de Souza
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University-Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
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Tick⁻Virus⁻Host Interactions at the Cutaneous Interface: The Nidus of Flavivirus Transmission. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070362. [PMID: 29986483 PMCID: PMC6071252 DOI: 10.3390/v10070362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne viral diseases continue to emerge in the United States, as clearly evident from the increase in Powassan encephalitis virus, Heartland virus, and Bourbon virus infections. Tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs) are transmitted to the mammalian host along with the infected tick saliva during blood-feeding. Successful tick feeding is facilitated by a complex repertoire of pharmacologically active salivary proteins/factors in tick saliva. These salivary factors create an immunologically privileged micro-environment in the host’s skin that influences virus transmission and pathogenesis. In this review, we will highlight tick determinants of TBFV transmission with a special emphasis on tick–virus–host interactions at the cutaneous interface.
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Lieskovská J, Páleníková J, Langhansová H, Chmelař J, Kopecký J. Saliva of Ixodes ricinus enhances TBE virus replication in dendritic cells by modulation of pro-survival Akt pathway. Virology 2018; 514:98-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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15
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Molecular detection and characterisation of Babesia and Theileria in Australian hard ticks. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2017; 9:471-478. [PMID: 29331578 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Babesia and Theileria are intraerythrocytic protozoans of the phylum Apicomplexa. These species are capable of infecting wild and domestic animals and have historically caused great economic loss in the agricultural industry. In recent years human babesiosis has been deemed an emerging zoonosis in North America, Europe and Asia. The first locally acquired case of babesiosis in Australia, caused by Babesia microti, was reported in March 2012. A number of native Babesia and Theileria species have been identified in Australian marsupials, however their associated tick vectors and threat to human health is unknown. In the present study DNA was extracted from 1154 ticks collected from across Australia. PCR was used to amplify a Babesia and Theileria-specific partial region of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene. Positive samples were sequenced and phylogenetic analysis was performed. Twenty-nine sequences were obtained from ticks belonging to the genera Ixodes, Haemaphysalis and Bothriocroton. The sequences were closely related to Babesia macropus, and Theileria recently identified in marsupials and monotremes. Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methods showed that Australian Babesia and Theileria species form monophyletic groups.
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Tabor AE, Ali A, Rehman G, Rocha Garcia G, Zangirolamo AF, Malardo T, Jonsson NN. Cattle Tick Rhipicephalus microplus-Host Interface: A Review of Resistant and Susceptible Host Responses. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:506. [PMID: 29322033 PMCID: PMC5732177 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are able to transmit tick-borne infectious agents to vertebrate hosts which cause major constraints to public and livestock health. The costs associated with mortality, relapse, treatments, and decreased production yields are economically significant. Ticks adapted to a hematophagous existence after the vertebrate hemostatic system evolved into a multi-layered defense system against foreign invasion (pathogens and ectoparasites), blood loss, and immune responses. Subsequently, ticks evolved by developing an ability to suppress the vertebrate host immune system with a devastating impact particularly for exotic and crossbred cattle. Host genetics defines the immune responsiveness against ticks and tick-borne pathogens. To gain an insight into the naturally acquired resistant and susceptible cattle breed against ticks, studies have been conducted comparing the incidence of tick infestation on bovine hosts from divergent genetic backgrounds. It is well-documented that purebred and crossbred Bos taurus indicus cattle are more resistant to ticks and tick-borne pathogens compared to purebred European Bos taurus taurus cattle. Genetic studies identifying Quantitative Trait Loci markers using microsatellites and SNPs have been inconsistent with very low percentages relating phenotypic variation with tick infestation. Several skin gene expression and immunological studies have been undertaken using different breeds, different samples (peripheral blood, skin with tick feeding), infestation protocols and geographic environments. Susceptible breeds were commonly found to be associated with the increased expression of toll like receptors, MHC Class II, calcium binding proteins, and complement factors with an increased presence of neutrophils in the skin following tick feeding. Resistant breeds had higher levels of T cells present in the skin prior to tick infestation and thus seem to respond to ticks more efficiently. The skin of resistant breeds also contained higher numbers of eosinophils, mast cells and basophils with up-regulated proteases, cathepsins, keratins, collagens and extracellular matrix proteins in response to feeding ticks. Here we review immunological and molecular determinants that explore the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus-host resistance phenomenon as well as contemplating new insights and future directions to study tick resistance and susceptibility, in order to facilitate interventions for tick control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ala E Tabor
- Centre for Animal Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Centre for Comparative Genomics, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Abid Ali
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan.,Escola de Enfermagem de Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Gauhar Rehman
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - Gustavo Rocha Garcia
- Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Thiago Malardo
- Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Nicholas N Jonsson
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, The University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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17
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Kazimírová M, Thangamani S, Bartíková P, Hermance M, Holíková V, Štibrániová I, Nuttall PA. Tick-Borne Viruses and Biological Processes at the Tick-Host-Virus Interface. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:339. [PMID: 28798904 PMCID: PMC5526847 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are efficient vectors of arboviruses, although less than 10% of tick species are known to be virus vectors. Most tick-borne viruses (TBV) are RNA viruses some of which cause serious diseases in humans and animals world-wide. Several TBV impacting human or domesticated animal health have been found to emerge or re-emerge recently. In order to survive in nature, TBV must infect and replicate in both vertebrate and tick cells, representing very different physiological environments. Information on molecular mechanisms that allow TBV to switch between infecting and replicating in tick and vertebrate cells is scarce. In general, ticks succeed in completing their blood meal thanks to a plethora of biologically active molecules in their saliva that counteract and modulate different arms of the host defense responses (haemostasis, inflammation, innate and acquired immunity, and wound healing). The transmission of TBV occurs primarily during tick feeding and is a complex process, known to be promoted by tick saliva constituents. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of TBV transmission are poorly understood. Immunomodulatory properties of tick saliva helping overcome the first line of defense to injury and early interactions at the tick-host skin interface appear to be essential in successful TBV transmission and infection of susceptible vertebrate hosts. The local host skin site of tick attachment, modulated by tick saliva, is an important focus of virus replication. Immunomodulation of the tick attachment site also promotes co-feeding transmission of viruses from infected to non-infected ticks in the absence of host viraemia (non-viraemic transmission). Future research should be aimed at identification of the key tick salivary molecules promoting virus transmission, and a molecular description of tick-host-virus interactions and of tick-mediated skin immunomodulation. Such insights will enable the rationale design of anti-tick vaccines that protect against disease caused by tick-borne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mária Kazimírová
