1
|
Aluminum in vaccines: Does it create a safety problem? Vaccine 2018; 36:5825-5831. [PMID: 30139653 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
For almost a century, aluminum (Al) in the form of Al oxyhydroxide (a crystalline compound), Al hydroxyphosphate (an amorphous Al phosphate hydroxide), Al phosphate, and Al potassium sulfate has been used to improve the immunogenicity of vaccines. Al is currently included in vaccines against tetanus, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus, Haemophilus influenzae type b, and infections due to Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis. Official health authorities consider the inclusion of Al in most of the presently recommended vaccines to be extremely effective and sufficiently safe. However, the inclusion of Al salts in vaccines has been debated for several years because of studies that seem to indicate that chronic Al exposure through vaccine administration can interfere with cellular and metabolic processes leading to severe neurologic diseases. Children, who in their first years of life receive several vaccine doses over a reduced period of time, would be most susceptible to any risk that might be associated with vaccines or vaccine components. The main aim of this paper was to discuss the data presently available regarding Al neurotoxicity and the risk for children receiving vaccines or other pharmaceutical preparations containing Al. Analysis of the literature showed that no apparent reason exists to support the elimination of Al from vaccines for fear of neurotoxicity. The only problem that deserves attention is the suggested relationship between Al oxyhydroxide-containing vaccines and macrophagic myofaciitis or myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. Currently, definitive conclusions cannot be drawn on these risks and further studies must be conducted. Until then, Al remains the best solution to improve vaccine efficacy.
Collapse
|
2
|
Becker LC, Boyer I, Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Hill RA, Klaassen CD, Liebler DC, Marks JG, Shank RC, Slaga TJ, Snyder PW, Andersen FA. Safety Assessment of Alumina and Aluminum Hydroxide as Used in Cosmetics. Int J Toxicol 2018; 35:16S-33S. [PMID: 27913785 DOI: 10.1177/1091581816677948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This is a safety assessment of alumina and aluminum hydroxide as used in cosmetics. Alumina functions as an abrasive, absorbent, anticaking agent, bulking agent, and opacifying agent. Aluminum hydroxide functions as a buffering agent, corrosion inhibitor, and pH adjuster. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated the safe use of alumina in several medical devices and aluminum hydroxide in over-the-counter drugs, which included a review of human and animal safety data. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel considered the FDA evaluations as part of the basis for determining the safety of these ingredients as used in cosmetics. Alumina used in cosmetics is essentially the same as that used in medical devices. This safety assessment does not include metallic or elemental aluminum as a cosmetic ingredient. The CIR Expert Panel concluded that alumina and aluminum hydroxide are safe in the present practices of use and concentration described in this safety assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lillian C Becker
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Scientific Analyst/Writer, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ivan Boyer
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Toxicologist, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Wilma F Bergfeld
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Donald V Belsito
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ronald A Hill
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Daniel C Liebler
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - James G Marks
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ronald C Shank
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Thomas J Slaga
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Paul W Snyder
- Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Member, Washington, DC, USA
| | - F Alan Andersen
- Former Director, Cosmetic Ingredient Review, Washington, DC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Morris G, Puri BK, Frye RE. The putative role of environmental aluminium in the development of chronic neuropathology in adults and children. How strong is the evidence and what could be the mechanisms involved? Metab Brain Dis 2017; 32:1335-1355. [PMID: 28752219 PMCID: PMC5596046 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-0077-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The conceptualisation of autistic spectrum disorder and Alzheimer's disease has undergone something of a paradigm shift in recent years and rather than being viewed as single illnesses with a unitary pathogenesis and pathophysiology they are increasingly considered to be heterogeneous syndromes with a complex multifactorial aetiopathogenesis, involving a highly complex and diverse combination of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors. One such environmental factor implicated as a potential cause in both syndromes is aluminium, as an element or as part of a salt, received, for example, in oral form or as an adjuvant. Such administration has the potential to induce pathology via several routes such as provoking dysfunction and/or activation of glial cells which play an indispensable role in the regulation of central nervous system homeostasis and neurodevelopment. Other routes include the generation of oxidative stress, depletion of reduced glutathione, direct and indirect reductions in mitochondrial performance and integrity, and increasing the production of proinflammatory cytokines in both the brain and peripherally. The mechanisms whereby environmental aluminium could contribute to the development of the highly specific pattern of neuropathology seen in Alzheimer's disease are described. Also detailed are several mechanisms whereby significant quantities of aluminium introduced via immunisation could produce chronic neuropathology in genetically susceptible children. Accordingly, it is recommended that the use of aluminium salts in immunisations should be discontinued and that adults should take steps to minimise their exposure to environmental aluminium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Tir Na Nog, Bryn Road seaside 87, Llanelli, Wales, SA15 2LW, UK
| | - Basant K Puri
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, England, W12 0HS, UK.
| | - Richard E Frye
- College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Arkansas Children's Hospital Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, 72202, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mineral Adjuvants∗∗The present chapter is an updated version of the chapter “Mineral Adjuvants,” published in Immunopotentiators in Modern Vaccines, p. 217–233. Ed. Virgil Schijns & Derek O'Hagan, Elsevier Science Publishers (2005). IMMUNOPOTENTIATORS IN MODERN VACCINES 2017. [PMCID: PMC7149584 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-804019-5.00018-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mineral adjuvants comprise aluminum hydroxide and phosphate adjuvants as well as calcium phosphate adjuvants. In particular, the aluminum salts have achieved an undisputed status as the most commonly used adjuvants in human and veterinary vaccines. Calcium phosphate adjuvant, later discovered by Edgar Relyveld, constitutes a very interesting alternative and has also been applied both in human and veterinary vaccines. New analytical tools applied in adjuvant research are about to take us to the next level of understanding mineral adjuvants. These tools have been used to characterize mineral adjuvants, but so far, in particular, aluminum-based adjuvants in terms of surface marker expression profiles, isotypic profiles, and cytokine profiles. In the past 10 years, the discovery of adjuvant-mediated induction of the NALP3 inflammasome and its impact on the secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 as proinflammatory mediators in the early phases of immune response has been described as an important mechanism for the function of these adjuvants.
