Comparative protective effects of royal jelly and cod liver oil against neurotoxic impact of tartrazine on male rat pups brain

10-hydroxy decanoic acid, trans-10-hydroxy-2-decanoic acid, and sebacic acid: Source, metabolism, and potential health functionalities and nutraceutical applications

The popularity of royal jelly (RJ) as a functional food has attracted attention from various industries, especially nutraceuticals, due to the increasing demand from health enthusiasts. Sebacic acid, 10-hydroxy decanoic acid, and trans-10-hydroxy-2-decanoic acid are the primary medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) within RJ responsible for their health benefits. This review aims to consolidate information on these MCFAs' metabolic relationship and health functionalities in nutraceutical applications. We also investigated the natural characteristics mediated by these MCFAs and their metabolism in organisms. Finally, the production of these MCFAs using conventional (from castor oil) and alternative (from RJ) pathways was also discussed. This review can be a reference for using them as functional ingredients in nutraceutical industries.

Sunset Yellow induced biochemical and histopathological alterations in rat brain sub-regions

Sunset Yellow, a synthetic orange azo food dye was examined in this study for its impact on the Wistar rat brain sub-regions. The dye was administered orally to weanling rats at the Acceptable Daily Intake level (4 mg/kg/bw) for 40 days, and brain sub-regions viz., frontal cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus were examined for biochemical and histopathological changes. The results showed a significant decrease in tissue protein levels, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity, as well as a significant increase in lipid peroxide levels in all brain sub-regions. Glutathione-S-transferase and Glutathione Reductase activities decreased, while Glutathione peroxidase activity increased. The biogenic amine levels and Acetylcholinesterase activity were also altered, with the frontal cortex and hippocampus being the most affected. Additionally, the dye caused histopathological damage in all brain sub-regions examined. This study indicates that the ADI level of Sunset Yellow may adversely affect brain tissue by causing oxidative damage.

Synthetic azo-dye, Tartrazine induces neurodevelopmental toxicity via mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in zebrafish embryos

Tartrazine (TZ), or E 102 or C Yellow, is a commonly used azo dye in the food and dyeing industries. Its excessive usage beyond permissible levels threatens human health and the aquatic environment. While previous studies have reported adverse effects such as mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity. Our study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the developmental neurotoxicity of TZ exposure via biochemical and behavioral examinations and explored the underlying mechanism via gene expression analyses. TZ at an environmentally relevant concentration (50 mg/L) significantly induces oxidative stress, altered antioxidant (SOD, CAT and GSH) response, triggered cellular damage (MDA and LDH), and induced neuro-biochemical changes (AChE and NO). Gene expression analyses revealed broad disruptions in genes associated with antioxidant defense (sod1, cat, and gstp1), mitochondrial dysfunction (mfn2, opa1, and fis1),evoked inflammatory response (nfkb, tnfa, and il1b), apoptosis activation (bcl2, bax, and p53), and neural development (bdnf, mbp, and syn2a). Behavioral analysis indicated altered thigmotaxis, touch response, and locomotion depending on the concentration of TZ exposure. Remarkably, the observed effective concentrations were consistent with the permitted levels in food products, highlighting the neurodevelopmental effects of TZ at environmentally relevant concentrations. These findings provide valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms, particularly the role of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, contributing to TZ-induced neurodevelopmental disorders in vivo.

Effect of royal jelly on acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity in rats

Royal Jelly (RJ) is a natural product made by nurse bees known for its multiple therapeutic properties. The research aims to discover the ability of RJ to improve the hematological alterations and neurotoxicity caused by acrylamide (AA). The study rats were separated equally into four groups (6 in each group), the control group, the AA (38.27 mg/kg bw) group, the RJ (150 mg/kg bw) + AA group, and the RJ (300 mg/kg bw) + AA group. Blood and brain samples were collected after 10 days to evaluate haematological and biochemical parameters and to examine histopathological and immunohistochemistry. The administration of AA increased the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), decreases levels of haematological parameters, superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine), and cleaved caspase-3, as well as increase the damage to the brain tissues. Meanwhile, RJ improved levels of haematological parameters, oxidative stress parameters (MDA, SOD, and GSH), BDNF, neurotransmitters, cleaved caspase-3, and brain tissue damage induced by AA. The study demonstrated the protective impact of RJ against the haematological alterations and neurotoxicity caused by AA.

Azo food dye neurotoxicity in rats: A neurobehavioral, biochemical, and histopathological study

Azo Food dyes (AFDs), which are widely used in the food industry, may be associated with adverse health effects. We have investigated the effects of the AFDs metanil yellow (MY), malachite green (MG), and sudan III (SIII) on cognitive impairment, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuro-enzyme activities, and histopathology in rats. Rats treated with MY (430 mg/kg), MG (13.75 mg/kg), SIII (250 mg/kg), and a mixture (MY 143.33 + MG 4.52 + SIII 83.33 mg/kg) p.o. for 60 d showed significant learning and memory impairments. Significant biochemical changes were observed in the rat frontal cortex and hippocampus: increases in lipid peroxidation and the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE); decreases in the level of reduced glutathione and the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and mitochondrial complexes I and II. Histological damage to brain neurons accompanied the learning and memory impairments and was linked with other biochemical and neurochemical alterations.

Royal jelly: a predictive, preventive and personalised strategy for novel treatment options in non-communicable diseases

Royal jelly (RJ) is a bee product produced by young adult worker bees, composed of water, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, rich in bioactive components with therapeutic properties, such as free fatty acids, mainly 10-hydroxy-trans-2-decenoic acid (10-H2DA) and 10-hydroxydecanoic acid (10-HDA), and major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), as well as flavonoids, most flavones and flavonols, hormones, vitamins and minerals. In vitro, non-clinical and clinical studies have confirmed its vital role as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. This narrative review discusses the possible effects of royal jelly on preventing common complications of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as inflammation, oxidative stress and intestinal dysbiosis, from the viewpoint of predictive, preventive and personalised medicine (PPPM/3PM). It is concluded that RJ, predictively, can be used as a non-pharmacological therapy to prevent and mitigate complications related to NCDs, and the treatment must be personalised.

Possible Signaling Pathways in the Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis for the Development of Parkinson's Disease Caused by Chronic Consumption of Food Additives

It is well-known that consumption of synthetic and natural food additives has both positive and negative effects in the human body. However, it is not clear yet how food additives are related to the development of Parkinson's disease. Therefore, in this review work, the food additive effects related to the gut microbiota-brain axis and the processes that are carried out to develop Parkinson's disease are studied. To this end, a systematic literature analysis is performed with the selected keywords and the food additive effects are studied to draw possible routes of action. This analysis leads to the proposition of a model that explains the pathways that relate the ingestion of food additives to the development of Parkinson's disease. This work motivates further research that ponders the safety of food additives by measuring their impacts over the gut microbiota-brain axis.