- Department of Medical Zoology, Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
| | - Pavlína Bartíková
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Meghan Hermance
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
| | - Viera Holíková
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Iveta Štibrániová
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Patricia A. Nuttall
- Department of Zoology, University of OxfordOxford, United Kingdom
- Centre for Ecology and HydrologyWallingford, United Kingdom
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18
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Papa A, Tsergouli K, Tsioka K, Mirazimi A. Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever: Tick-Host-Virus Interactions. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:213. [PMID: 28603698 PMCID: PMC5445422 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is transmitted to humans by bite of infected ticks or by direct contact with blood or tissues of viremic patients or animals. It causes to humans a severe disease with fatality up to 30%. The current knowledge about the vector-host-CCHFV interactions is very limited due to the high-level containment required for CCHFV studies. Among ticks, Hyalomma spp. are considered the most competent virus vectors. CCHFV evades the tick immune response, and following its replication in the lining of the tick's midgut, it is disseminated by the hemolymph in the salivary glands and reproductive organs. The introduction of salivary gland secretions into the host cells is the major route via which CCHFV enters the host. Following an initial amplification at the site of inoculation, the virus is spread to the target organs. Apoptosis is induced via both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Genetic factors and immune status of the host may affect the release of cytokines which play a major role in disease progression and outcome. It is expected that the use of new technology of metabolomics, transcriptomics and proteomics will lead to improved understanding of CCHFV-host interactions and identify potential targets for blocking the CCHFV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Tsergouli
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Tsioka
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ali Mirazimi
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Institute for Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska InstituteStockholm, Sweden.,National Veterinary InstituteUppsala, Sweden.,Public Health Agency of SwedenStockholm, Sweden
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20
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van Duijvendijk G, van Andel W, Fonville M, Gort G, Hovius JW, Sprong H, Takken W. A Borrelia afzelii Infection Increases Larval Tick Burden on Myodes glareolus (Rodentia: Cricetidae) and Nymphal Body Weight of Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2017; 54:422-428. [PMID: 27694145 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjw157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Several microorganisms have been shown to manipulate their host or vector to enhance their own transmission. Here we examined whether an infection with Borrelia afzelii affects its transmission between its bank vole (Myodes glareolus, Schreber, 1780) host and tick vector. Captive-bred bank voles were inoculated with B. afzelii or control medium, after which host preference of Ixodes ricinus L. nymphs was determined in a Y-tube olfactometer. Thereafter, infected and uninfected bank voles were placed in a semifield arena containing questing larvae to measure larval tick attachment. Engorged larvae were collected from these bank voles, molted into nymphs, weighed, and analyzed for infection by PCR.Nymphs were attracted to the odors of a bank vole compared to ambient air and preferred the odors of an infected bank vole over that of an uninfected bank vole. In the semifield arena, infected male bank voles had greater larval tick burdens then uninfected males, while similar larval tick burdens were observed on females regardless of infection status. Nymphal ticks that acquired a B. afzelii infection had higher body weight than nymphs that did not acquire an infection regardless of the infection status of the vole. These results show that a B. afzelii infection in bank voles increases larval tick burden and that a B. afzelii infection in larvae increases nymphal body weight. This finding provides novel ecological insights into the enzootic cycle of B. afzelii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilian van Duijvendijk
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands (; ; ; )
| | - Wouter van Andel
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands (; ; ; )
| | - Manoj Fonville
- Laboratory for Zoonosis and Environmental Microbiology, National Institute for Public Health and Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit Gort
- Mathematical and Statistical Methods, Wageningen University, PO box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hein Sprong
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands (; ; ; )
- Laboratory for Zoonosis and Environmental Microbiology, National Institute for Public Health and Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Willem Takken
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands (; ; ; )
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21
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Multi-trophic interactions driving the transmission cycle of Borrelia afzelii between Ixodes ricinus and rodents: a review. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:643. [PMID: 26684199 PMCID: PMC4684625 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1257-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The tick Ixodes ricinus is the main vector of the spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the causal agent of Lyme borreliosis, in the western Palearctic. Rodents are the reservoir host of B. afzelii, which can be transmitted to I. ricinus larvae during a blood meal. The infected engorged larvae moult into infected nymphs, which can transmit the spirochaetes to rodents and humans. Interestingly, even though only about 1 % of the larvae develop into a borreliae-infected nymph, the enzootic borreliae lifecycle can persist. The development from larva to infected nymph is a key aspect in this lifecycle, influencing the density of infected nymphs and thereby Lyme borreliosis risk. The density of infected nymphs varies temporally and geographically and is influenced by multi-trophic (tick-host-borreliae) interactions. For example, blood feeding success of ticks and spirochaete transmission success differ between rodent species and host-finding success appears to be affected by a B. afzelii infection in both the rodent and the tick. In this paper, we review the major interactions between I. ricinus, rodents and B. afzelii that influence this development, with the aim to elucidate the critical factors that determine the epidemiological risk of Lyme borreliosis. The effects of the tick, rodent and B. afzelii on larval host finding, larval blood feeding, spirochaete transmission from rodent to larva and development from larva to nymph are discussed. Nymphal host finding, nymphal blood feeding and spirochaete transmission from nymph to rodent are the final steps to complete the enzootic B. afzelii lifecycle and are included in the review. It is concluded that rodent density, rodent infection prevalence, and tick burden are the major factors affecting the development from larva to infected nymph and that these interact with each other. We suggest that the B. afzelii lifecycle is dependent on the aggregation of ticks among rodents, which is manipulated by the pathogen itself. Better understanding of the processes involved in the development and aggregation of ticks results in more precise estimates of the density of infected nymphs, and hence predictions of Lyme borreliosis risk.