Collapse
|
5
|
Maughan CN, Preston SG, Williams GR. Particulate inorganic adjuvants: recent developments and future outlook. J Pharm Pharmacol 2014; 67:426-49. [DOI: 10.1111/jphp.12352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
To review the state of the art and assess future potential in the use of inorganic particulates as vaccine adjuvants.
Key findings
An adjuvant is an entity added to a vaccine formulation to ensure that robust immunity to the antigen is inculcated. The inclusion of an adjuvant is typically vital for the efficacy of vaccines using inactivated organisms, subunit and DNA antigens. With increasing research efforts being focused on subunit and DNA antigens because of their improved safety profiles, the development of appropriate adjuvants is becoming ever more crucial. Despite this, very few adjuvants are licensed for use in humans (four by the FDA, five by the European Medicines Agency). The most widely used adjuvant, alum, has been used for nearly 90 years, yet its mechanism of action remains poorly understood. In addition, while alum produces a powerful antibody Th2 response, it does not provoke the cellular immune response required for the elimination of intracellular infections or cancers. New adjuvants are therefore needed, and inorganic systems have attracted much attention in this regard.
Summary
In this review, the inorganic adjuvants currently in use are considered, and the efforts made to date to understand their mechanisms of action are summarised. We then move on to survey the literature on inorganic particulate adjuvants, focusing on the most interesting recent developments in this area and their future potential.
Collapse
|
6
|
Liu X, Wu FY, Ma LH. Colorimetric Assay for Al3+ Based on Alizarin Red S-functionalized Silver Nanoparticles. Aust J Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1071/ch14039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Aluminium is absorbed by the intestines and is rapidly transported into bone, where it disrupts mineralization and bone cell growth and activity. Because aluminium is sequestered in bone for long periods, its toxic effects are cumulative. Even intermittent or low-dose use of aluminium-based materials (food, juice, drinking water containers) adds to the total load in bone. Development of fast and inexpensive sensors for aluminium, therefore, is still of great interest. We report here a simple, low-cost yet very sensitive and selective colorimetric assay for rapid (2-min) detection of Al3+ in water with a 0.12-μM detection limit based on Alizarin Red S-functionalized silver nanoparticles.
Collapse
|
7
|
Affiliation(s)
- Kasper P Kepp
- DTU Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, DK 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang M, Liu YQ, Ye BC. Mononucleotide-modified metal nanoparticles: an efficient colorimetric probe for selective and sensitive detection of aluminum(III) on living cellular surfaces. Chemistry 2012; 18:2507-13. [PMID: 22298346 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201102529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Revised: 11/09/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- Lab of Biosystems and Microanalysis, State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science & Technology, Meilong Road 130, Shanghai 200237, PR China
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abbaspour A, Refahi M, Khalafi-nezhad A, Soltani Rad M, Behrouz S. A selective and sensitive carbon composite coated platinum electrode for aluminium determination in pharmaceutical and mineral water samples. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 662:76-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
|
11
|
Inclusion Body Myositis: A View from the Caenorhabditis elegans Muscle. Mol Neurobiol 2008; 38:178-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-008-8041-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2008] [Accepted: 08/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
12
|
Zatta PF, Nicolini M, Corain B. Aluminium(III) in experimental cell pathology. CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 2007; 169:186-97; discussion 197-200. [PMID: 1490422 DOI: 10.1002/9780470514306.ch11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Controversy over the relevance of aluminium to certain human encephalopathies has emphasized the importance of in vivo and in vitro models as tools for shedding light on the biological and molecular aspects of the aluminium toxicity. The search for an experimental model in animals or in cultured cells able to reproduce specific pathological human conditions may prove to be an unattainable aim; nevertheless, in vivo and in vitro models should be actively sought and the pathological changes induced in experimental animals should always be evaluated at the cellular level, just as for changes produced directly in cultured cells. These toxicological aspects are outlined with particular emphasis on the role played by the molecular form of aluminium (metal speciation) in determining the quality and intensity of the metal's biological effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P F Zatta
- Centro CNR per lo Studio della Biochimica e della Fisiologia delle Emocianine ed altre Metalloproteine, Università di Padova, Italy
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Edwardson JA, Candy JM, Ince PG, McArthur FK, Morris CM, Oakley AE, Taylor GA, Bjertness E. Aluminium accumulation, beta-amyloid deposition and neurofibrillary changes in the central nervous system. CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 2007; 169:165-79; discussion 179-85. [PMID: 1490421 DOI: 10.1002/9780470514306.ch10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Deposition of beta-amyloid and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) are central to the aetiopathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The possible effects of aluminium on these processes have been investigated in patients with renal failure who are exposed chronically to high blood levels of aluminium. Focal accumulation of aluminium was observed in neurons with high densities of transferrin receptors, indicating transferrin-mediated uptake, in regions such as cortex and hippocampus which are selectively vulnerable in AD. Increased staining for the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) in cortical pyramidal neurons was evident in the majority of renal patients and immature senile plaques were present in 30% of cases, suggesting that aluminium may induce or accelerate beta-amyloid deposition. The absence of neurofibrillary changes in this group of renal patients indicates that aluminium does not directly cause the formation of NFTs. The brain aluminium content was not raised in neuropathologically assessed cases of AD and we have been unable to confirm claims of defective transferrin binding in this disorder. If aluminium contributes to the development of sporadic AD, it must do so indirectly, perhaps via effects on the synthesis or metabolism of APP, or by contributing generally to the age-related attrition of neurons and thus reducing the threshold for deficits produced by more specific disease-related processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J A Edwardson
- MRC Neurochemical Pathology Unit, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Krewski D, Yokel RA, Nieboer E, Borchelt D, Cohen J, Harry J, Kacew S, Lindsay J, Mahfouz AM, Rondeau V. Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2007; 10 Suppl 1:1-269. [PMID: 18085482 PMCID: PMC2782734 DOI: 10.1080/10937400701597766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 509] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Krewski
- Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Shamasundar NM, Sathyanarayana Rao TS, Dhanunjaya Naidu M, Ravid R, Rao KSJ. A new insight on Al-maltolate-treated aged rabbit as Alzheimer's animal model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 52:275-92. [PMID: 16782202 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2005] [Revised: 03/31/2006] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lack of an adequate animal model for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has limited an understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease and the development of therapeutic agents targeting key pathophysiological processes. There are undoubtedly few satisfactory animal models for exploring therapies targeting at amyloid beta (Abeta) secretion, deposition, aggregation, and probably the inflammatory response. However, an understanding of the complex events--tau, Abeta, oxidative stress, redox active iron, etc.--involved in the neuronal cell loss is still unclear due to the lack of a suitable animal model system. The use of neurotoxic agents particularly aluminum-organic complexes, especially Al-maltolate, expands the scope of AD research by providing new animal models exhibiting neurodegenerative processes relevant to AD neuropathology. Examination of different species of aged animals including the rapidly advancing transgenic mouse models revealed very limited AD-like pathology. Most other animal models have single event expression such as extracellular Abeta deposition, intraneuronal neurofilamentous aggregation of proteins akin to neurofibrillary tangles, oxidative stress or apoptosis. To date, there are no paradigms of any animal in which all the features of AD were evident. However, the intravenous injection of Al-maltolate into aged New zealand white rabbits results in conditions which mimics a number of neuropathological, biochemical and behavioral changes observed in AD. Such neurodegenerative effects include the formation of intraneuronal neurofilamentous aggregates that are tau positive, immunopositivity of Abeta, presence of redox active iron, oxidative stress and apoptosis, adds credence to the value of this animal model system. The use of this animal model should not be confused with the ongoing controversy regarding the possible role of Al in the neuropathogenesis, a debate which by no means has been concluded. Above all this animal model involving neuropathology induced by Al-maltolate provides a new information in understanding the mechanism of neurodegeneration.
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
For the purpose of analyzing and imaging chemical components of cells and tissues at the electron microscopic level, 3 fundamental methods are available, chemical, physical and biological. Among the physical methods, two methods qualifying and quantifying the elements in the structural components are very often employed. The first method is radioautography which can demonstrate the localization of radiolabeled compounds which were incorporated into cells and tissues after the administration of radiolabeled compounds. The second method is X-ray microanalysis which can qualitatively analyze and quantify the total amounts of elements present in cells and tissues. We have developed the two methodologies in combination with intermediate high or high voltage transmission electron microscopy (200-400 kV) and applied them to various kinds of organic and inorganic compounds present in biological materials. As for the first method, radioautography, I had already contributed a chapter to PHC (37/2). To the contrary, this review deals with another method, X-ray microanalysis, using semi-thin sections and intermediate high voltage electron microscopy developed in our laboratory. X-ray microanalysis is a useful method to qualify and quantify basic elements in biological specimens. We first quantified the end-products of histochemical reactions such as Ag in radioautographs, Ce in phosphatase reaction and Au in colloidal gold immunostaining using semithin sections and quantified the reaction products observing by intermediate high voltage transmission electron microscopy at accelerating voltages from 100 to 400 kV. The P/B ratios of all the end products Ag, Ce and Au increased with the increase of the accelerating voltages from 100 to 400 kV. Then we analyzed various trace elements such as Zn, Ca, S and Cl which originally existed in cytoplasmic matrix or cell organelles of various cells, or such elements as Al which was absorbed into cells and tissues after oral administration, using both conventional chemical fixation and cryo-fixation followed by cryo-sectioning and freeze-drying, or freeze-substitution and dry-sectioning, or freeze-drying and dry-sectioning producing semithin sections similarly to radioautography. As the results, some trace elements which originally existed in cytoplasmic matrix or cell organelles of various cells in different organs such as Zn, Ca, S and Cl, were effectively detected. Zn was demonstrated in Paneth cell granules of mouse intestines and its P/B ratios showed a peak at 300 kV. Ca was found in human ligaments and rat mast cells with a maximum of P/B ratios at 350 kV. S and Cl were detected in mouse colonic goblet cells with maxima of P/B ratios at 300 kV. On the other hand, some elements which were absorbed by experimental administration into various cells and tissues in various organs, such as Al in lysosomes of hepatocytes and uriniferous tubule cells in mice was detected with a maximum of P/B ratios at 300 kV. From the results, it was shown that X-ray microanalysis using semi-thin sections observed by intermediate high voltage transmission electron microscopy at 300-400 kV was very useful resulting in high P/B ratios for quantifying some trace elements in biological specimens. These methodologies should be utilized in microanalysis of various compounds and elements in various cells and tissues in various organs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuji Nagata
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gauthier E, Fortier I, Courchesne F, Pepin P, Mortimer J, Gauvreau D. Aluminum forms in drinking water and risk of Alzheimer's disease. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2000; 84:234-246. [PMID: 11097797 DOI: 10.1006/enrs.2000.4101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to assess the relation between long-term exposure to different aluminum (Al) forms in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The study participants were selected from a random sample of the elderly population (> or = 70 years of age) of the Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean region (Quebec). Sixty-eight cases of Alzheimer's disease diagnosed according to recognized criteria were paired for age (+/-2 years) and sex with nondemented controls. Aluminum speciation was assessed using established standard analytical protocols along with quality control procedures. Exposure to Al forms (total Al, total dissolved Al, monomeric organic Al, monomeric inorganic Al, polymeric Al, Al(3+), AlOH, AlF, AlH(3)SiO(2+)(4), AlSO(4)) in drinking water was estimated by juxtaposing the subject's residential history with the physicochemical data of the municipalities. The markers of long-term exposures (1945 to onset) to Al forms in drinking water were not significantly associated with AD. On the other hand, after adjustment for education level, presence of family cases, and ApoE varepsilon4 allele, exposure to organic monomeric aluminum estimated at the onset of the disease was associated with AD (odds ratio 2.67; 95% CI 1.04-6.90). On average, the exposure estimated at the onset had been stable for 44 years. Our results confirm prime the importance of estimation of Al speciation and consideration of genetic characteristics in the assessment of the association between aluminum exposure and Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Gauthier