Anticonvulsant Effects of Royal Jelly in Kainic Acid-Induced Animal Model of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Through Antioxidant Activity

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of partial and drug-resistant epilepsy, characterized by recurrent seizures originating from temporal lobe structures like the hippocampus. Hippocampal sclerosis and oxidative stress are two important factors in the pathogenesis of TLE that exacerbate epileptic seizures in this form of epilepsy. Recently, royal jelly (RJ) shown to have neuroprotective and antioxidant activities in several neurodegenerative models. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the pretreatment effect of RJ on epileptic seizures, hippocampal neuronal loss, and oxidative stress in the rat model of kainic acid (KA)-induced TLE. To this aim, 40 male Wistar rats weighing 200-250 g were divided into 4 groups, including control, vehicle, KA, and RJ + KA. Rats received RJ (150 mg/kg/day) for 14 days before induction of TLE with KA. Epileptic behaviors were evaluated according to Racine's scale. Oxidative stress markers including, malondialdehyde (MDA), total oxidant status (TOS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) as well as neuronal loss in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (using Nissl staining) were evaluated in all groups. Our findings showed that RJ pretreatment significantly reduced the seizure score and increased the latency to the first seizure. RJ also reduced MDA and TOS while increasing TAC. In addition, RJ reversed neuronal damage in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas. In conclusion, our results suggest that RJ has anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects in KA induced TLE via its antioxidative properties.

Royal jelly arranges apoptotic and oxidative stress pathways and reduces damage to liver tissues of rats by down-regulation of Bcl-2, GSK3 and NF-κB and up-regulation of caspase and Nrf-2 protein signalling pathways

IntroductionRoyal jelly (RJ) from the honey bee, Apis mellifera, is a traditional product that is widely used as a food supplement to support the medical treatment of various diseases.Material and methodsOur study continued for 8 weeks. 42 Wistar albino (8 weeks old) male rats were used in the study. The study included 6 groups; Group 1: Control group (fed with standard diet), Group 2: RJ (100 mg/kg, bw), Group 3: F-50 (50 mg/kg, bw), group 4: F-100 (100 mg/kg, bw) group 5: F-50 (50 mg/kg, bw) + RJ (100 mg/kg, bw) Group 6: F-100 (100 mg/kg, bw) + RJ (100 mg/kg, bw). Malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GSH) activities in liver tissue were determined by spectrophotometer. Liver tissue samples were examined histopathologically and various protein levels were determined by Western blotting technique.ResultsRJ caused a significant decrease in MDA level, Bcl-2, GSK3 and NF-κB protein expression levels, whereas induced a significant increase in GSH level, CAT activities and Bax, BDNF, caspase-6, caspase-3, Nrf-2 protein expression levels.ConclusionOur findings suggest RJ to be used as a hepatoprotective agent in the clinic to modulate the toxic effects of fluoride and other chemicals in the future.

Royal jelly protects brain tissue against fluoride-induced damage by activating Bcl-2/NF-κB/caspase-3/caspase-6/Bax and Erk signaling pathways in rats

This study is aimed at determining whether royal jelly (RJ) which has a powerful antioxidant property prevents fluoride-induced brain tissue damage and exploring whether Bcl-2/NF-κB/ and caspase-3/caspase-6/Bax/Erk pathways play a critical role in the neuroprotective effect of RJ. Wistar albino rats were chosen for the study, and they were randomly distributed into six groups: (i) control; (ii) royal jelly; (iii) fluoride-50; (iv) fluoride-100; (v) fluoride-50 + royal jelly; (vi) fluoride-100 + royal jelly. We established fluoride-induced brain tissue damage with 8-week-old male Wistar albino rats by administration of fluoride exposure (either 50 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg bw) through drinking water for 8 weeks. Then, the study duration is for 56 days where the rats were treated with or without RJ (100 mg/kg bw) through oral gavage. The effects of RJ on glutathione (GSH), catalase activity (CAT), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were determined via spectrophotometer. Western blot analysis was performed to investigate the effects of royal jelly on the protein expression levels of Bax, caspase-3, caspase-6, Bcl-2, NF-κB, COX-2, and Erk. It was also studied the effects of RJ on histopathological alterations in fluoride-induced damage to the rat brain. As a result, the Bcl-2, NF-κB, and COX-2 protein expression levels were increased in the fluoride-treated (50 and 100 mg/kg) groups but they were decreased significantly by RJ treatment in the brain tissue. Additionally, the protein expression of caspase-3, caspase-6, Bax, and Erk were decreased in fluoride-treated groups and they were significantly increased by RJ treatment compared to the un-treated rats. Our results suggested that RJ prevented fluoride-induced brain tissue damage through anti-antioxidant activities.

Additive beneficial effects of aerobic training and royal jelly on hippocampal inflammation and function in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rats

BACKGROUND

Although the beneficial role of training and the use of some antioxidants in physiological and psychological disorders in autoimmune diseases has been reported, the simultaneous effect of aerobic training (AT) and royal jelly (RJ) with different doses is not well understood. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of AT and RJ on inflammatory factors in the hippocampus, as well as depression and anxiety in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats with EAE were assigned to seven groups: (1) EAE without any other intervention (EAE); (2) sham, receiving normal saline (Sh); (3) 50 mg/kg RJ (RJ50); (4) 100 mg/kg RJ (RJ100); (5) AT; (6) AT + RJ50; and (7) AT + RJ100. In addition, a healthy control group was assessed.

RESULTS

EAE significantly increased interleukin 17 (IL-17), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) gene expression and immobilization time as well as anxiety and depression indices, and significantly decreased interleukin 10 (IL-10), compared to the control group. AT decreased significantly IL-17, TGF-β gene expression and immobilization time as well as anxiety and depression indices, while it significantly increased IL-10, compared to the EAE group. RJ50 and RJ100 decreased significantly IL-17, IL-23 gene expression, anxiety and depression indices, and significantly increased IL-10 compared to the EAE group. AT + RJ50 and AT + RJ100 significantly decreased IL-17, IL-23, and TGF-β and as well as anxiety and depression indices while significantly increasing IL-10 compared to the EAE group. The effects of AT + RJ100 on significant decreasing IL-17, IL-23, anxiety and depression and increasing TGF-β, IL-10 were more favorable than RJ50.

CONCLUSION

AT and RJ improved inflammatory and regulatory factors of autoimmunity and reduced anxiety and depression. The RJ combined with AT induced additive effects while using RJ100 was more favorable than RJ50.

Analysis of Melatonin-Modulating Effects Against Tartrazine-Induced Neurotoxicity in Male Rats: Biochemical, Pathological and Immunohistochemical Markers

Tartrazine (E-102) is one of the most widely used artificial food azo-colors that can be metabolized to highly sensitizing aromatic amines such as sulphanilic acid. These metabolites are oxidized to N-hydroxy derivatives that cause neurotoxicity. Melatonin is a neurohormone. That possesses a free-radical scavenging effect. The present work was mainly designed to evaluate the possible ameliorative role of melatonin against tartrazine induced neurotoxicity in cerebral cortex and cerebellum of male rats. Adult male rats were administered orally with tartrazine (7.5 mg/kg) with or without melatonin (10 mg/kg) daily for four weeks. The data revealed that tartrazine induced redox disruptions as measured by significant (p < 0.05) increased malondialdehyde (MDA) level and inhibition of (GSH) concentration and catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) antioxidant enzyme activities. Besides, brain acetyl cholin (Ach) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were elevated while, dopamine (DA) was depleted in trtrazine -treated rats. Moreover, tartrazine caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the brain interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1 β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). At the tissue level, tartrazine caused severe histopathological changes in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex of rats. The immunohistochemical results elucidated strong positive expression for Caspase-3 and GFAP and weak immune reaction for BcL2 and synaptophysin in tatrazine- treated rats. The administration of melatonin to tartrazine -administered rats remarkably alleviated all the aforementioned tartrzine-induced effects. It could be concluded that, melatonin has a potent ameliorative effect against tartrazine induced neurotoxicity via the attenuation of oxidative/antioxidative responses.