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Becker M, Felsberger A, Frenzel A, Shattuck WMC, Dyer M, Kügler J, Zantow J, Mather TN, Hust M. Application of M13 phage display for identifying immunogenic proteins from tick (Ixodes scapularis) saliva. BMC Biotechnol 2015; 15:43. [PMID: 26024663 PMCID: PMC4449557 DOI: 10.1186/s12896-015-0167-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ticks act as vectors for a large number of different pathogens, perhaps most notably Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. The most prominent tick vector in the United States is the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis. Tick bites are of special public health concern since there are no vaccines available against most tick-transmitted pathogens. Based on the observation that certain non-natural host animals such as guinea pigs or humans can develop adaptive immune responses to tick bites, anti-tick vaccination is a potential approach to tackle health risks associated with tick bites. Results The aim of this study was to use an oligopeptide phage display strategy to identify immunogenic salivary gland proteins from I. scapularis that are recognized by human immune sera. Oligopeptide libraries were generated from salivary gland mRNA of 18 h fed nymphal I. scapularis. Eight immunogenic oligopeptides were selected using human immune sera. Three selected immunogenic oligopeptides were cloned and produced as recombinant proteins. The immunogenic character of an identified metalloprotease (MP1) was validated with human sera. This enzyme has been described previously and was hypothesized as immunogenic which was confirmed in this study. Interestingly, it also has close homologs in other Ixodes species. Conclusion An immunogenic protein of I. scapularis was identified by oligopeptide phage display. MP1 is a potential candidate for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Becker
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany. .,University of Rhode Island, URI Center for Vector-Borne Disease, 231 Woodward Hall, 9 East Alumni Avenue, Suite 7, 02881, Kingston, RI, USA. .,Present Address: Max-Planck-Institute for Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stuebeweg 51, 79108, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - André Felsberger
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany. .,Present Address: YUMAB GmbH, Rebenring 33, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - André Frenzel
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Wendy M C Shattuck
- University of Rhode Island, URI Center for Vector-Borne Disease, 231 Woodward Hall, 9 East Alumni Avenue, Suite 7, 02881, Kingston, RI, USA.
| | - Megan Dyer
- University of Rhode Island, URI Center for Vector-Borne Disease, 231 Woodward Hall, 9 East Alumni Avenue, Suite 7, 02881, Kingston, RI, USA.
| | - Jonas Kügler
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Jonas Zantow
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Thomas N Mather
- University of Rhode Island, URI Center for Vector-Borne Disease, 231 Woodward Hall, 9 East Alumni Avenue, Suite 7, 02881, Kingston, RI, USA.
| | - Michael Hust
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr.7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
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Tick Saliva Enhances Powassan Virus Transmission to the Host, Influencing Its Dissemination and the Course of Disease. J Virol 2015; 89:7852-60. [PMID: 25995246 PMCID: PMC4505606 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01056-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Powassan virus (POWV) is an encephalitic tick-borne flavivirus which can result in serious neuroinvasive disease with up to a 10% case fatality rate. The study objective was to determine whether the salivary gland extract (SGE) from Ixodes scapularis ticks facilitates the transmission and dissemination of POWV in a process known as saliva-activated transmission. Groups of BALB/c mice were footpad inoculated with either a high dose of POWV with and without SGE or a low dose of POWV with and without SGE. Mice from each group were sacrificed daily. Organ viral loads and gene expression profiles were evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR. Both groups of mice infected with high-dose POWV showed severe neurological signs of disease preceding death. The presence of SGE did not affect POWV transmission or disease outcome for mice infected with the high dose of POWV. Neuroinvasion, paralysis, and death occurred for all mice infected with the low dose of POWV plus SGE; however, for mice infected with the low dose of POWV in the absence of SGE, there were no clinical signs of infection and no mice succumbed to disease. Although this group displayed low-level viremias, all mice were completely healthy, and it was the only group in which POWV was cleared from the lymph nodes. We conclude that saliva-activated transmission occurs in mice infected with a low dose of POWV. Our study is the first to demonstrate virus dose-dependent saliva-activated transmission, warranting further investigation of the specific salivary factors responsible for enhancing POWV transmission. IMPORTANCE Powassan virus (POWV) is a tick-borne flavivirus that continues to emerge in the United States, as is evident by the surge in number and expanding geographic range of confirmed cases in the past decade. This neuroinvasive virus is transmitted to humans by infected tick bites. Successful tick feeding is facilitated by a collection of pharmacologically active factors in tick saliva. In a process known as saliva-activated transmission, tick bioactive salivary molecules are thought to modulate the host environment, making it more favorable for the transmission and establishment of a pathogen. This phenomenon has been demonstrated for several tick-borne pathogens; however, a systematic investigation of the role of tick saliva on dissemination and pathogenesis of a tick-borne viral disease has never been attempted before. This study will fill that gap by systematically examining whether the presence of tick saliva contributes to the transmission and dissemination of POWV in mice.
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Webster KN, Hill NJ, Burnett L, Deane EM. Ectoparasite Infestation Patterns, Haematology and Serum Biochemistry of Urban-Dwelling Common Brushtail Possums. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.2981/wlb.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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25
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de Oliveira PR, Calligaris IB, Nunes PH, Bechara GH, Camargo-Mathias MI. Fluazuron-induced morphological changes in Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latreille, 1806 (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs: An ultra-structural evaluation of the cuticle formation and digestive processes. Acta Trop 2014; 133:45-55. [PMID: 24508101 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Rhipicephalus sanguineus is a species of tick which is widely distributed in America, Africa and Australia and is probably the most prevalent among all the other ixodid tick species. The present study demonstrated the effects of the arthropod growth regulator fluazuron (Acatak(®)), in the formation of the integument and the digestive processes of R. sanguineus nymphs fed on rabbits treated with different doses of this chemical acaricide. For this, three different doses of fluazuron (20mg/kg, 40mg/kg and 80mg/kg) were applied "pour on" to the hosts divided into three different treated-groups (II, III, IV) of three animals each. A fourth group (I) of rabbits (n=3) was given distilled water as control. On the first day after treatment (24h), the hosts were artificially infested with R. sanguineus nymphs. After full engorgement (7 days), the nymphs were removed and placed on labeled Petri dishes and kept in BOD incubator for 7 days. The engorged nymphs were then taken to ultra-structural analysis. Results revealed the following main ultra-structural changes in the nymphs integument and midgut of the different treated groups (II, III, IV): cuticle disorganization and the absence of subdivisions, damages in the integument epithelial cells, size of digestive cells, amount of endosomes, autophagic and digestive vacuoles, accumulated digestive residues, lipid droplets and organelles found in the digestive cells' cytoplasm, as well as the presence of microvilli in their plasma membranes. It is concluded that fluazuron may act on the integument and midgut cells of R. sanguineus engorged nymphs by impairing the synthesis of the new cuticle and the digestive processes (absorption of the blood ingested from the host, digestion - hemolysis, formation of digestive residues and release of nutrients to be converted into lipid, as well as for the synthesis of structural protein), which interfere in the development of nymphs, being able to prevent the emergence of adults after periodical ecdysis. These data indicate the possibility to use this arthropod growth regulator (AGR) in the control of R. sanguineus, at least in the nymphal stage of its biological cycle.
