Prevalence of comorbidities among individuals with COVID-19: A rapid review of current literature

Predictors of COVID-19 Readmission Among Patients Previously Hospitalized for SARS-CoV-2

INTRODUCTION

Predictors of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related rehospitalization remain underexplored. This study aims to identify the main risk factors associated with rehospitalizations due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) reinfections among residents of Lombardy, northern Italy.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study was conducted using two linked administrative databases covering demographic data, comorbidities, hospital records, and COVID-19 data of Lombardy residents. The study population included patients hospitalized for COVID-19 between February 2020 and August 2021. Rehospitalization was defined as a second COVID-19-related hospitalization occurring at least 90 days after the first admission. The Fine-Gray subdistribution hazard model was used to identify risk factors, accounting for death as a competing risk.

RESULTS

Out of 98,369 patients hospitalized for COVID-19 between February 1, 2020 and August 31, 2021, 72,593 were alive 90 days after admission and 610 of these (0.8%) were rehospitalized. A higher rehospitalization risk was observed in older male patients with multiple comorbidities. Renal failure, liver disease, and use of diuretics were significantly associated with rehospitalization risk, while female biological sex and the use of lipid-lowering drugs were associated with a lower risk.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study conducted on regional administrative databases to investigate COVID-19 rehospitalizations. Through the availability of a huge cohort, it provides a groundwork for optimizing care for individuals at higher risk for COVID-19-related rehospitalizations. It underlines the need for patient-management approaches that extend beyond the initial recovery. This stresses the importance of ongoing monitoring and personalized interventions for those at heightened risk not only of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection but also related rehospitalizations.

Predictors of developing severe COVID-19 among hospitalized patients: a retrospective study

Background

COVID-19 poses a significant threat to global public health. As the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection varies among individuals, elucidating risk factors for severe COVID-19 is important for predicting and preventing illness progression, as well as lowering case fatality rates. This work aimed to explore risk factors for developing severe COVID-19 to enhance the quality of care provided to patients and to prevent complications.

Methods

A retrospective study was conducted in Saudi Arabia's eastern province, including all COVID-19 patients aged 18 years or older who were hospitalized at Prince Saud Bin Jalawi Hospital in July 2020. Comparative tests as well as both univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to identify risk factors for developing severe COVID-19 and poor outcomes.

Results

Based on the comparative statistical tests patients with severe COVID-19 were statistically significantly associated with older age and had higher respiratory rate, longer hospital stay, and higher prevalence of diabetes than non-severe cases. They also exhibited statistically significant association with high levels of potassium, urea, creatinine, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimer, and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). The univariate analysis shows that having diabetes, having high severe acute respiratory infection chest X-ray scores, old age, prolong hospitalization, high potassium and lactate dehydrogenase, as well as using insulin, heparin, corticosteroids, favipiravir or azithromycin were all statistically significant associated with severe COVID-19. However, after adjustments in the multivariate analysis, the sole predictor was serum LDH (p = 0.002; OR 1.005; 95% CI 1.002-1.009). In addition, severe COVID-19 patients had higher odds of being prescribed azithromycin than non-severe patients (p = 0.001; OR 13.725; 95% CI 3.620-52.043). Regarding the outcomes, the median hospital stay duration was statistically significantly associated with death, intensive care unit admission (ICU), and mechanical ventilation. On the other hand, using insulin, azithromycin, beta-agonists, corticosteroids, or favipiravir were statistically significantly associated with reduced mortality, ICU admission, and need of mechanical ventilation.

Conclusion

This study sheds light on numerous parameters that may be utilized to construct a prediction model for evaluating the risk of severe COVID-19. However, no protective factors were included in this prediction model.

Surfactant-derived protein type B: a new biomarker linked to respiratory failure and lung damage in mild to moderate SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant concern due to its impact on human health, particularly through pneumonia-induced lung damage. Surfactant proteins A and D (SP-A and SP-D) are implicated in COVID-19 lung damage, but the role of surfactant protein B (SP-B) remains unclear.

Methods

We conducted a single-centre, prospective observational study involving 73 hospitalised COVID-19 pneumonia patients. SP-B levels were measured within 48 h of admission, alongside SP-A and SP-D in a subset. Clinical data were collected, and follow-up visits were conducted after 6 months.

Results

At hospitalisation, circulating immature SP-B levels measured in 73 patients (median 26.31 arbitrary units (AU) (interquartile range 14.27-41.31)) correlated significantly with lung involvement (r=0.447, p<0.001) and oxygen support requirement (p=0.005). SP-B levels did not predict mechanical ventilation or intensive care unit admission. SP-B decreased significantly (p<0.001) from 25.53 AU (14.36-41.46) at the acute hospitalisation to 12.73 AU (9.12-20.23) at the 6-month follow-up, whereas SP-A and SP-D did not change significantly. Immature SP-B (but not SP-A and SP-D) was confirmed to be significantly associated with the need for oxygen support (n=26, 58%) during the hospitalisation (p<0.05).