Riboflavin attenuates tartrazine toxicity in the cerebellar cortex of adult albino rat

Tartrazine is a synthetic yellowish dye considered one of the most common food colorants. Extensive usage of tartrazine in humans led to harmful health impacts. To investigate the impact of tartrazine administration on the cerebellum and to assess the potential role of riboflavin co-administration in the adult male albino rat. Four groups of adult albino rats were included in this study. Group I was supplied with distilled water. Group II was supplied tartrazine orally at a dose of 7.5 mg/kg BW dissolved in distilled water. Group III was supplied with tartrazine at the same previously mentioned dose and riboflavin orally at a dose of 25 mg/kg BW dissolved in distilled water. Group IV was supplied with riboflavin at the same previously mentioned dose. The study was conducted for 30 days then rats were sacrificed, weighted and the cerebella extracted and handled for light, ultrastructural and immunohistochemical evaluation. It was found with tartrazine treatment focal areas of Purkinje cell loss leaving empty spaces, a broad spread of neuronal affection to the degree of the disappearance of some of the granular cells, reduced the thickness of the molecular and granular layers, and strong positive GFAP immunoreactions. With riboflavin coadministration restored continuous Purkinje layer with normal appeared Purkinje cells, but some cells were still shrunken and vacuolated as well as the molecular and granular cell layers appeared normal. Tartrazine had deleterious effects on the cerebellar cytoarchitecture, and riboflavin co-administration alleviated these neurotoxic effects.

In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant and Anticancer Potentials of Royal Jelly for Dimethylhydrazine-Induced Colorectal Cancer in Wistar Rats

Methods

This study was conducted among 60 rats, and groups consist of control, three separate groups for RJ, dimethylhydrazine (DMH), and vitamin E, and two separate treated groups with DMH + RJ and DMH + vitamin E. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of royal jelly was examined on HT-29 cell line. Findings. Based on the in vitro assessment using MTT assay, the LC50 of royal jelly was 1.781 mg/ml, and the highest cytotoxicity was observed at 25 mg/ml concentration after 48 hours. Meanwhile, in the in vivo study, after the 13th week, compared to the DMH group, the rats exposed to DMH + royal jelly experienced a significant less oxidative stress (P < 0.05) and a significantly greater total antioxidant capacity (TAC) level (P < 0.05). The expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) proteins significantly decreased among the animals receiving DMH + royal jelly compared to the DMH group. The pathological examinations revealed less congestion, necrosis, inflammation, and cell proliferation in the colon tissue of the RJ-treated group than that of the DMH group. Overall, the biochemical indices were better in the treatment groups in comparison with the DMH group.

Conclusion

The results represented the clinical usability of royal jelly, as a substance with anticancer properties, to prevent and treat colorectal cancer. This issue is related to its effective antioxidant potential, which even exhibits more effectiveness than the vitamin E, which is known as a strong antioxidant.

Royal jelly reduce DNA damage induced by alkylating agent in mice

Royal jelly (RJ) is a creamy white-yellow liquid that is secreted by the mandibular and hypopharyngeal glands of bees to nourish the larvae. RJ has gained increasing interest in recent years owing to its antioxidant potential. However, little is known about adequate RJ dosing and its effects on genetic material. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the in vivo effects of RJ on genotoxicity and mutagenicity induced by the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). In this study, 3-month-old Swiss albino male mice (N = 66) were divided into 11 groups for experimentation. Experiments were performed by administering lyophilized RJ (150 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, and 1000 mg/kg) or water via gavage as pre- and posttreatment processes with the alkylating agent MMS. After treatment, blood samples were collected from the mice via an incision at the end of the tail to conduct comet assays at times of 24 h and 48 h posttreatment. The mice were then euthanized to remove the bone marrow for a micronucleus test. Overall, regardless of dose, RJ did not exhibit genotoxic, mutagenic activity and the administration of high doses, mainly in the form of posttreatment, presented antigenotoxic and antimutagenic actions. Further, a dose-response correlation was observed in the RJ posttreatment groups. These results demonstrate that RJ administration was effective in reversing the damage caused by the alkylating agent MMS.

Evaluation of Nano-curcumin effects against Tartrazine-induced abnormalities in liver and kidney histology and other biochemical parameters

In the current study, 40 albino male rats were investigated to evaluate the impact of Nano-curcumin (Nano-CUR) administration against Tartrazine (TZ)-induced variations in kidney and liver histology and their related functions. The liver function biomarkers are (glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT), glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transaminase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (T. BiLL)), whereas the kidney biomarkers are (creatinine, uric acid, urea, globulin, total protein (TP)), as well as blood parameters of (serum glucose (sGlu), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), protein Kinase-C (PKC)) and lipid profiles that include (total lipids (TL), triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density L-C (HDL-C), and very-low-density L-C (VLDL-C)). The collected rats were randomly separated into four different groups (G1, G2, G3, and G4) of 10 rats each, where G1 stands for control, G2 for TZ-ingestion, G3 for Nano-CUR-ingestion, and G4 for (TZ + Nano-CUR mix.) ingestion. TZ-ingestion significantly (p < .05) increases the liver function enzymes' activity, total bilirubin and kidney biomarkers (creatinine, urea, uric acid, total protein (TP), globulin (Glu)). Also, TZ-ingestion significantly increased sGlu, PKC, AFP, as well as lipid profiles, while there were significant (p < .05) decreases in HDL-C and albumin (Alb) concentrations compared to control. Histopathological changes in liver, such as dilatation of blood sinusoids and central vein with hemorrhage and necrosis, were observed due to TZ-ingestion. Similarly, TZ-ingestion influenced kidney tissues in terms of tubular dilatation with tubular degeneration, thickened basement membrane, and dilatation of the glomerular capillaries. Markedly, the administration of Nano-CUR significantly decreased liver and kidney function enzymes as well as sGlu, AFP, and PKC, whereas it significantly increased serum Alb and HDL-C levels compared to control and TZ-ingested rats. All values arranged around normal control values. Also, the liver tissue of Nano-CUR-ingested rats showed a normal arrangement of normal blood sinusoids(s), hepatic cords, and hepatocytes as compared to controls. The same results were also found in the section of rat kidney ingested with 2.00 g of Nano-CUR/(kg B.W.) showing near-normal architecture as compared to control rats. The liver tissue of rats ingested by a mixture of (7.5 mg of TZ + 2.0 g of Nano-CUR/kg B.W.) showed little necrosis. Similarly, a section of rat kidney ingested a mixture of (7.5 mg of TZ + 2.00 g of Nano-CUR/kg B.W.) which revealed mild tubular degeneration and dilatation of the glomerular capillaries. These results support the protective and therapeutic effects of Nano-CUR on the histology of liver and kidneys and their related function biomarkers. Also, Nano-CUR corrects the imbalance in serum glucose (sGlu), AFP, PKC, and lipid profiles in TZ-ingested rats compared to control.