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Poole NM, Mamidanna G, Smith RA, Coons LB, Cole JA. Prostaglandin E(2) in tick saliva regulates macrophage cell migration and cytokine profile. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:261. [PMID: 24025197 PMCID: PMC3846740 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites that suppress the host’s immune and inflammatory responses by secreting immuno-modulatory and anti-inflammatory molecules in their saliva. In previous studies we have shown that tick salivary gland extract (SGE) and saliva from Dermacentor variabilis have distinct effects on platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-stimulated IC-21 macrophage and NIH3T3-L1 fibroblast migration. Since tick saliva contains a high concentration of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a potent modulator of inflammation, we used a PGE2 receptor antagonist to evaluate the role of PGE2 in the different migratory responses induced by saliva and its impact on macrophage cytokine profile. Methods Adult ticks were fed on female New Zealand white rabbits for 5-8 days. Female ticks were stimulated with dopamine/theophylline to induce salivation and saliva was pooled. Competitive enzyme immunoassays (EIA) were used to measure saliva PGE2 content and the changes in macrophage intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. The effects of tick saliva on macrophage and fibroblast migration were assessed in the absence and presence of the PGE2 receptor antagonist, AH 6809, using blind well chamber assays. A cytokine antibody array was used to examine the effects of tick saliva on macrophage cytokine secretion. Statistical significance was determined by one-way ANOVA; Student Newman-Kuels post-test was used for multiple comparisons. Results The saliva-induced increase in PDGF-stimulated macrophage migration was reversed by AH 6809. The inhibition of PDGF-stimulated fibroblast migration by saliva was also antagonist-sensitive. Tick saliva induced macrophages to secrete copious amounts of PGE2, and conditioned medium from these cells caused an AH 6809-sensitive inhibition of stimulated fibroblast migration, showing that macrophages can regulate fibroblast activity. We show that tick saliva decreased the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines regulated and normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES/CCL5), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and soluble TNF receptor I (sTNFRI) through a PGE2-dependent mechanism mediated by cAMP. Saliva had similar effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated macrophages. Conclusions Our data show that ticks utilize salivary PGE2 to subvert the ability of macrophages to secrete pro-inflammatory mediators and recruit fibroblasts to the feeding lesion, therefore inhibiting wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina M Poole
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Memphis, 239 Ellington Hall, 3700 Walker Avenue, Memphis TN, 38152, USA.
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Calligaris IB, De Oliveira PR, Roma GC, Bechara GH, Camargo-Mathias MI. Action of the insect growth regulator fluazuron, the active ingredient of the acaricide Acatak®, inRhipicephalus sanguineusnymphs (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae). Microsc Res Tech 2013; 76:1177-85. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gislaine Cristina Roma
- UNESP São Paulo State University; 1515 CEP 13506-900 Bela Vista-RioClaro; São Paulo; Brazil
| | - Gervásio Henrique Bechara
- UNESP São Paulo State University; Via de acesso Prof. Paulo Castellane, s/n, 14884-900-Jaboticabal; São Paulo; Brazil
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Novel immunomodulators from hard ticks selectively reprogramme human dendritic cell responses. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003450. [PMID: 23825947 PMCID: PMC3695081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Hard ticks subvert the immune responses of their vertebrate hosts in order to feed for much longer periods than other blood-feeding ectoparasites; this may be one reason why they transmit perhaps the greatest diversity of pathogens of any arthropod vector. Tick-induced immunomodulation is mediated by salivary components, some of which neutralise elements of innate immunity or inhibit the development of adaptive immunity. As dendritic cells (DC) trigger and help to regulate adaptive immunity, they are an ideal target for immunomodulation. However, previously described immunoactive components of tick saliva are either highly promiscuous in their cellular and molecular targets or have limited effects on DC. Here we address the question of whether the largest and globally most important group of ticks (the ixodid metastriates) produce salivary molecules that specifically modulate DC activity. We used chromatography to isolate a salivary gland protein (Japanin) from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks. Japanin was cloned, and recombinant protein was produced in a baculoviral expression system. We found that Japanin specifically reprogrammes DC responses to a wide variety of stimuli in vitro, radically altering their expression of co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory transmembrane molecules (measured by flow cytometry) and their secretion of pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and T cell polarising cytokines (assessed by Luminex multiplex assays); it also inhibits the differentiation of DC from monocytes. Sequence alignments and enzymatic deglycosylation revealed Japanin to be a 17.7 kDa, N-glycosylated lipocalin. Using molecular cloning and database searches, we have identified a group of homologous proteins in R. appendiculatus and related species, three of which we have expressed and shown to possess DC-modulatory activity. All data were obtained using DC generated from at least four human blood donors, with rigorous statistical analysis. Our results suggest a previously unknown mechanism for parasite-induced subversion of adaptive immunity, one which may also facilitate pathogen transmission. Dendritic cells (DC) are specialised cells of the vertebrate immune system. DC can sense different types of infectious agents and parasites, and both trigger and help regulate the specific types of immunity needed to eliminate them. We have discovered that the largest and globally most important group of hard ticks produce a unique family of proteins in their saliva that selectively targets DC, radically altering functions that would otherwise induce robust immune responses; these proteins also prevent DC developing from precursor cells. The production of these salivary molecules may help to explain two highly unusual features of these hard ticks compared with other blood-feeding parasites: their ability to feed continuously on their vertebrate hosts for considerable lengths of time (7 days or more) without eliciting potentially damaging immune responses, and their capacity to transmit possibly the greatest variety of pathogens of any type of invertebrate.