- Département de Géographie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease (AD) have many features in common and, in many respects, both conditions only differ by quantitative criteria. A variety of genetic, medical and environmental factors modulate the ageing-related processes leading the brain into the devastation of AD. In accordance with the concept that AD is a metabolic disease, these risk factors deteriorate the homeostasis of the Ca(2+)-energy-redox triangle and disrupt the cerebral reserve capacity under metabolic stress. The major genetic risk factors (APP and presenilin mutations, Down's syndrome, apolipoprotein E4) are associated with a compromise of the homeostatic triangle. The pathophysiological processes leading to this vulnerability remain elusive at present, while mitochondrial mutations can be plausibly integrated into the metabolic scenario. The metabolic leitmotif is particularly evident with medical risk factors which are associated with an impaired cerebral perfusion, such as cerebrovascular diseases including stroke, cardiovascular diseases, hypo- and hypertension. Traumatic brain injury represents another example due to the persistent metabolic stress following the acute event. Thyroid diseases have detrimental sequela for cerebral metabolism as well. Furthermore, major depression and presumably chronic stress endanger susceptible brain areas mediated by a host of hormonal imbalances, particularly the HPA-axis dysregulation. Sociocultural and lifestyle factors like education, physical activity, diet and smoking may also modulate the individual risk affecting both reserve capacity and vulnerability. The pathophysiological relevance of trace metals, including aluminum and iron, is highly controversial; at any rate, they may adversely affect cellular defences, antioxidant competence in particular. The relative contribution of these factors, however, is as individual as the pattern of the factors. In familial AD, the genetic factors clearly drive the sequence of events. A strong interaction of fat metabolism and apoE polymorphism is suggested by intercultural epidemiological findings. In cultures, less plagued by the 'blessings' of the 'cafeteria diet-sedentary' Western lifestyle, apoE4 appears to be not a risk factor for AD. This intriguing evidence suggests that, analogous to cardiovascular diseases, apoE4 requires a hyperlipidaemic lifestyle to manifest as AD risk factor. Overall, the etiology of AD is a key paradigm for a gene-environment interaction. Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Heininger
- Department of Neurology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Tang S, Parsons PJ, Perl D. Longitudinal and lateral variations in the aluminum concentration of selected caprine, bovine, and human bone samples. Biol Trace Elem Res 1999; 68:267-79. [PMID: 10328341 DOI: 10.1007/bf02783908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Longitudinal and lateral variations in Al concentration in several large animal (bovine and caprine) long bones (tibia and femur) and several human clavicle bones were examined using a sensitive analytical method based on electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry with Zeeman background correction. Bone segments were carefully removed using special tools free of significant Al contamination, freeze-dried, and digested overnight at room temperature in concentrated HNO3. Bone digestates were analyzed for Al using simple aqueous calibration standards with a Ca(NO3)2 modifier. Mean bone Al concentrations were relatively low (<1 microg/g, dry weight) in bovine and caprine long bones compared to literature values for human bone samples. Longitudinal variations of Al in the animal bones examined appeared relatively uniform compared to the human clavicle bones, where, in three of five cases, Al appeared enriched at the epiphyses (joints). The Al "enrichment" was symmetrical with respect to both left and right clavicle bones. Aluminum concentrations at the mid-shaft of the clavicle bone show less variation compared to whole bone studies, but considerable scatter is evident along the bone length. The mean bone aluminum concentration in the five human subjects varied from 1 to 6 microg/g dry weight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Tang
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany 12201-0509, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Li W, Ma KK, Sun W, Paudel HK. Phosphorylation sensitizes microtubule-associated protein tau to Al(3+)-induced aggregation. Neurochem Res 1998; 23:1467-76. [PMID: 9821149 DOI: 10.1007/bf03181171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In Alzheimer's disease the microtubule-associated protein tau becomes hyperphosphorylated and aggregates into paired helical filaments (PHFs). Although the biochemical basis of the aggregation of tau into PHFs is not very clear, Al3+ has been suggested to play some role. Previous studies have shown that Al3+ alters the phosphorylation state and causes aggregation of tau in experimental animals and cultured neurons. In this study Al3+ inhibited phosphorylation of tau by neuronal cdc2-like kinase and dephosphorylation of phosphorylated tau by phosphatase 2B. These inhibitions are very likely due to Al(3+)-induced aggregations of various proteins present in phosphorylation/dephosphorylation assay mixtures since Al3+ caused aggregations of all proteins examined. Furthermore, compared to other proteins, tau displayed only an average sensitivity towards Al(3+)-induced aggregation. However upon phosphorylation, tau's sensitivity towards Al3+ increased 3.5 fold. In the presence of the metal chelator EDTA, Al(3+)-induced aggregates of tau became soluble, whereas Al(3+)-induced phosphorylated tau aggregates were insoluble in the buffer containing EDTA and remained insensitive to proteolysis. Our data suggest that phosphorylation sensitizes tau to Al3+ and phosphorylated tau transforms irreversibly into a phosphatase and protease resistant aggregate in presence of this metal ion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W Li
- Bloomfield Center for Research in Aging, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
There is concern that environmental and dietary aluminum (Al) might cause developmental toxicity. To better understand this concern, we reviewed published studies which administered Al compounds to pregnant animals and measured accumulation of Al in mother, fetus, or born offspring. A total of 7 studies were identified which administered Al during gestation and evaluated fetal accumulation. Another 7 studies administered Al at least until birth and then evaluated accumulation in mothers and/or pups. These 14 studies included 4 different Al compounds (hydroxide, chloride, lactate, and citrate) administered by 4 different routes (gavage, feed, intraperitoneal injection, and subcutaneous injection) with total doses ranging from 13.5 to 8,400 mg/kg. Fetal Al levels were not increased in 6 of 7 studies and pup Al levels were not increased in 4 of 5 studies in which they were measured. Maternal Al levels were increased in some studies, but there was no consistent pattern of organ-specific accumulation and several positive studies were contradicted by subsequent reports from the same laboratory. Placental levels were increased in 6 of 9 studies and were greater than corresponding fetal levels. The weight of evidence in these studies suggests that environmental and dietary Al exposures are unlikely to pose risks of Al accumulation to pregnant animals or their fetuses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Borak