Potential impacts of synthetic food dyes on activity and attention in children: a review of the human and animal evidence

Concern that synthetic food dyes may impact behavior in children prompted a review by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). OEHHA conducted a systematic review of the epidemiologic research on synthetic food dyes and neurobehavioral outcomes in children with or without identified behavioral disorders (particularly attention and activity). We also conducted a search of the animal toxicology literature to identify studies of neurobehavioral effects in laboratory animals exposed to synthetic food dyes. Finally, we conducted a hazard characterization of the potential neurobehavioral impacts of food dye consumption. We identified 27 clinical trials of children exposed to synthetic food dyes in this review, of which 25 were challenge studies. All studies used a cross-over design and most were double blinded and the cross-over design was randomized. Sixteen (64%) out of 25 challenge studies identified some evidence of a positive association, and in 13 (52%) the association was statistically significant. These studies support a relationship between food dye exposure and adverse behavioral outcomes in children. Animal toxicology literature provides additional support for effects on behavior. Together, the human clinical trials and animal toxicology literature support an association between synthetic food dyes and behavioral impacts in children. The current Food and Drug Administration (FDA) acceptable daily intakes are based on older studies that were not designed to assess the types of behavioral effects observed in children. For four dyes where adequate dose-response data from animal and human studies were available, comparisons of the effective doses in studies that measured behavioral or brain effects following exposure to synthetic food dyes indicate that the basis of the ADIs may not be adequate to protect neurobehavior in susceptible children. There is a need to re-evaluate exposure in children and for additional research to provide a more complete database for establishing ADIs protective of neurobehavioral effects.

Food Colour Additives: A Synoptical Overview on Their Chemical Properties, Applications in Food Products, and Health Side Effects

Colour is one of the most relevant organoleptic attributes that directly affects consumers' acceptance and food selection. However, as food colouring pigments are generally unstable and become modified during processing, in order to maintain or restore product colour uniformity, colourants are added to food products around the world. In this context, although they are still widely used, synthetic food colorants, due to their potential hazards, are being replaced by those obtained from natural origins. Indeed, numerous side effects and toxicities, at both the medium and long-terms-namely allergic reactions, and behavioral and neurocognitive effects-have been related to the use of synthetic colourants, whereas their naturally-derived counterparts seem to provide a somewhat high-quality and effective contribution as a health promoter. In order to further understand the implications of the use of synthetic and naturally derived food colourants, this review aims to provide a synoptical approach to the chemical characteristics, properties, uses and side effects on health of those which are currently allowed and applied during food processing.

Therapeutic role of adipose tissue-derived stem cells versus microvesicles in a rat model of cerebellar injury

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a controversial food additive reported to cause negative effects on public health. Adipose stem cells (ASCs) and their derived vesicles (MVs) represent a promising cure for human diseases. This work was planned to compare the therapeutic effects of adipose stem cells and microvesicles in MSG-induced cerebellar damage. Forty adult healthy male Wister rats were equally divided into four groups: Group I (control group), group II (MSG-treated), group III (MSG/ASCs-treated), and group IV (MSG/MVs-treated). Motor behaviour of rats was assessed. Characterization of ASCs and MVs was done by flow cytometry. The cerebellum was processed for light and electron microscopic studies, and immunohistochemical localization of PCNA and GFAP. Morphometry was done for the number of Purkinje cells in H&E-stained sections, area per cent of GFAP immune reactivity and number of positive PCNA cells. Our results showed MSG-induced deterioration in the motor part. Moreover, MSG increases oxidant and apoptotic with decreases of antioxidant biomarkers. Structural changes in the cerebellar cortex as degeneration of nerve cells and gliosis were detected. There were also a decrease in the number of Purkinje cells, an increase in the area per cent of GFAP immune reactivity and a decrease in the number of positive PCNA cells, as compared to the control. Rats treated with ASCs showed marked functional and structural improvement in comparison with MV-treated rats. Thus, both ASCs and MVs had therapeutic potential for MSG-induced cerebellar damage with better results in case of ASCs.

Using High-Throughput Screening to Evaluate Perturbations Potentially Linked to Neurobehavioral Outcomes: A Case Study Using Publicly Available Tools on FDA Batch-Certified Synthetic Food Dyes

There is growing evidence from human and animal studies indicating an association between exposure to synthetic food dyes and adverse neurobehavioral outcomes in children. However, data gaps persist for potential mechanisms by which the synthetic food dyes could elicit neurobehavioral impacts. We developed an approach to evaluate seven US FDA-batch-certified food dyes using publicly available high-throughput screening (HTS) data from the US EPA's Toxicity Forecaster to assess potential underlying molecular mechanisms that may be linked to neurological pathway perturbations. The dyes were screened through 270 assays identified based on whether they had a neurological-related gene target and/or were mapped to neurodevelopmental processes or neurobehavioral outcomes, and were conducted in brain tissue, targeted specific hormone receptors, or targeted oxidative stress and inflammation. Some results provided support for neurological impacts found in human and animal studies, while other results showed a lack of correlation with in vivo findings. The azo dyes had a range of activity in assays mapped to G-protein-coupled receptors and were active in assays targeting dopaminergic, serotonergic, and opioid receptors. Assays mapped to nuclear receptors (androgen, estrogen, and thyroid hormone) also exhibited activity with the food dyes. Other molecular targets included the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, acetylcholinesterase, and monoamine oxidase. The Toxicological Prioritization Index tool was used to visualize the results of the Novascreen assays. Our results highlight certain limitations of HTS assays but provide insight into potential underlying mechanisms of neurobehavioral effects observed in in vivo animal toxicology studies and human clinical studies.

Non-permitted food colorants induced neurotoxicity in cerebellum of rat brain

Food colorants are important food additives that not only enhance the appearance of food but also appetite. These can be obtained from natural and synthetic sources, but synthetic sources are more popular, efficient, and potential. Non-permitted food colorants (NPFCs) are banned, but their injudicious use in developing countries associated with various adverse health effects. They have potentially toxic effects on the body organs like the brain, liver, kidney, spleen, gut, etc. In view of their toxicity pattern, the present study aims to investigate the effect of three NPFCs (MY: Metanil yellow; MG: Malachite green; SIII: Sudan III) on oxidative stress, mitochondrial complexes, neurochemicals, and histological changes in the cerebellum of rats. Rats treated with MY (430 mg/kg), MG (13.75 mg/kg), SIII (250 mg/kg), and their mixtures (YGR) (MY 143.33 + MG 4.52 + SIII 83.33 mg/kg) p.o. for 60 days showed a significant increase in lipid peroxidation and decreased level of reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity as compared to controls. An increase in the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and a significant decrease in the activity of monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) and mitochondrial complex I and II was also observed in NPFCs treated rats as compared to controls. Further, the histological study also revealed the loss of Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum of the rat brain. The results of the present study indicate that NPFCs exposure to rats enhances oxidative stress and alters the activity of neurochemicals and mitochondrial complexes which could further lead to neuronal loss and behavioral dysfunctions.

A novel approach in revealing mechanisms and particular step predictors of pH dependent tartrazine catalytic degradation in presence of Oxone®

The degradation of tartrazine in the presence of cobalt activated Oxone® (potassium peroxymonosulfate) was investigated at different initial pH values. Aluminum pillared clay had the role of a support for catalytically active cobalt oxide species. The degradation of tartrazine and the formation of a mixture of degradation products were monitored using the Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The exact qualitative composition of this mixture and the determination of the most probable mechanism of degradation (the primary goal) were obtained using GC-MS. Besides, the main reaction pathway (reaction with SO₄˙- radical anion) and secondary pathways were proposed depending on the pH value. At pH = 6 the reaction with HO˙ radical was proposed. At pH = 11 decarboxilation was suggested as the first step of the secondary proposed reaction pathway. The combination of results acquired from the deconvolution of UV-Vis spectra and the theoretical UV-Vis spectra of degradation products, whose occurrence was predicted by quantum-chemical calculations, was proven to be beneficial for the identification of tartrazine degradation products and for defining UV-Vis predictors of particular degradation steps. An additional contribution of this paper, from the reactivity aspect, was the establishment of the critical structural demand for the radical degradation of any diazo compound. The existence of a hydrogen atom bound to a diazo group was found to be the essential prerequisite for the radical cleavage of diazo compounds.