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Lubinga JC, Tuppurainen ESM, Mahlare R, Coetzer JAW, Stoltsz WH, Venter EH. Evidence of transstadial and mechanical transmission of lumpy skin disease virus by Amblyomma hebraeum ticks. Transbound Emerg Dis 2013; 62:174-82. [PMID: 23702314 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically important disease caused by LSD virus (LSDV), a Capripoxvirus, characterized by fever and circumscribed skin lesions. It is suspected to be transmitted mechanically by biting flies. To assess the vector potential of Amblyomma hebraeum in transmission of LSDV, mechanical/intrastadial and transstadial modes of transmission of the virus by this tick species were investigated. Two cattle were artificially infected as sources (donors) of infection to ticks. Ticks were infected as either nymphs or adults. Male A. hebraeum ticks were partially fed on donor animals and transferred to recipient animals to test for mechanical/intrastadial transmission. Nymphal A. hebraeum were fed to repletion on donor animals. The emergent adult ticks were placed on recipient animals to test for transstadial transmission of the virus. Successful transmission of LSDV infection was determined in recipient animals by monitoring development of clinical signs, testing of blood for the presence of LSDV by real-time PCR, virus isolation and the serum neutralization test. This report provides further evidence of mechanical/intrastadial and, for the first time, transstadial transmission of LSDV by A. hebraeum. These findings implicate A. hebraeum as a possible maintenance host in the epidemiology of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Lubinga
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Veterinary and Tsetse Control Services, Provincial Veterinary Office, Kasama, Zambia
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Roma GC, Mathias MIC, De Faria AU, De Oliveira PR, Furquim KCS, Bechara GH. Morphological and cytochemical changes in synganglion ofRhipicephalus sanguineus(Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae) female ticks from exposure of andiroba oil (Carapa guianensis). Microsc Res Tech 2013; 76:687-96. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gislaine Cristina Roma
- Departamento de Biologia; Instituto de Biociências, UNESP-Universidade Estadual Paulista; São Paulo; Brazil
| | | | - Adriano Uemura De Faria
- Departamento de Biologia; Instituto de Biociências, UNESP-Universidade Estadual Paulista; São Paulo; Brazil
| | - Patrícia Rosa De Oliveira
- Departamento de Biologia; Instituto de Biociências, UNESP-Universidade Estadual Paulista; São Paulo; Brazil
| | | | - Gervásio Henrique Bechara
- Departamento de Biologia; Instituto de Biociências, UNESP-Universidade Estadual Paulista; São Paulo; Brazil
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Heinze DM, Carmical JR, Aronson JF, Thangamani S. Early immunologic events at the tick-host interface. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47301. [PMID: 23077588 PMCID: PMC3471850 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ixodes species ticks are competent vectors of tick-borne viruses including tick-borne encephalitis and Powassan encephalitis. Tick saliva has been shown to facilitate and enhance viral infection. This likely occurs by saliva-mediated modulation of host responses into patterns favorable for viral infection and dissemination. Because of the rapid kinetics of tick-borne viral transmission, this modulation must occur as early as tick attachment and initiation of feeding. In this study, cutaneous bite-site lesions were analyzed using Affymetrix mouse genome 430A 2.0 arrays and histopathology at 1, 3, 6, and 12 hours after uninfected Ixodes scapularis nymphal tick attachment. At 1 and 3 hrs after attachment, the gene expression profile is markedly different than at later time points. Upregulated gene ontology term clusters enriched at 1 and 3 hrs were related to post-translational modification. At 6 and 12 hrs, cytoskeletal rearrangements, DNA replication/cell division, inflammation, and chemotaxis were prominent clusters. At 6 and 12 hrs, extracellular matrix, signaling, and DNA binding clusters were downregulated. Histopathological analysis shows minimal inflammation at 1 and 3 hrs but an appreciable neutrophil infiltrate at 6 and 12 hrs. In addition, putative hyperemia, localized necrosis, and increased ECM deposition were identified. Putting the gene expression and histopathology analysis together suggests early tick feeding is characterized by modulation of host responses in resident cells that merges into a nascent, neutrophil-driven immune response by 12 hrs post-attachment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dar M. Heinze
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - J. Russ Carmical
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Judith F. Aronson
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
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Chen G, Severo MS, Sohail M, Sakhon OS, Wikel SK, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. Ixodes scapularis saliva mitigates inflammatory cytokine secretion during Anaplasma phagocytophilum stimulation of immune cells. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:229. [PMID: 23050849 PMCID: PMC3503595 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ixodes scapularis saliva enables the transmission of infectious agents to the mammalian host due to its immunomodulatory, anesthetic and anti-coagulant properties. However, how I. scapularis saliva influences host cytokine secretion in the presence of the obligate intracellular rickettsial pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum remains elusive. Methods Bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) were stimulated with pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and A. phagocytophilum. Cytokine secretion was measured in the presence and absence of I. scapularis saliva. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were also stimulated with Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α in the presence and absence of I. scapularis saliva and interleukin (IL)-8 was measured. Results I. scapularis saliva inhibits inflammatory cytokine secretion by macrophages during stimulation of Toll-like (TLR) and Nod-like receptor (NLR) signaling pathways. The effect of I. scapularis saliva on immune cells is not restricted to murine macrophages because decreasing levels of interleukin (IL)-8 were observed after TNF-α stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. I. scapularis saliva also mitigates pro-inflammatory cytokine response by murine macrophages during challenge with A. phagocytophilum. Conclusions These findings suggest that I. scapularis may inhibit inflammatory cytokine secretion during rickettsial transmission at the vector-host interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Chen
- Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Nodari EF, Roma GC, Furquim KCS, Bechara GH, Camargo-Mathias MI. Action of permethrin on Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae) semi-engorged females: morpho-physiological evaluation of salivary glands. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2012; 3:219-26. [PMID: 22749738 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Currently the most effective method of tick control is the use of acaricides, among which stands out permethrin (active ingredient of acaricide Advantage(®) Max3, Bayer), a neurotoxic pyrethroid. However, assessments of their effects on other tick systems such as glandular are still scarce. Thus, this study provides information, through histochemical techniques, about the toxic effect of this pyrethroid on the morphophysiology of salivary glands of semi-engorged Rhipicephalus sanguineus females exposed to different concentrations of permethrin (206, 1031, and 2062 ppm). The results showed that permethrin caused significant changes in the salivary gland metabolism accelerating the process of glandular degeneration, an event which would occur naturally and with great intensity only in the final engorgement stage. Furthermore, this study pointed out that permethrin reduces the salivary gland secretion ability through a drastic reduction of proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides in acinar cells. These changes impair the females to finalize the feeding process, what indirectly affects the reproductive process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elen Fernanda Nodari
- Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, UNESP, Avenida 24 A, 1515, CP 199, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
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De Oliveira PR, Calligaris IB, Roma GC, Bechara GH, Mathias MIC. Morphological characterization of the nymphs rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae). Description of the testes, integument, malpighian tubules, and midgut on the detachment day. Microsc Res Tech 2011; 75:727-36. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.21118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Mastropaolo M, Nava S, Guglielmone AA, Mangold AJ. Developmental Changes in Salivary Glands of Nymphs and Adults of the Spinose Ear Tick Otobius megnini. J Parasitol 2011; 97:535-7. [DOI: 10.1645/ge-2616.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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36