Conclusion

Immature SP-B emerges as a potential biomarker for COVID-19 pneumonia severity and prognosis. Its dynamic changes suggest utility in monitoring disease progression and long-term outcomes, despite limitations in predicting hard end-points. Larger studies are needed to validate these findings and understand the underlying mechanisms of surfactant protein dysregulation in COVID-19 pathogenesis.

A Retrospective Observational Study Evaluating COVID-19 Mortality and Morbidity in a Rural ICU Among People Over and Under 65

Background The literature surrounding COVID-19 mortality in the elderly compellingly leans towards the elderly faring worse. The populations of such literature often combined the rural and urban populations or simply discounted the rural population altogether. Anecdotal evidence suggests that this stigma is misplaced and that the elderly are not always at risk of the worst health outcomes. Method SARS-CoV-2-positive patients who were admitted to the ICU of Hatta Hospital were included in the study. They were split into two groups, those under and those over the age of 65. Percentage mortality, morbidity using Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II), and duration of hospital admission were assessed in the two groups, and statistical analysis was performed. Results Seventy-two patients were deemed eligible for inclusion. Percentage mortality of the total population was 16.67% (N=12). In the under 65's arm the mortality percentage was 12.5% and the percentage mortality of the over 65's was 21.9% (N=7); chi-squared=1.13 (p=0.29). There was no statistical significance between mortality in the two arms. The global average time to discharge was 20.64 ± 1.98 days. The average time to discharge in the under-65's was 19.83± 2.64 days; the average time to discharge in the over-65 group was 21.66 ± 3.04 days; p= 0.65. The global average APACHE II score was 10.52 ± 0.77. The mean APACHE II score for the under 65's arm was 8.24 ± 0.95 while the mean APACHE II score for the over 65's was calculated at 13.2 ± 1.04: p=0.0008. Conclusion Overall, mortality was not significantly different, nor was their duration of stay. There was a significant difference in their morbidity; however, both groups had similar healthcare outcomes. The elderly did not face worse health outcomes than their younger counterparts. There is a gap in the literature discussing rural healthcare.

Trends and Patterns in Hypertension-Related Deaths: A Comprehensive Analysis Using Center for Disease Control and Prevention's Wide-Ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (CDC WONDER) Data

Hypertension (HTN) is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite advances in treatment, including the development and use of vasodilator-β-blocker combination and treatment with antihypertensive agents, HTN-related deaths have shown concerning trends. As such, the objective of this study is to examine the trends, disparities, and demographic variations in HTN-related mortality over a decade and to identify key factors contributing to these patterns, including genetics, dietary habits, structural discrimination in access to healthcare, lifestyle choices, and secondary hypertension, which is due to underlying conditions like kidney disease, hormonal disorders, or certain medications. To attain this objective, this retrospective study has utilized data from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's Wide-Ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (CDC WONDER) database to assess HTN-related mortality rates from 2010 to 2020. Age-adjusted mortality rates were calculated, and subgroup analyses were conducted by gender, race/ethnicity, and age groups. Temporal trends were analyzed to identify significant changes in mortality rates over time. Moreover, IBM SPSS Statistics, version 29 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) was used in the analysis, while 95% confidence intervals (CIs), were calculated to demonstrate the temporary trend of mortality rates overall and by age, sex, ethnicity, and region. Therefore, the mortality data from 2010 to 2020 show significant trends and variations across demographic groups. Overall, HTN-related mortality rate in the United States increased from 5.1 per 100,000 in 2010 to 6.4 in 2020, reflecting a general upward trend. For males, the rate rose from 4.8 to 6.6 per 100,000 during the same period. Racial disparities are notable, with Black or African American individuals having the highest mortality rates, increasing from 9.6 to 11.2 per 100,000. Age-specific data reveal that mortality in the 65-74 age group more than doubled, from 10.3 to 16.2 per 100,000, while in the 75-84 age group, it rose from 32.1 to 35.7. The 85+ age group had the highest rates, increasing from 144.0 to 155.0 per 100,000. States with the highest age-adjusted rates include Mississippi, Georgia, West Virginia, California, and Alabama. The study findings highlight the growing burden of HTN-related mortality in the United States, particularly among males, racial minorities, and older adults. This situation underscores the need for targeted public health interventions, which include creation of hypertension awareness in minority groups and enhancing medication adherence especially among Blacks, and addressing the social determinants of health contributing to higher HTN rates and poorer outcomes, including disadvantaged neighborhoods, structural discrimination and racism, and limited access to healthcare. The study found that African Americans are likely to be diagnosed with HTN earlier in life with higher HTN-related mortality than Whites, and with 50% increased risk of cardiovascular disease mortality. Continuous efforts are required to aptly address such disparities contributing to ongoing HTN treatment and care inequalities.