Bee Products: A Representation of Biodiversity, Sustainability, and Health

Biodiversity strengthens the productivity of any ecosystem (agricultural land, forest, lake, etc.). The loss of biodiversity contributes to food and energy insecurity; increases vulnerability to natural disasters, such as floods or tropical storms; and decreases the quality of both life and health. Wild and managed bees play a key role in maintaining the biodiversity and in the recovery and restoration of degraded habitats. The novelty character of this perspective is to give an updated representation of bee products’ biodiversity, sustainability, and health relationship. The role of bees as bioindicators, their importance in the conservation of biodiversity, their ecosystem services, and the variety of the bee products are described herein. An overview of the main components of bee products, their biological potentials, and health is highlighted and detailed as follows: (i) nutritional value of bee products, (ii) bioactive profile of bee products and the related beneficial properties; (iii) focus on honey and health through a literature quantitative analysis, and (iv) bee products explored through databases. Moreover, as an example of the interconnection between health, biodiversity, and sustainability, a case study, namely the “Cellulose Park”, realized in Rome (Italy), is presented here. This case study highlights how bee activities can be used to assess and track changes in the quality of agricultural ecosystems—hive products could be valid indicators of the quality and health of the surrounding environment, as well as the changes induced by the biotic and abiotic factors that impact the sustainability of agricultural production and biodiversity conservation in peri-urban areas.

Ameliorative Role of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Against Fipronil Impact on Brain Function, Oxidative Stress, and Apoptotic Cascades in Albino Rats

Fipronil (FIP) is an N-phenylpyrazole insecticide that is used extensively in public health and agriculture against a wide range of pests. Exposure to FIP is linked to negative health outcomes in humans and animals including promoting neuronal cell injury, which results in apoptosis through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to investigate the neuroprotective effects of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeNPs) on neuronal dysfunction induced by FIP in albino rats. Male rats were randomly classified into four groups: control, FIP (5 mg/kg bwt), CeNPs (35 mg/kg bwt), and FIP + CeNPs (5 (FIP) + 35 (CeNPs) mg/kg bwt), which were treated orally once daily for 28 consecutive days. Brain antioxidant parameters, histopathology, and mRNA expression of genes related to brain function were evaluated. The results revealed oxidative damage to brain tissues in FIP-treated rats indicated by the elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels and reduced activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). On the other hand, the FIP’s group that was treated with CeNPs showed decrease in MDA and NO levels and increase in SOD and GPx enzymes activity. Besides, FIP-treated rats showed decreased butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity in comparison to the FIP + CeNPs group. Moreover, FIP caused up-regulation of the expression of neuron-specific enolase (NSE), caspase-3, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) but down-regulation of B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) expression. But the FIP + CeNPs group significantly down-regulated the GFAP, NSE, and caspase-3 and up-regulated the gene expression of BCL-2. Additionally, the FIP-treated group of rats had clear degenerative lesions in brain tissue that was reversed to nearly normal cerebral architecture by the FIP + CeNPs treatment. Immunohistochemical examination of brain tissues of rats-treated with FIP showed abundant ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) microglia and caspase-3 and apoptotic cells with nearly negative calbindin and synaptophysin reaction, which were countered by FIP + CeNPs treatment that revealed a critical decrease in caspase-3, Iba-1 reaction with a strong calbindin positive reaction in most of the Purkinje cells and strong synaptophysin reaction in the cerebrum and cerebellum tissues. Based on reported results herein, CeNPs treatment might counteract the neurotoxic effect of FIP pesticide via an antioxidant-mediated mechanism.

Mining the Royal Jelly Proteins: Combinatorial Hexapeptide Ligand Library Significantly Improves the MS-Based Proteomic Identification in Complex Biological Samples

Royal jelly (RJ) is a complex, creamy secretion produced by the glands of worker bees. Due to its health-promoting properties, it is used by humans as a dietary supplement. However, RJ compounds are not fully characterized yet. Hence, in this research, we aimed to broaden the knowledge of the proteomic composition of fresh RJ. Water extracts of the samples were pre-treated using combinatorial hexapeptide ligand libraries (ProteoMiner^TM kit), trypsin-digested, and analyzed by a nanoLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF MS system. To check the ProteoMiner^TM performance in the MS-based protein identification, we also examined RJ extracts that were not prepared with the ProteoMiner^TM kit. We identified a total of 86 proteins taxonomically classified to Apis spp. (bees). Among them, 74 proteins were detected in RJ extracts pre-treated with ProteoMiner^TM kit, and only 50 proteins were found in extracts non-enriched with this technique. Ten of the identified features were hypothetical proteins whose existence has been predicted, but any experimental evidence proves their in vivo expression. Additionally, we detected four uncharacterized proteins of unknown functions. The results of this research indicate that the ProteoMiner^TM strategy improves proteomic identification in complex biological samples. Broadening the knowledge of RJ composition may contribute to the development of standards and regulations, enhancing the quality of RJ, and consequently, the safety of its supplementation.

Combined effects of royal jelly and environmental enrichment against stress-induced cognitive and behavioral alterations in male rats: behavioral and molecular studies

BACKGROUND

Exposure to chronic stress has detrimental effects on cognitive and emotional processing. Also, the neuroprotective influences of environmental enrichment (EE) and royal jelly (RJ) have been indicated in previous studies.

AIMS

To our knowledge, to date, there are no studies about the synergistic effects of EE and RJ on cognitive changes induced by stress. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the protective effects of RJ, and EE on anxiety-like behaviors, cognitive functions, and expression of hippocampal and also prefrontal cortex (PFC) brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in stressed rats.

METHODS

By using restraint and cold temperature, rats were exposed to stressful situations and then subjected to treatment with RJ or/ and EE for 14 days. Stress induction was done 14 days before treatments by placing the rats in the restrainer under 4°C. Following the interventions, anxiety-like behaviors, novel object recognition memory (NORM), inhibitive avoidance performance, hippocampal, and PFC BDNF expression were examined. The plasma corticosterone level of all groups was also evaluated.

RESULTS

Results showed increased plasma corticosterone levels, stress-induced deficits in the NORM and IA tests, and increased anxiety-like behaviors. EE and RJ improved these deficits with a decline in serum corticosterone and also increased BDNF levels in the hippocampus and PFC in stressed ones.

CONCLUSION

The EE and the RJ prevented the detrimental effects of stress on anxiety-like behaviors and memory processes. These treatments can protect susceptible brain areas against chronic stress via improvement in behavioral and cognitive impairments through mediating BDNF expression.

Hypoxia, oxidative stress, and immune evasion: a trinity of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON)

T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON) are type A and B trichothecenes, respectively. They widely occur as pollutants in food and crops and cause a series of toxicities, including immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. Oxidative stress is the primary mechanistic basis of these toxic effects. Increasing amounts of evidence have shown that mitochondria are significant targets of apoptosis caused by T-2 toxin- and DON-induced oxidative stress via regulation of Bax/B-cell lymphoma-2 and caspase-3/caspase-9 signaling. DNA methylation and autophagy are involved in oxidative stress related to apoptosis, and hypoxia and immune evasion are related to oxidative stress in this context. Hypoxia induces oxidative stress by stimulating mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and regulates the expression of cytokines, such as interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α. Programmed cell death-ligand 1 is upregulated by these cytokines and by hypoxia-inducible factor-1, which allows it to bind to programmed cell death-1 to enable escape of immune cell surveillance and achievement of immune evasion. This review concentrates on novel findings regarding the oxidative stress mechanisms of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and DON. Importantly, we discuss the new evidence regarding the connection of hypoxia and immune evasion with oxidative stress in this context. Finally, the trinity of hypoxia, oxidative stress and immune evasion is highlighted. This work will be conducive to an improved understanding of the oxidative stress caused by trichothecene mycotoxins.