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Beauchemin D, Kisilevsky R. A method based on ICP-MS for the analysis of Alzheimer's amyloid plaques. Anal Chem 1998; 70:1026-9. [PMID: 9511476 DOI: 10.1021/ac970783f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was combined with flow injection (FI) and a selective extraction procedure (which isolates Alzheimer's amyloid plaques) for the multielemental analysis of plaque cores. FI-ICP-MS was also used to analyze the various reagents involved in the sample preparation to determine whether they were the source of the various elements detected in the plaque samples. An external calibration with matrix-matched standards (in terms of salt concentration) was carried out in all cases. The concentrations of Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, and Pb were in the 0.2-0.8 mg L-1 range whereas that of Al, Fe, and Zn were 2-20 mg L-1 in the plaque sample. These values can be translated into a microgram per gram level in the plaque core by multiplying them by 29-500 (the exact factor depends on the weight of the plaques, which were not dried to prevent the loss of volatile elements). Although spectroscopic interferences arising from matrix elements of the sample cannot be ruled out in the case of Al, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Fe, the large levels detected (especially for Al and Fe), compared to the much lower or undetectable levels in the various reagents, strongly suggest the accumulation of these elements by the AD patient during life rather than contamination during sample processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Beauchemin
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Itzhaki RF. The aetiology of Alzheimer's disease. MOLECULAR AND CELL BIOLOGY OF HUMAN DISEASES SERIES 1998; 4:55-91. [PMID: 9439744 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-0709-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R F Itzhaki
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, UMIST, Manchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Makjanic J, McDonald B, Li-Hsian Chen CP, Watt F. Absence of aluminium in neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 1998; 240:123-6. [PMID: 9502219 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(97)00940-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Using the new technique of nuclear microscopy, aluminium is not detected in pyramidal neurons in brain tissue from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. The analytical technique of nuclear microscopy can simultaneously image and analyse features in unstained and untreated tissue sections. In tissue which had been previously subjected to conventional procedures such as fixation and osmication, aluminium was observed in both neurons and surrounding tissue. This result shows that the analysis of tissue prepared using conventional chemical techniques may produce contamination or elemental redistribution, and supports our previous investigations which implied that aluminium is not involved in the aetiology of AD. In addition, significant increases in iron, phosphorus and sulphur concentrations were noted between neurons from Alzheimer tissue and neurons from age-matched controls, and between the supporting Alzheimer tissue and supporting control tissue, implying an overall increase in these elements. No significant increase in calcium was observed between neurons from Alzheimer tissue and neurons from age-matched controls.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Makjanic
- Nuclear Microscopy Group, Department of Physics, National University of Singapore.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Tokutake S. Accumulation of aluminum and silicon in lipofuscin granules suggests retardation of blood-brain barrier function by aging. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997; 826:510-2. [PMID: 9329735 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48515.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Tokutake
- Department of Molecular Biology, Tokyo Institute of Psychiatry, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Struys-Ponsar C, Kerkhofs A, Gauthier A, Soffié M, van den Bosch de Aguilar P. Effects of aluminum exposure on behavioral parameters in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997; 56:643-8. [PMID: 9130289 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(96)00515-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Adult rats were treated by intraperitoneal injection of aluminum gluconate for 3 months. Rats were submitted to the radial maze test to determine the influence of chronic aluminum intoxication on cognitive and noncognitive behavioral processes. Both learning abilities (working memory and reference memory) and rapidity (time spent to respond and to master a trial) were analyzed. Aluminum concentration was evaluated in the brain, serum, and liver to assess aluminum body burden. While hippocampus and neocortex showed a significant increase in aluminum concentration, aluminum treatment did never affect the animal's performance during cue learning or when the insert cues were removed. The only behavioral difference observed was a decrease in rapidity: both the total time to finish a trial and the latency to make the first choice were lengthened in aluminum-intoxicated rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Struys-Ponsar
- Laboratoire de Biologie Animale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Neill D, Leake A, Hughes D, Keith AB, Taylor GA, Allsop D, Rima BK, Morris C, Candy JM, Edwardson JA. Effect of aluminium on expression and processing of amyloid precursor protein. J Neurosci Res 1996; 46:395-403. [PMID: 8950699 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4547(19961115)46:4<395::aid-jnr1>3.0.co;2-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The environmental agent aluminium has been extensively investigated for a potential role in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease. Despite many investigations there is at present no definite proof for any involvement. If aluminium is involved it is possible that its action is mediated through interaction with the synthesis or processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP). The present study compared aluminium loaded IMR-32 neuroblastoma cells and rat brains with control cells and brains to determine if aluminium affected APP expression and/or processing. In the IMR-32 model system aluminium had no effect on steady-state APP mRNA levels or on the ratio of individual isoforms. It also had no quantitative or qualitative effect on APP-immunoreactive bands detected in protein extracts from conditioned medium of these cells. In total cell extracts, aluminium reduced the intensity of APP-immunoreactive bands between 120-105 kDa but had no effect on a 9 kDa band. In rat brains, aluminium had no effect on APP-immunoreactive bands from soluble or insoluble-membranous extracts. The results, in general, provide no evidence for any effect of aluminium on APP expression or processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Neill