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Roma GC, Furquim KCS, Bechara GH, Camargo Mathias MI. Cytotoxic effects of permethrin in oocytes of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae) fully engorged females: I. Direct or indirect action of the acaricide in germ cells? EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2011; 53:287-299. [PMID: 20960224 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-010-9401-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2010] [Accepted: 10/05/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Given the wide use of synthetic chemicals to control ticks, this study evaluated the effects of the permethrin pyrethroid on oocytes of Rhipicephalus sanguineus fully engorged females in order to examine whether this compound, in addition to the proven neurotoxic effect, also acts directly on germ cells. The results revealed that permethrin effectively inhibits and/or interrupts the reproductive process of R. sanguineus. Exposed oocytes exhibited prominent structural changes such as altered shape of cells and germ vesicle (oocyte nucleus), cytoplasmic vacuolation, and decrease of yolk granules. The composition of the latter, however, was not altered. These findings confirm those already reported by Roma et al. (Food Chem Toxicol 48:825-830, 2010) demonstrating that permethrin acts on germ cells of R. sanguineus via direct absorption from the hemolymph by pedicel cells, or by the oocyte plasmic membrane. On the other hand, these results contradict studies reporting that acaricides act exclusively on the nervous systems of ticks and that all the changes in other organs are a result from the indirect action of these chemical compounds, because blocking of the nervous system would compromise the normal metabolism of other organs (dependent on sensory information).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gislaine Cristina Roma
- Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, UNESP, Avenida 24 A, 1515, CP 199, Rio Claro, SP 13506-900, Brazil
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Nodari EF, Roma GC, Furquim KCS, Bechara GH, Mathias MIC. Cytotoxic effects of permethrin in salivary glands of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae) semi-engorged females. Exp Parasitol 2011; 128:151-8. [PMID: 21352824 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2011.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Revised: 01/25/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Because of the medical and veterinary importance of ticks and the wide use of synthetic chemical substances such as permethrin (active ingredient of Advantage® Max3 - Bayer)for their control, this study evaluated the effects of different concentrations (206, 1031 and 2062 ppm) of the acaricide on the salivary glands of Rhipicephalus sanguineus semi-engorged females. Results showed that permethrin is a potent substance that acts morpho-physiologically in the tick glandular tissue, causing changes in the acini shape intense vacuolation in acinar cells, and disruption of the tissue by cell death process, with subsequent formation of apoptotic bodies, especially at higher concentrations, thus precluding the accurate identification of different types of acini. Importantly, it is demonstrated that permethrin acts on salivary gland tissue, as well as affecting the nervous system, accelerating the process of glandular degeneration, and interfering with the engorgement process of female ticks, preventing them from completing the feeding process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elen Fernanda Nodari
- Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, UNESP, Avenida 24 A, 1515, 13506-900-Rio Claro, CP 199, SP, Brazil
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Sojka D, Francischetti IMB, Calvo E, Kotsyfakis M. Cysteine proteases from bloodfeeding arthropod ectoparasites. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2011; 712:177-91. [PMID: 21660665 PMCID: PMC3413451 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-8414-2_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine proteases have been discovered in various bloodfeeding ectoparasites. Here, we assemble the available information about the function of these peptidases and reveal their role in hematophagy and parasite development. While most of the data shed light on key proteolytic events that play a role in arthropod physiology, we also report on the association of cysteine proteases with arthropod vectorial capacity. With emphasis on ticks, specifically Ixodes ricinus, we finally propose a model about the contribution of cysteine peptidases to blood digestion and how their concerted action with other tick midgut proteases leads to the absorbance of nutrients by the midgut epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Michalis Kotsyfakis
- Corresponding Author: Michalis Kotsyfakis—Laboratory of Genomics and Proteomics of Disease Vectors, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Branisovska 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,
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Roma GC, Bechara GH, Camargo Mathias MI. Permethrin-induced ultrastructural changes in oocytes of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae) semi-engorged females. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2010; 1:113-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2010.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2009] [Revised: 05/03/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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40
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Ticks: Physiological aspects with implications for pathogen transmission. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2010; 1:11-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2009] [Revised: 11/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Blagburn BL, Dryden MW. Biology, Treatment, and Control of Flea and Tick Infestations. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2009; 39:1173-200, viii. [PMID: 19932369 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2009.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Byron L Blagburn
- Department of Pathobiology, 166 Greene Hall, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36849-5519, USA.
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Boppana VD, Thangamani S, Alarcon-Chaidez FJ, Adler AJ, Wikel SK. Blood feeding by the Rocky Mountain spotted fever vector, Dermacentor andersoni, induces interleukin-4 expression by cognate antigen responding CD4+ T cells. Parasit Vectors 2009; 2:47. [PMID: 19814808 PMCID: PMC2764639 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-2-47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick modulation of host defenses facilitates both blood feeding and pathogen transmission. Several tick species deviate host T cell responses toward a Th2 cytokine profile. The majority of studies of modulation of T cell cytokine expression by ticks were performed with lymphocytes from infested mice stimulated in vitro with polyclonal T cell activators. Those reports did not examine tick modulation of antigen specific responses. We report use of a transgenic T cell receptor (TCR) adoptive transfer model reactive with influenza hemagglutinin peptide (110-120) to examine CD4+ T cell intracellular cytokine responses during infestation with the metastriate tick, Dermacentor andersoni, or exposure to salivary gland extracts. Results Infestation with pathogen-free D. andersoni nymphs or administration of an intradermal injection of female or male tick salivary gland extract induced significant increases of IL-4 transcripts in skin and draining lymph nodes of BALB/c mice as measured by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Furthermore, IL-10 transcripts were significantly increased in skin while IL-2 and IFN-γ transcripts were not significantly changed by tick feeding or intradermal injection of salivary gland proteins, suggesting a superimposed Th2 response. Infestation induced TCR transgenic CD4+ T cells to divide more frequently as measured by CFSE dilution, but more notably these CD4+ T cells also gained the capacity to express IL-4. Intracellular levels of IL-4 were significantly increased. A second infestation administered 14 days after a primary exposure to ticks resulted in partially reduced CFSE dilution with no change in IL-4 expression when compared to one exposure to ticks. Intradermal inoculation of salivary gland extracts from both male and female ticks also induced IL-4 expression. Conclusion This is the first report of the influence of a metastriate tick on the cytokine profile of antigen specific CD4+ T cells. Blood feeding by D. andersoni pathogen-free nymphs or intradermal injection of salivary gland extracts programs influenza hemagglutinin influenza peptide specific TCR transgenic CD4+ T cells to express IL-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkata D Boppana
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases and Center for Tropical Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, 77555, USA.