Anxiogenic and memory impairment effect of food color exposure: upregulation of oxido-neuroinflammatory markers and acetyl-cholinestrase activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus

Erythrosine and tartrazine are one of the synthetic azo dye mostly consumed in food, drugs and other industrial compounds. This study was designed to investigate the adverse effect of combine erythrosine and tartrazine on cognitive and neurobehavioral functions, pro-oxidants, endogenous antioxidants, cholinergic system and pro-inflammatory cytokines in rats. Erythrosine and tartrazine (2 mg/kg, 6 mg/kg, and 10 mg/kg, b.w., p.o, 50:50) was administered to rats (n = 6) for 6 weeks. Memory and neurobehavioral assessment using Novel object recognition test (NORT) and Elevated plus maze (EPM) and biochemical (pro-oxidants and anti-oxidant enzymes) and pro-inflammatory cytokine measurement from the brain sub regions namely, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were done at the end of treatment. The results showed (p < 0.05) significant decreased memory and neurobehavioral function, increased acetyl-cholinesterase and pro-oxidants activity (Malonaldehyde level and Nitrite), decreased endogenous anti-oxidants (Glutathione and Catalase) and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α). We suggested that the mechanism by which this oxidative and neuro-inflammatory damage and cholinergic system alteration occur might be related to the release of metabolite in fission of the azo dyes of the combined erythrosine and tartrazine administration in the animals. However, we concluded on these findings that erythrosine and tartrazine dyes significantly provoke the release of oxido-nitrergic and neuroinflammatory stress markers and also may incite acetyl-cholinesterase activities in different brain regions leading to memory and neurobehavioral impairment.

Health Promoting Properties of Bee Royal Jelly: Food of the Queens

Royal jelly (RJ) demand is growing every year and so is the market for functional foods in general. RJ is formed by different substances, mainly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, but also vitamins, minerals, and phenolic or volatile compounds in lower proportion. Major royal jelly proteins (MRJP) are, together with 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), key substances of RJ due to their different biological properties. In particular, 10-HDA is a unique substance in this product. RJ has been historically employed as health enhancer and is still very relevant in China due to the traditional medicine and the apitherapy. Nowadays, it is mainly consumed as a functional food or is found in supplements and other formulations for its health-beneficial properties. Within these properites, anti-lipidemic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiaging, and estrogenic activities have been reported for RJ or its specific components. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the current knowledge on RJ components, their assessment in terms of authenticity, their biological activities, and related health applications.

The protective efficacy of vitamin E and cod liver oil against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury in rats

Cisplatin (CP) is a highly effective chemotherapeutic agent against neoplasms, but its clinical utility is limited due to the side effects of its dose-dependent nephrotoxicity. Vitamin E (Vit E) and cod liver oil (CLO) are natural substances with chemoprotective effects. The present study was conducted to evaluate the protective effects of Vit E and/or CLO for CP-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) in rats. This study involved 40 mature male Wistar albino rats that were equally allocated into eight groups: Veh, Vit E, CLO, Vit E + CLO, CP, Vit E + CP, CLO + CP, and Vit E + CLO + CP. The co-administration of Vit E and CLO significantly ameliorated CP-induced elevations in serum creatinine (Cr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin- 6 (IL-6). Further, rats that received Vit E and/or CLO showed significant decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) and increases in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) levels in renal tissues, compared to CP-intoxicated rats. Additionally, the treatment restored the normal histological architecture (except for few cast formations) and upregulated the immunostaining area% of aquaporin 3 (AQP3) and downregulated the immunostaining area% of Bcl2 associated X protein (BAX) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). The observed effects were stronger in the combination treatment group. The obtained data revealed that Vit E and CLO co-administration protects against the CP-induced AKI more than monotherapy with Vit E or CLO.

Ameliorative effect of alpha lipoic acid and royal jelly against the side effects of cyclophosphamide in liver of albino rats

Background

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a cytotoxic anticancer drug used for the treatment of neoplastic diseases. The present study aimed to examine biochemical, histological, and ultrastructural effects of CP on rat liver and determine the hepatoprotective effects of alpha-lipoic acid (LA) or royal jelly (RJ) against CP.

Results

The present study revealed that CP-induced significant increase in hepatic marker enzymes (ALT and AST), and elevation in malonaldehyde (MDA) was concomitant with a significant decrease of superoxide dismutase (SOD). It caused histopathological changes in the liver of rat including vacuolation, infiltration, degeneration, and necrosis. Ultrastructurally, the hepatocytes appeared degenerated with multiple small- and medium-sized lipid droplets in the cytoplasm. Kupffer cell showed a shrunken nucleus. Administration of LA and RJ resulted in an obvious improvement in the altered level of ALT, AST, MDA, and SOD activities when compared with the CP-treated group in addition to marked amelioration in histopathology and ultrastructure of the liver.

Conclusions

LA is markedly effective than RJ in protecting rats against CP-induced biochemical, histopathological, and ultrastructural changes. This protection may be due to its antioxidant properties and scavenging abilities against active free radicals.

Apitherapy for Parkinson's Disease: A Focus on the Effects of Propolis and Royal Jelly

The vast increase of world's aging populations is associated with increased risk of age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is a widespread disorder characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, which encompasses a wide range of debilitating motor, emotional, cognitive, and physical symptoms. PD threatens the quality of life of millions of patients and their families. Additionally, public welfare and healthcare systems are burdened with its high cost of care. Available treatments provide only a symptomatic relief and produce a trail of noxious side effects, which increase noncompliance. Hence, researchers have recently focused on the use of nutraceuticals as safe adjunctive treatments of PD to limit its progress and associated damages in affected groups. Propolis is a common product of the beehive, which possesses a large number of therapeutic properties. Royal jelly (RJ) is a bee product that is fed to bee queens during their entire life, and it contributes to their high physical fitness, fertility, and long lifespan. Evidence suggests that propolis and RJ can promote health by preventing the occurrence of age-related debilitating diseases. Therefore, they have been used to treat various serious disorders such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Some evolving studies used these bee products to treat PD in animal models. However, a clear understanding of the collective effect of propolis and RJ as well as their mechanism of action in PD is lacking. This review evaluates the available literature for the effects of propolis and RJ on PD. Whenever possible, it elaborates on the underlying mechanisms through which they function in this disorder and offers insights for fruitful use of bee products in future clinical trials.