- MRC Neurochemical Pathology Unit, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Kasa P, Szerdahelyi P, Wisniewski HM. Lack of topographical relationship between sites of aluminum deposition and senile plaques in the Alzheimer's disease brain. Acta Neuropathol 1995; 90:526-31. [PMID: 8560987 DOI: 10.1007/bf00294815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Aluminum has been presumed to be involved in the pathogenesis or etiology of Alzheimer's disease. Histochemical demonstration of aluminum in autopsy brains from Alzheimer's disease victims by means of the solochrome azurine method in combination with the methenamine silver technique revealed aluminum-related staining in some neocortical and hippocampal senile plaques and tangles, as well as in the cytoplasm and/or the nuclei of some neurons, and in the cytoplasm of endothelial cells of blood capillaries and pericytes around larger blood vessels. In double-stained samples (first with methenamine silver and then with solochrome azurine) only some plaques displayed the presence of aluminum, while others did not show any sign of the presence of the trace metal. The specificity and sensitivity of solochrome azurine staining was checked in paper spot-test and test-tube experiments combined with flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The results suggest that aluminum is present in brain samples from Alzheimer's disease victims, but the structural localization indicates that it is not primarily involved in the etiology of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Kasa
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical University, Szeged, Hungary
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Tokutake S, Nagase H, Morisaki S, Oyanagi S. Aluminium detected in senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles is contained in lipofuscin granules with silicon, probably as aluminosilicate. Neurosci Lett 1995; 185:99-102. [PMID: 7746513 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3940(94)11234-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Aluminium and silicon are incidentally found in senile plaques (SP) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) of brains with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and have been considered as one of the risk factors for senile dementia. Since lipofuscin granules were concentrated concomitantly with SP and NFT in the high density fraction in subcellular fractionation of autopsied brains and are solid in nature, it was suspected that aluminum and silicon are accumulated in lipofuscin granules. Therefore, elemental analyses of partially purified lipofuscin granules from autopsied brains with AD and those without dementia, were attempted by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry with a scanning electron microscope. It was demonstrated by a mapping method that aluminum and silicon were accumulated in some lipofuscin granules, probably as aluminosilicate. In addition, it was demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy of Bodian stained paraffin sections, that many SP and NFT contained lipofuscin granules, although lipofuscin granules were not always specific to those neuropathological changes. These results imply that aluminum detected in SP and NFT is due to lipofuscin granules and can explain the cause of discrepancies in the reports on the presence of aluminum in SP and NFT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Tokutake
- Department of Molecular Biology, Tokyo Institute of Psychiatry, Japan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
Inherited cases of Alzheimer's disease (AD) comprise only a very small proportion of the total. The remainder are of unknown etiopathogenesis, but they are very probably multifactorial in origin. This article describes studies on four possible factors: aluminum; viruses--in particular, herpes simplex type I virus (HSV1); defective DNA repair; and head trauma. Specific problems associated with aluminum, such as inadvertent contamination and its insolubility, have led to some controversy over its usage. Nonetheless, the effects of aluminum on animals and neuronal cells in culture have been studied intensively. Changes in protein structure and location in the cell are described, including the finding in this laboratory of a change in tau resembling that in AD neurofibrillary tangles, and also the lack of appreciable binding of aluminum to DNA. As for HSV1, there has previously been uncertainty about whether HSV1 DNA is present in human brain. Work in this laboratory using polymerase chain reaction has shown that HSV1 DNA is present in many normal aged brains and AD brains, but is absent in brains from younger people. Studies on DNA damage and repair in AD and normal cells are described, and finally, the possible involvement of head trauma is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R F Itzhaki
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, UK
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Harrington CR, Wischik CM, McArthur FK, Taylor GA, Edwardson JA, Candy JM. Alzheimer's-disease-like changes in tau protein processing: association with aluminium accumulation in brains of renal dialysis patients. Lancet 1994; 343:993-7. [PMID: 7909090 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90124-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Tau protein is a major structural protein of the paired helical filaments (PHFs) found in both neuritic senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Senile plaques also contain amyloid beta protein (A beta). We did an immunochemical analysis of frontal cortex from 15 dialysis cases, 5 Alzheimer's disease patients, and 6 control cases to see whether AD-like changes in A beta deposition and tau protein were linked to aluminium accumulation. Dialysis patients were used because they are frequently exposed to increased levels of aluminium. 8 of the 15 dialysis cases had insoluble A beta, but there was no association between its presence and the accumulation of aluminium. However, we found AD-like changes in the processing of tau protein. In white matter, truncated tau protein in the PHF-core fraction and endogenously truncated tau in the supernatant fraction were both increased in association with aluminium accumulation in the brain. In grey matter, normal tau protein was depleted and insoluble hyperphosphorylated tau increased in association with aluminium concentration. Protease-resistant PHFs were present in grey matter in 2 dialysis cases, a frequency above that expected for AD in this age group. PHF-core tau in both grey and white matter correlated with decreased levels of normal tau protein in white matter. These findings are consistent with a role for aluminium in the development of AD-like pathology in patients subjected to prolonged aluminium exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C R Harrington