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Blaudow RA, Coons LB, Cole JA. Cyclic nucleotide crosstalk in salivary glands from partially fed Dermacentor variabilis (Say). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 55:805-812. [PMID: 19520084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2009.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2008] [Revised: 05/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Enzyme immunosorbent assays were used to measure cyclic nucleotide concentrations in homogenates of salivary glands from partially fed female Dermacentor variabilis. The adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin (100 microM) increased homogenate cGMP concentrations greater than three-fold over controls. Competitive inhibition of nitric oxide synthase with 1mM l-NMMA, an l-arginine analog, demonstrated that crosstalk occurs downstream of nitric oxide synthesis. Forskolin-stimulated synthesis of cGMP was diminished 58% by the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ (2 microM). The protein kinase A selective inhibitor Rp-cAMPS (50 microM) inhibited forskolin-stimulated cGMP by 49%. Whole glands treated with 10 microM dopamine increased cGMP levels two-fold in the presence of 1mM IBMX. Treatment of whole salivary glands with equimolar concentrations of 8-Br-cAMP and 8-Br-cGMP produced no greater fluid uptake than in glands treated with 8-Br-cGMP alone, suggesting that cAMP and cGMP share a downstream target. The protein kinase G-selective inhibitor Rp-8-pCPT-cGMPS (100 microM) impeded 10mM 8-Bromo-cGMP-stimulated gland weight increases. Pretreatment with verapamil, a Ca(2+) channel blocker, attenuated cyclic nucleotide-stimulated fluid uptake indicating that whole gland fluid changes are dependent on extracellular Ca(2+). Together, our data suggest that cGMP production is mediated in part by cAMP-dependent activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase. Experiments measuring changes in whole salivary gland weight support the hypothesis that cAMP and cGMP signaling cascades have a common target and that cyclic nucleotide-stimulated fluid movement is dependent on Ca(2+) influx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Blaudow
- Department of Biology, The University of Memphis, Life Sciences Building, Memphis, TN 38152, USA.
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Alarcon-Chaidez FJ, Boppana VD, Hagymasi AT, Adler AJ, Wikel SK. A novel sphingomyelinase-like enzyme in Ixodes scapularis tick saliva drives host CD4 T cells to express IL-4. Parasite Immunol 2009; 31:210-9. [PMID: 19292772 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01095.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Tick feeding modulates host immune responses. Tick-induced skewing of host CD4(+) T cells towards a Th2 cytokine profile facilitates transmission of tick-borne pathogens that would otherwise be neutralized by Th1 cytokines. Tick-derived factors that drive this Th2 response have not previously been characterized. In the current study, we examined an I. scapularis cDNA library prepared at 18-24 h of feeding and identified and expressed a tick gene with homology to Loxosceles spider venom proteins with sphingomyelinase activity. This I. scapularis sphingomyelinase-like (IsSMase) protein is a Mg(2+)-dependent, neutral (pH 7.4) form of sphingomyelinase. Significantly, in an in vivo TCR transgenic adoptive transfer assay IsSMase programmed host CD4(+) T cells to express the hallmark Th2 effector cytokine IL-4. IsSMase appears to directly programme host CD4 T cell IL-4 expression (as opposed to its metabolic by-products) because induced IL-4 expression was not altered when enzymatic activity was neutralized. TCR transgenic CD4 T cell proliferation (CFSE-dilution) was also significantly increased by IsSMase. Furthermore, a Th2 response is superimposed onto a virally primed Th1 response by IsSMase. Thus, IsSMase is the first identified tick molecule capable of programming host CD4(+) T cells to express IL-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Alarcon-Chaidez
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, 06030 USA
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Ball A, Campbell EM, Jacob J, Hoppler S, Bowman AS. Identification, functional characterization and expression patterns of a water-specific aquaporin in the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:105-112. [PMID: 19000768 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2008.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2008] [Revised: 10/13/2008] [Accepted: 10/13/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Much is known about the physiology of tick salivation, but nothing is known about the movement of water through the cell membranes of salivary glands, a phenomenon usually associated with water channels or aquaporins (AQPs). An AQP, RsAQP1, was identified in a salivary gland cDNA library of Rhipicephalus sanguineus. In the first functional characterization of an acarine AQP, Xenopus oocytes expressing RsAQP1 became water permeable, whereas RsAQP1 did not transport glycerol or urea. RsAQP1 was inhibited by Hg(2+) but not by triethylammonium. Treatment with a protein kinase A activator (cAMP) had no effect on RsAQP1 transport, whereas treatment with a protein kinase C activator (phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate) reduced water flux by 60%. RsAQP1 transcript was present in unfed larvae, nymphs and adult R. sanguineus, but absent in embryos. Partially fed female R. sanguineus expressed RsAQP1 in gut, Malpighian tubules and was particularly abundant in salivary gland tissue, but absent in ovary and synganglion tissues. Because of the importance of water management in tick biology for both the off-host and on-host phases of the life cycle, our findings on tick AQP1 represent a major advancement in our understanding of tick osmoregulation that could potentially be exploited in tick control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Ball
- School of Biological Sciences (Zoology), University of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
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Juncadella IJ, Anguita J. The immunosuppresive tick salivary protein, Salp15. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 666:121-31. [PMID: 20054980 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1601-3_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between Ixodid ticks and their mammalian hosts is a complex relationship. While the mammalian host tries to avoid the completion of the feeding process, the tick has devised strategies to counteract these attempts. Tick saliva contains a vast array of pharmacological activities that presumably aid the tick to evade host responses, including anticomplement, oxidative and innate and adaptive immune responses. The characterization of these activities has gained momentum in the last several years. One of the best studied activities present in tick saliva corresponds to the antigen known as Salp15, which binds specifically to the T-cell coreceptor CD4 resulting in the specific repression of CD4+ T-cell activation. We discuss here the current state of our knowledge of the mode of action of this salivary protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio J Juncadella