Royal Jelly as an Intelligent Anti-Aging Agent-A Focus on Cognitive Aging and Alzheimer's Disease: A Review

The astronomical increase of the world's aged population is associated with the increased prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases, heightened disability, and extremely high costs of care. Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a widespread, age-related, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease that has enormous social and financial drawbacks worldwide. The unsatisfactory outcomes of available AD pharmacotherapy necessitate the search for alternative natural resources that can target various the underlying mechanisms of AD pathology and reduce disease occurrence and/or progression. Royal jelly (RJ) is the main food of bee queens; it contributes to their fertility, long lifespan, and memory performance. It represents a potent nutraceutical with various pharmacological properties, and has been used in a number of preclinical studies to target AD and age-related cognitive deterioration. To understand the mechanisms through which RJ affects cognitive performance both in natural aging and AD, we reviewed the literature, elaborating on the metabolic, molecular, and cellular mechanisms that mediate its anti-AD effects. Preclinical findings revealed that RJ acts as a multidomain cognitive enhancer that can restore cognitive performance in aged and AD models. It promotes brain cell survival and function by targeting multiple adversities in the neuronal microenvironment such as inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial alterations, impaired proteostasis, amyloid-β toxicity, Ca excitotoxicity, and bioenergetic challenges. Human trials using RJ in AD are limited in quantity and quality. Here, the limitations of RJ-based treatment strategies are discussed, and directions for future studies examining the effect of RJ in cognitively impaired subjects are noted.

Protective effect of royal jelly against diclofenac-induced hepato-renal damage and gastrointestinal ulcerations in rats

Objective

Evaluation of traditionally used royal jelly (RJ) for the management of hepato-renal damage and gastrointestinal ulcerations caused by diclofenac.

Methods

Forty adult male Wistar rats were allocated into four groups. Rats of the 1^st group received only saline and served as normal group. The remaining 3 groups received diclofenac (50 mg/kg/day, I.P.) for 7 days. Group 2 served as diclofenac-control group. Groups 3 and 4 received RJ (150 and 300 mg/kg/day, P.O.) respectively for 30 days. Twenty-four hours after the last treatment, blood samples were collected, rats were sacrificed, and livers, kidneys, stomachs & intestines were harvested. Stomachs and intestines were tested for ulcer counts. Serum levels of AST, ALT, creatinine and urea were investigated. Hepatic, renal, gastric and intestinal tissue contents of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) were measured. Histopathological examinations were also performed followed by immunohistochemical determination of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression.

Results

Diclofenac administration caused significant deterioration of all the above mentioned parameters. RJ improved hepatic and renal functions. Gastric and intestinal ulcer counts were significantly ameliorated. Hepatic, renal, gastric and intestinal tissue PGE-2 contents and COX-2 expression were significantly elevated. RJ also significantly reduced MPO content and iNOS expression as compared to diclofenac-control group. Improvements of the histopathological pictures of hepatic, renal, gastric and intestinal tissues were also apparent.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates promising protective effects of RJ against diclofenac-induced hepato-renal damage and gastrointestinal ulceration in rats.

Perinatal Exposure to Tartrazine Triggers Oxidative Stress and Neurobehavioral Alterations in Mice Offspring

The use of synthetic azo dyes as coloring agents in food products has dramatically increased. This study evaluated the effect of perinatal exposure to tartrazine (TZ) on mice offspring, focusing on neurobehavioral alterations and oxidative stress. The female mice received TZ (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) via oral gavage during pregnancy and the first 15 days after birth. At days 21 and 35 after birth, male mice were sacrificed, and samples were collected for analyses. Perinatal exposure to TZ triggered tissue injury evidenced by the histological alterations and neuronal damage in the cerebrum, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. TZ provoked lipid peroxidation and diminished cellular antioxidants in different brain regions of the newborns. In addition, TZ increased hemoglobin content, as well as erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets count at days 21 and 35 after birth. Both the locomotor behavior and anxiety reflex were significantly altered in mice exposed to TZ. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to TZ within an adequate daily intake range induced oxidative stress and neurobehavioral and hematological alterations in mice offspring. Therefore, consuming foods containing TZ during pregnancy and lactation warrants public awareness.

New Insights into the Biological and Pharmaceutical Properties of Royal Jelly

Royal jelly (RJ) is a yellowish-white and acidic secretion of hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of nurse bees used to feed young worker larvae during the first three days and the entire life of queen bees. RJ is one of the most appreciated and valued natural product which has been mainly used in traditional medicines, health foods, and cosmetics for a long time in different parts of the world. It is also the most studied bee product, aimed at unravelling its bioactivities, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-aging, immunomodulatory, and general tonic action against laboratory animals, microbial organisms, farm animals, and clinical trials. It is commonly used to supplement various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular, and Alzheimer's disease. Here, we highlight the recent research advances on the main bioactive compounds of RJ, such as proteins, peptides, fatty acids, and phenolics, for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemistry, biological, and pharmaceutical responses to human health promotion and life benefits. This is potentially important to gain novel insight into the biological and pharmaceutical properties of RJ.

Histological and immunohistochemical evaluation of the effect of tartrazine on the cerebellum, submandibular glands, and kidneys of adult male albino rats

Tartrazine is one of the most widely used food additives. The present investigation was carried out on 40 adult male albino rats. They were divided into four groups of ten animals for each. Group I was considered as a control group. Group II was treated with tartrazine daily in a dose 7.5 mg/kg body weight by oral gavage for 30 days. Group III was received 15 mg/kg body weight of tartrazine for the same period. Group IV was administered tartrazine in a dose 100 mg/kg body weight for the whole duration of the experiment. At the end of experiment, samples from the cerebellum, submandibular salivary glands, and kidneys were fixed in neutral buffered formalin 10% and prepared routinely for paraffin sectioning and staining for histopathological and immunohistochemical investigations of proliferating cell nuclear antigen "PCNA" and glial fibrillar acidic protein "GFAP". Tartrazine-treated groups revealed histopathological degenerative changes in the obtained organs. In group II, the cerebellum showed subcortical edema, congestion of the blood vessels, cytoplasmic vacuolations, and pyknosis of the nuclei in the gray matter neurons. Concerning the submandibular glands, they expressed cytoplasmic vacuolations and pyknosis of the nuclei of the acinar cells, congestion of the interacinar blood capillaries, and degenerative changes in the striated duct. The kidneys appeared with interstitial hemorrhage and dilatation of the glomerular capillaries. The PCT and DCT showed ill-defined cell boundaries. The collecting tubules in the renal medulla appeared with flattened epithelial cells. The severity of these changes increases by increasing the dose of tartrazine in group III and reach to the highest level in group IV. The immunoexpression of the GFAP in the cerebellum of the experimental groups was intense compared to the control group. The immunoreactivity of PCNA in the nuclei of the acinar and ductal cells of the submandibular gland and the cells of the renal cortex and medulla was strong in the tartrazine-treated groups compared to the control group. The current study concluded that the tartrazine had serious effect on the cerebellum, submandibular glands, and kidneys that adversely affect the functions of these organs.

High-Dose Aspirin Reverses Tartrazine-Induced Cell Growth Dysregulation Independent of p53 Signaling and Antioxidant Mechanisms in Rat Brain

Tartrazine, an azo dye used in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals with the effects on cell cycle, is not well understood. Therefore, we investigated the toxicity of tartrazine in rat brain with high-dose aspirin. Male Wistar rats (n = 24) were divided into (C) control, (T) tartrazine (700 mg/kg body weight [BW] at weeks 1 and 2), (A) aspirin (150 mg/kg [BW] at weeks 1, 2, and 3), and (TA) aspirin + tartrazine (150 mg/kg [BW] aspirin at weeks 1, 2, and 3 and 700 mg/kg [BW] tartrazine at weeks 1 and 2) groups. The expression of p53, B cell lymphoma-2 extra-large (Bcl-xL), cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), p27, and Ki67 was evaluated by quantitative reverse-transcription PCR. A histopathological analysis of brain tissue and oxidative stress level was assessed based on reduced glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid (AA), and malondialdehyde levels. We found that Bcl-xL, Ki67, CDK2, and p27 were upregulated and p53 was downregulated in the tartrazine-treated group as compared to the control group. Aspirin administration reversed these changes except P53 expression. Tartrazine had no effect on lipid peroxidation but altered AA and GSH levels with no reversal by aspirin treatment. Histopathological analysis revealed that aspirin prevented tartrazine-induced damage including increased perivascular space and hemorrhage. These results indicate that aspirin protects the brain from tartrazine-induced toxicity independent of p53 signaling and antioxidant mechanisms.