- Cambridge Brain Bank Laboratory, University Department of Psychiatry, Medical Research Council Centre, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Götz ME, Künig G, Riederer P, Youdim MB. Oxidative stress: free radical production in neural degeneration. Pharmacol Ther 1994; 63:37-122. [PMID: 7972344 DOI: 10.1016/0163-7258(94)90055-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It is not yet established whether oxidative stress is a major cause of cell death or simply a consequence of an unknown pathogenetic factor. Concerning chronic diseases, as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease are assumed to be, it is possible that a gradual impairment of cellular defense mechanisms leads to cell damage because of toxic substances being increasingly formed during normal cellular metabolism. This point of view brings into consideration the possibility that, besides exogenous factors, the pathogenetic process of neurodegeration is triggered by endogenous mechanisms, either by an endogenous toxin or by inherited metabolic disorders, which become progressively more evident with aging. In the following review, we focus on the oxidative stress theory of neurodegeneration, on excitotoxin-induced cell damage and on impairment of mitochondrial function as three major noxae being the most likely causes of cell death either independently or in connection with each other. First, having discussed clinical, pathophysiological, pathological and biochemical features of movement and cognitive disorders, we discuss the common features of these biochemical theories of neurodegeneration separately. Second, we attempt to evaluate possible biochemical links between them and third, we discuss experimental findings that confirm or rule out the involvement of any of these theories in neurodegeneration. Finally, we report some therapeutic strategies evolved from each of these theories.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M E Götz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Reusche E, Seydel U. Dialysis-associated encephalopathy: light and electron microscopic morphology and topography with evidence of aluminum by laser microprobe mass analysis. Acta Neuropathol 1993; 86:249-58. [PMID: 8213083 DOI: 10.1007/bf00304139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Recently we described silver-staining variants for the demonstration of beta/A4 amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles in senile dementia of Alzheimer type (SDAT). The same methods allowed, for the first time, the visualization of characteristic patterns and distinct morphological changes in human dialysis-associated encephalopathy. Light and electron microscopy demonstrated typical silver-stained inclusions in the cytoplasm of choroidal epithelium, glia and neurons. Performing laser microprobe mass analysis on en-bloc silver-stained semithin sections, evidence for significant amounts of aluminum was obtained within the lesions. Prominent aluminum-signals were obtained additionally in adjacent structures and nuclei of sections which were stained with toluidine-blue exclusively. Silver-stained paraffin sections of ten patients with a history of long-term hemodialysis were evaluated. The choroidal epithelium--obviously the most sensitive structure--showed black inclusions ranging from a few dots to a complete black staining of cells. Glial cells presented massive silver-stained deposits, which were restricted to the gray matter. Finally, neurons revealed numerous fine-granular black inclusions, scattered throughout the cytoplasm. Brain stem nuclei were primarily affected, but neurons within cortex, subcortical gray matter and spinal cord were also involved to various degrees; inclusions were not evident in the nucleus dentatus and the oliva inferior. Vessel-related deposits were found frequently. By electron microscopy the cytoplasm of neurons was filled either with large amounts of small electron-dense granules, or with lipofuscin granules, containing numerous irregular, non-membrane-bound inclusions. Massive electron-dense depositions were seen in the cytoplasm of choroidal epithelia and in proximity to nuclei of cortical astro- and oligodendroglia. The described neuronal changes and, in particular, alterations of choroidal epithelium and glia are completely different from characteristic plaques and tangles in SDAT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Reusche
- Institute of Pathology, Medical University Lübeck, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Kapaki EN, Zournas CP, Segdistsa IT, Xenos DS, Papageorgiou CT. Cerebrospinal fluid aluminum levels in Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 33:679-81. [PMID: 8329502 DOI: 10.1016/0006-3223(93)90114-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- E N Kapaki
- Department of Neurology, Eginition Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
Silver-staining "senile" plaques occurring in the brain are a major part of the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. The elemental composition of these structures, and the possible presence of aluminum and silicon in these structures, has been the subject of an increasing research effort over the last decade. However, the results have often been contradictory. Using a scanning proton microprobe, the elemental composition of senile plaques has been determined. This instrument, similar to an electron probe, uses a focused beam of protons scanned across a sample to map the elements. The technique is absolutely quantitative and is sensitive down to the parts per million level. Tissue from six cases of clinically and pathologically characterized cases of Alzheimer's disease and two aged neurologically normal controls was scanned. It was found that aluminum and silicon occur at a level of 50 ppm or greater in the cores of 20% of senile plaques and that the total occurrence of aluminum or silicon in scans containing plaques was not above background. The major uncertainties affecting interpretation of results of this kind are discussed, and it is suggested that the least controllable factor is contamination in the reagents used to prepare and stain the tissue. This indicates that until plaques can be unambiguously identified and analyzed in untreated tissue, no conclusion can be reached on whether senile plaques contain aluminum and silicon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Landsberg
- SPM Unit Particle and Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Oxford, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Mattson MP, Lovell MA, Ehmann WD, Markesbery WR. Comparison of the effects of elevated intracellular aluminum and calcium levels on neuronal survival and tau immunoreactivity. Brain Res 1993; 602:21-31. [PMID: 8448655 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(93)90236-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Both calcium and aluminum have been implicated in the cell damage and death that occurs in several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD). We examined the effects of experimentally elevated intraneuronal levels of aluminum ([Al]i) and/or calcium ([Ca2+]i) on neuronal degeneration and antigenic alterations in the microtubule-associated protein tau in cell cultures of rat hippocampus and human cerebral cortex. Exposure of cultures to Al3+ alone (200 microM) for up to 6 d did not result in neuronal degeneration. Neurons exposed to the divalent cation ionophore A23187 degenerated within 4 h when Ca2+ was present in the culture medium whether or not Al3+ was present. Measurements of [Ca2+]i using the calcium indicator dye fura-2 demonstrated a direct relationship between increased [Ca2+]i and neuronal degeneration. In contrast, neurons did not degenerate when exposed to A23187 in the presence of Al3+ and the absence of Ca2+, despite a 10-fold elevation in [Al]i as measured by laser microprobe mass spectrometry. Calcium influx, but not aluminum influx, elicited antigenic changes in tau similar to those seen in AD neurofibrillary tangles. Neurons exposed to glutamate in the presence of Al3+ but in the absence of Ca2+ were not vulnerable to injury. Finally, increased [Al]i occurred in neurons that degenerated as the result of exposure to glutamate indicating that aluminum associates with degenerating neurons. Taken together these data indicate that, in contrast to increased [Ca2+]i, elevated [Al]i may not induce degeneration or antigenic changes in tau.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M P Mattson