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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Sojka D, Hajdušek O, Dvořák J, Sajid M, Franta Z, Schneider EL, Craik CS, Vancová M, Burešová V, Bogyo M, Sexton KB, McKerrow JH, Caffrey CR, Kopáček P. IrAE: an asparaginyl endopeptidase (legumain) in the gut of the hard tick Ixodes ricinus. Int J Parasitol 2007; 37:713-24. [PMID: 17336985 PMCID: PMC2587490 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2006] [Revised: 12/11/2006] [Accepted: 12/12/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are ectoparasitic blood-feeders and important vectors for pathogens including arboviruses, rickettsiae, spirochetes and protozoa. As obligate blood-feeders, one possible strategy to retard disease transmission is disruption of the parasite's ability to digest host proteins. However, the constituent peptidases in the parasite gut and their potential interplay in the digestion of the blood meal are poorly understood. We have characterised a novel asparaginyl endopeptidase (legumain) from the hard tick Ixodes ricinus (termed IrAE), which we believe is the first such characterisation of a clan CD family C13 cysteine peptidase (protease) in arthropods. By RT-PCR of different tissues, IrAE mRNA was only expressed in the tick gut. Indirect immunofluorescence and EM localised IrAE in the digestive vesicles of gut cells and within the peritrophic matrix. IrAE was functionally expressed in Pichia pastoris and reacted with a specific peptidyl fluorogenic substrate, and acyloxymethyl ketone and aza-asparagine Michael acceptor inhibitors. IrAE activity was unstable at pH > or = 6.0 and was shown to have a strict specificity for asparagine at P1 using a positional scanning synthetic combinatorial library. The enzyme hydrolyzed protein substrates with a pH optimum of 4.5, consistent with the pH of gut cell digestive vesicles. Thus, IrAE cleaved the major protein of the blood meal, hemoglobin, to a predominant peptide of 4kDa. Also, IrAE trans-processed and activated the zymogen form of Schistosoma mansoni cathepsin B1 -- an enzyme contributing to hemoglobin digestion in the gut of that bloodfluke. The possible functions of IrAE in the gut digestive processes of I. ricinus are compared with those suggested for other hematophagous parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sojka
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Hajdušek
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
| | - Jan Dvořák
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Mohammed Sajid
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Zdeněk Franta
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
| | - Eric L. Schneider
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94720, USA
| | - Charles S. Craik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94720, USA
| | - Marie Vancová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Burešová
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kelly B. Sexton
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - James H. McKerrow
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Conor R. Caffrey
- Sandler Center for Basic Research in Parasitic Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Petr Kopáček
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, CZ-370 05, The Czech Republic
- Correspondence to: P. Kopáček, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre ASCR, Branišovská 31, CZ-370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic. E-mail:
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Abstract
Ticks are of vast medical and veterinary public health importance due to direct damage caused by feeding and their roles in transmitting well known and emerging infectious agents. Ticks and tick-borne pathogens stimulate the immune system of the host. Those immune interactions are of importance in tick biology, pathogen transmission and control of ticks and tick-borne diseases. Both innate and specific acquired immune defenses are involved in the responses of vertebrate hosts to infestation. Ticks have evolved countermeasures to circumvent host immune defenses. This review addresses the immunobiology of the tick-host interface from the perspectives of the pharmacology of tick saliva; relationship of tick saliva to pathogen transmission; host immune responses to infestation; tick modulation of host immune defences; and genomic/proteomic strategies for studying tick salivary gland molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Brossard
- Institute of Zoology, University of Neuchatel, Emile-Argand 11, CH-2007, Neuchatel, Switzerland
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Kaufman WR, Minion JL. Pharmacological characterization of the ergot alkaloid receptor in the salivary gland of the ixodid tickAmblyomma hebraeum. J Exp Biol 2006; 209:2525-34. [PMID: 16788036 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARYFemale ticks of the family Ixodidae osmoregulate by secreting the excess fluid of the blood meal back into the host's circulation via the salivary glands. At least three receptors control salivary fluid secretion in the tick Amblyomma hebraeum: (1) dopamine (DA) stimulates fluid secretion via a DA receptor, (2) ergot alkaloids (ErAs) stimulate fluid secretion via an ErA-sensitive receptor (the natural ligand of which has not been identified), and (3) a GABA receptor potentiates the action of DA and ErAs. Here we present some pharmacological properties of the ErA-sensitive receptor. Of the 11 ErAs we tested, (i) four were complete agonists (approximate concentration eliciting 50% maximum response is given in parentheses): dihydroergotamine (0.02 μmol l–1),ergonovine (ErN; 0.06 μmol l–1), methylergonovine (0.1μmol l–1) and α-ergocriptine (0.9 μmol l–1); (ii) three were `incomplete agonists' (approximate concentration eliciting 20% maximum response is given in parentheses):ergocorninine (3.5 μmol l–1), ergocristinine (7.5 μmol l–1) and ergocristine (10 μmol l–1); (C)three were partial agonists (approximate concentration eliciting the respective maximum response in parentheses): ergocornine (50% maximum by 1μmol l–1), methysergide (28% maximum by 10 μmol l–1) and bromocriptine (22% maximum by 10 μmol l–1); and (D) one had no activity up to 1 mmol l–1: ergothioneine. Bromocriptine and methysergide did not antagonize the action of DA, but were effective competitive antagonists of ErN, with Kis of ∼0.3 μmol l–1 and 11 μmol l–1, respectively. Ergothioneine was not an antagonist at either the DA- or ErA-sensitive receptor. The putative protein kinase C activators, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DiC8), neither stimulated salivary fluid secretion nor potentiated the action of DA or ErN. The putative protein kinase C inhibitors, bisindolymaleimide (BIM) and calphostin C did not inhibit the action of DA or ErN, although low concentrations of calphostin C(10 nmol l–1) appeared to potentiate the action of DA but not ErN. The ion transport inhibitors, furosemide and amiloride (both up to 1 mmol l–1), had no significant effect on DA-stimulated or ErN-stimulated fluid secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Reuben Kaufman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada.
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Ribeiro JMC, Alarcon-Chaidez F, Francischetti IMB, Mans BJ, Mather TN, Valenzuela JG, Wikel SK. An annotated catalog of salivary gland transcripts from Ixodes scapularis ticks. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 36:111-29. [PMID: 16431279 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2005] [Revised: 11/04/2005] [Accepted: 11/04/2005] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Over 8000 expressed sequence tags from six different salivary gland cDNA libraries from the tick Ixodes scapularis were analyzed. These libraries derive from feeding nymphs infected or not with the Lyme disease agent, Borrelia burgdorferi, from unfed adults, and from adults feeding on a rabbit for 6-12 h, 18-24 h, and 3-4 days. Comparisons of the several libraries led to identification of several significantly differentially expressed transcripts. Additionally, over 500 new predicted protein sequences are described, including several novel gene families unique to ticks; no function can be presently ascribed to most of these novel families. Among the housekeeping-associated transcripts, we highlight those enzymes associated with post translation modification of amino acids, particularly those forming sulfotyrosine, hydroxyproline, and carboxyl-glutamic acid. Results support the hypothesis that gene duplication, most possibly including genome duplications, is a major player in tick evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M C Ribeiro
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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