Food Yellow4 reprotoxicity in relation to localization of DMC1 and apoptosis in rat testes: Roles of royal jelly and cod liver oil

Food Yellow 4 (FY4) is a lemon-yellow-colored synthetic organic azo dye, which is used widely for imparting pleasant and attractive appearance to foods and cosmetics. The present study aimed at evaluating the possible mechanism underlying the FY4-induced reprotoxicity in rats, and the potential supportive role of royal jelly (RJ) or cod liver oil (CLO), which is a natural remedy with several pharmacological benefits, against induced toxicity. Forty-eight male rats were divided into different groups-the control group, the CLO group (0.4 mL/kg), the RJ group (300 mg/kg), the FY4 group (500 mg/kg b.w.), and the co-treated groups (FY4 + CLO or FY4 + RJ). Semen analysis, serum hormones, and enzyme activities were estimated. Immunohistochemical staining was performed using anti-PCNA, anti-Sox 9, anti-STRA8, anti-DMC1, and anti-ssDNA antibody. The FY4 group exhibited a significant decrease in sperm concentration and motility percentage (%) and a substantial reduction in the TES and LH levels. Testicular LDH, ACP, and SDH were observed to be inhibited. Furthermore, co-localization of DMC1 and ssDNA, which reflected apoptotic induction in the leptotene and zygotene spermatocytes, respectively, was observed to have markedly elevated in the FY4 treated rats, with fewer PCNA-positive and SOX9-positive cells and higher ssDNA-positive cells in the seminiferous epithelium in comparison to the control groups. Interestingly, co-treatment with CLO or RJ exhibited healthy sperms and restored their features, activated the enzyme production, and raised the levels of sexual hormones. In addition, both RJ and CLO restored the features of the testicular tissue as observed under a light microscope, and limited the apoptosis as observed through antibody staining. Collectively, the results of the present study revealed that the co-administration of RJ or CLO with FY4 improved the biochemical, hormonal, and structural aspects of the testicular tissue in rats. Therefore, CLO and RJ may be considered promising agents that would be able to improve the testicular structure and function in the FY4-exposed individuals.

The influence of the synthetic food colourings tartrazine, allura red and indigo carmine on the body weight of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae) larvae

Substances for protecting plants often contain colourings, the impact of which on invertebrates has been studied insufficiently. The addition of food colourings in different concentrations to the diet of saprophage beetles can affect their metabolism, causing loss of body weight. In the experiment, we determined the impact of tartrazine, allura red and indigo carmine on the body weight of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, 1758 larvae. The substances were added to their fodder at five concentrations (1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001 g/kg of dry fodder) during a 21-day experiment. Statistically significant data on changes in the body weight of T. molitor larvae were received after adding 1 g/kg concentration of indigo carmine and 0.1 and 1 g/kg concentrations of tartrazine. In the other variants of the experiment, no statistically significant differences were determined. Tartrazine, allura red and indigo carmine cause decrease in the body weight of T. molitor larvae, depending on the concentration of the colouring. The toxic effect of synthetic food colourings on living organisms and the low number of studies devoted to such impact on insects indicate the relevance and necessity for further research in this sphere.

Royal jelly mitigates cadmium-induced neuronal damage in mouse cortex

This study aimed to evaluate the potential neuroprotective effect of royal jelly (RJ) against Cd-induced neuronal damage. Twenty-eight adult mice were placed equally into four groups. The control group received intraperitoneal (IP) injections of normal saline; the cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) group was IP-injected 6.5 mg/kg (mg per kg of bodyweight) CdCl₂; the RJ group was gavaged 85 mg/kg RJ; and the RJ + CdCl₂ group was orally administered 85 mg/kg RJ 2 h before receiving IP-injections of 6.5 mg/kg CdCl₂. All groups were treated for seven consecutive days and the mice were decapitated 24 h after the final dose. Cd accumulation was recorded in the cortical homogenates, accompanied by elevated levels of lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and the pro-apoptotic mRNA Bax and caspase-3. Meanwhile, significantly decreased levels of detoxifying antioxidant enzymes including GSH-Px, GSH-R, SOD, and CAT, anti-apoptotic mRNA Bcl-2, and monoamines such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin were also observed, along with reduced gene expression of Nrf2-dependent antioxidants. Interestingly, in mice pretreated with RJ, the assessed parameters remained near normal levels. Our data provide evidence that RJ treatment has the potential to protect cortical neurons in Cd-intoxicated mice via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuromodulatory activity.

Neurotoxic Outcomes of Subchronic Manganese Chloride Exposure via Contaminated Water in Adult Male Rats and the Potential Benefits of Ebselen

The neurological effects of manganese (Mn) exposure on adults consuming contaminated water remain unclear. Accordingly, the current experiment was planned to explore the neurotoxic consequences of subchronic Mn exposure via contaminated water and to examine whether ebselen (Ebs) improved these outcomes. Rats exposed to oral MnCl₂ (50 mg/kg body weight) for 30 successive days exhibited reduced rearing and ambulation. Furthermore, Mn administration increased brain Mn concentrations and induced superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione depletion. Mn administration also increased lipid peroxidation biomarker levels. Additionally, Mn increased interleukin1-β and prostaglandin E2 levels and altered caspase-3 and Bcl-2 expression. Mn intoxication also induced marked gliosis, numerous vacuolations, and disoriented and pyknotic Purkinje cells as well as marked vascular congestion in brain tissue. Meanwhile, intraperitoneal administration of Ebs (15 mg/kg body weight) to Mn-intoxicated rats improved the behavioral performance and oxidative damage as well as inflammatory, apoptotic, and histopathological changes. The above results indicate that Ebs alleviated Mn neurotoxicity via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities. Therefore, Ebs could represent a promising agent in the prevention of Mn-induced neurotoxicity.

Potential therapeutic role of melatonin on STZ-induced diabetic central neuropathy: A biochemical, histopathological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study

The aim of the present study was to assess the therapeutic potential of melatonin (Mel) in diabetic central neuropathy in a rat model of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. The rats were injected with 60 mg/kg STZ and diabetes was confirmed by blood glucose levels (BGL) ≥ 250 mg/dL. Mel treatment (50 mg/kg) was started 72 h before the STZ injection and continued for 45 days. In addition, normal control, vehicle (5% ethanol) control, and Mel-treated non-diabetic control were also included. STZ induced a diabetic phenotype with persistent hyperglycemia and elevated oxidative stress in the brain, liver, and kidneys compared to the control groups. In addition, the diabetic rats showed severe β-cell necrosis with reduced insulin levels, cerebral neuronopathy, myelinopathy, axonopathy, microglial and astroglial activation, and vascular damage. While Mel treatment did not prevent the development of STZ-induced diabetes mellitus and had no significant effect on the BGLs of the diabetic rats, it significantly ameliorated the diabetes-induced oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. Taken together, Mel showed potent therapeutic effects against the neurological complications of hyperglycemia and therefore can be used to treat diabetic neuropathy.