- Sanders-Brown Research Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40536
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
|
38
|
Leterrier JF, Langui D, Probst A, Ulrich J. REPLY FROM J. F. LETERRIER, D. LANGUI, A. PROBST, AND J. ULRICH. J Neurochem 1993. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1993.tb05867.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
39
|
Lovell MA, Ehmann WD, Markesbery WR. Laser microprobe analysis of brain aluminum in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1993; 33:36-42. [PMID: 8257483 DOI: 10.1002/ana.410330107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) levels were measured in the cytoplasm and nucleus of 241 neurofibrillary tangle (NFT)-bearing neurons, in 217 NFT-free neurons and adjacent neuropil from 7 autopsy-confirmed Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, and in 316 normal neurons from 5 control subjects, by laser microprobe mass spectrometry. Grand mean Al levels (dry weight basis) in AD samples were 2.93 +/- 1.24 micrograms/gm for NFT-bearing neuron cytoplasm, 3.54 +/- 1.39 micrograms/gm for NFT-bearing neuron nuclei, 2.31 +/- 1.09 micrograms/gm for NFT-free neuron cytoplasm, and 3.23 +/- 1.09 micrograms/gm for NFT-free neuron nuclei. Control values were 1.85 +/- 0.78 micrograms/gm for cytoplasm and 2.01 +/- 0.93 micrograms/gm for nuclei. The differences between corresponding regions of AD NFT-bearing, AD NFT-free, and control neurons were not significant (p > 0.05, analysis of variance). Al levels in neuropil were identical for AD and control samples at 2.16 +/- 0.93 micrograms/gm. In contrast to some literature reports, we found very few (< 2.5%) extremely high Al values (> 20 micrograms/gm, dry weight) on a cellular basis in AD samples. AD neurons did exhibit a higher number of Al values (9.6-14.3%) that were > 3 sigma above the corresponding control means, than did control neurons (1.3-1.6%), indicating that small elevations of Al may exist in patients with AD. Our data suggest that any Al accumulation in patients with AD is small and generalized in both NFT-free and NFT-bearing neurons and that analyses of large bulk brain samples are likely to have AD/control differences masked by the large amount of unaffected neuropil sampled.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M A Lovell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40536-0230
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Landsberg JP, McDonald B, Watt F. Absence of aluminium in neuritic plaque cores in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1992; 360:65-8. [PMID: 1436075 DOI: 10.1038/360065a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Controversy exists over whether aluminium has a role in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is neuropathologically characterized by the occurrence of a minimum density of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques in the hippocampus and the association cortex of the brain. The purported association of aluminium with Alzheimer's disease is based on: (1) the experimental induction of fibrillary changes in the neurons of animals by the injection of aluminium salts into brain tissue; (2) reported detection of aluminium in neuritic plaques and tangle-bearing neurons; (3) epidemiological studies linking aluminium levels in the environment, notably water supplies, with an increased prevalence of dementia; and (4) a reported decrease in the rate of disease progression following the administration of desferroxamine, an aluminium chelator, to clinically diagnosed sufferers of Alzheimer's disease. Here we use nuclear microscopy, a new analytical technique involving million-volt nuclear particles, to identify and analyse plaques in postmortem tissue from patients with Alzheimer's disease without using chemical staining techniques and fail to demonstrate the presence of aluminium in plaque cores in untreated tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J P Landsberg
- Scanning Proton Microprobe Unit, University of Oxford, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Peng JH, Xu ZC, Xu ZX, Parker JC, Friedlander ER, Tang JP, Melethil S. Aluminum-induced acute cholinergic neurotoxicity in rat. MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL NEUROPATHOLOGY 1992; 17:79-89. [PMID: 1388451 DOI: 10.1007/bf03159983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In the present study the acute effect of intravenous aluminum chloride (1 mg/kg) on choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities of rats was investigated. Aluminum was found to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) as indicated by the detection of aluminum in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 30 min after femoral vein injection. Two hours following aluminum injection, ChAT activity in the basal forebrain and hippocampus was significantly reduced by 30% and 22%, respectively, whereas no change was observed in the caudate nuclei. On the other hand, AChE activity was significantly increased by 45% in the caudate nuclei, whereas little change was observed in other brain areas. This report demonstrates that rapid transport of Al across the BBB, and the acute nature of Al neurotoxicity in rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J H Peng
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Kansas City
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Takeda M, Tatebayashi Y, Tanimukai S, Nakamura Y, Tanaka T, Nishimura T. Immunohistochemical study of microtubule-associated protein 2 and ubiquitin in chronically aluminum-intoxicated rabbit brain. Acta Neuropathol 1991; 82:346-52. [PMID: 1722608 DOI: 10.1007/bf00296545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Experimental neurofibrillary change was produced in rabbit brain by daily subcutaneous aluminum tartrate injection for 40 days. The production of experimental neurofibrillary changes was confirmed by immunostaining with antibodies against neurofilament triplet proteins and the brain tissue was studied immunohistochemically with antibodies against microtubule-associated protein (MAP) 2 and ubiquitin. The hippocampal neurons of the chronically aluminum-intoxicated rabbit brain showed diminished staining of dendrites by anti-MAP2 antibody. The length of anti-MAP2-positive dendrites in hippocampus was significantly shorter than that of the control brain. In the cortex somata of a subset of pyramidal neurons were intensively stained by anti-MAP2 antibody, while the MAP2 immunoreactivity of distal dendrites was diminished. The immunostaining by anti-ubiquitin antibody revealed the positive staining of the neurons bearing experimental neurofibrillary changes in the lower brain stem nuclei. It is speculated that MAP2 dislocation and ubiquitination are accompanying phenomena of the production of experimental neurofibrillary changes in chronically aluminum-intoxicated rabbit brains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Takeda
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Osaka University Medical School, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|