Vaccine Effectiveness Against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Reinfection by Type and Frequency of Vaccine: A Community-Based Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Although guidelines recommend vaccination for individuals who have recovered from the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection to prevent reinfection, comprehensive evaluation studies are limited. We aimed to evaluate vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 reinfection according to the primary vaccination status, booster vaccination status, and vaccination methods used.

METHODS

This population-based case-control study enrolled all SARS-CoV-2-infected patients in Seoul between January 2020 and February 2022. Individuals were categorized into case (reinfection) and control (no reinfection) groups. Data were analyzed using conditional logistic regression after adjusting for underlying comorbidities using multiple regression.

RESULTS

The case group included 7,678 participants (average age: 32.26 years). In all vaccinated individuals, patients who received the first and second booster doses showed reduced reinfection rates compared with individuals who received basic vaccination (odds ratio [OR] = 0.605, P < 0.001 and OR = 0.002, P < 0.001). Patients who received BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273, NVX-CoV2373 and heterologous vaccination showed reduced reinfection rates compared with unvaccinated individuals (OR = 0.546, P < 0.001; OR = 0.356, P < 0.001; and OR = 0.472, P < 0.001). However, the ChAdOx1-S or Ad26.COV2.S vaccination group showed a higher reinfection rate than the BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273 vaccination group (OR = 4.419, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

In SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals, completion of the basic vaccination series showed significant protection against reinfection compared with no vaccination. If the first or second booster vaccination was received, the protective effect against reinfection was higher than that of basic vaccination; when vaccinated with BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273 only or heterologous vaccination, the protective effect was higher than that of ChAdOx1-S or Ad26.COV2.S vaccination only.

Assessment of post-SARS-CoV-2 fatigue among physicians working in COVID-designated hospitals in Dhaka, Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Fatigue has been observed after the outbreaks of several infectious diseases around the world. To explore the fatigue level among physicians working in COVID-19-designated hospitals in Bangladesh, a matched case‒control study was conducted on post-SARS-CoV-2 fatigue.

METHOD

In this study, 105 physicians diagnosed with COVID-19 who were declared cured at least 6 weeks before the interview date were recruited as cases, and the same number of age- and designation-matched healthy physicians were recruited as controls from the same hospital at a 1:1 ratio. Diagnosis of COVID-19 infection was confirmed by detection of SARS CoV-2 antigen by RT‒PCR from reference laboratories in Bangladesh or by HRCT chest.

RESULT

Approximately two-thirds of the physicians were male (67.6% vs. 32.4%). More than 80% of them were younger than 40 years. The cases had a significantly greater number of comorbid conditions. The fatigue severity scale (FSS) score (mean) was much higher for cases (36.7 ± 5.3 vs. 19.3 ± 3.8) than for the control group, with a statistically significant difference. Similarly, approximately 67.7% of the previously COVID-19-positive physicians were in the highest FSS score tertile compared to the respondents in the control group, who had a mean score of <3.

CONCLUSION

Physicians who had a previous history of COVID-19 infection had significantly higher total and mean FSS scores, signifying a more severe level of fatigue than physicians who had never been COVID-19 positive while working in the same hospital irrespective of their age and sex.

Metabolic Disease and The Risk of Post-COVID Conditions: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Objective

To examine the influence of having a baseline metabolic disorder (diabetes, hypertension, and/or obesity) on the risk of developing new clinical sequelae potentially related to SARS-CoV-2 in a large sample of commercially insured adults in the US.

Design setting and participants

Deidentified data were collected from the IBM/Watson MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters (CCAE) Databases and Medicare Supplemental and Coordination of Benefits (MDCR) Databases from 2019 to 2021. A total of 839,344 adults aged 18 and above with continuous enrollment in the health plan were included in the analyses. Participants were grouped into four categories based on their COVID-19 diagnosis and whether they had at least one of the three common metabolic disorders at baseline (diabetes, obesity, or hypertension).

Measures and methods

ICD-10-CM codes were used to determine new symptoms and conditions after the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection, defined as ending 21 days after initial diagnosis date, or index period for those who did not have a COVID-19 diagnosis. Propensity score matching (PSM) was used to create comparable reference groups. Cox proportional hazard models were conducted to estimate hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals.

Results

Among the 772,377 individuals included in the analyses, 36,742 (4.8%) without and 20,912 (2.7%) with a baseline metabolic disorder were diagnosed with COVID-19. On average, COVID-19 patients with baseline metabolic disorders had more 2.4 more baseline comorbidities compared to those without baseline metabolic disorders. Compared to adults with no baseline metabolic condition, the risks of developing new clinical sequelae were highest among COVID-19 patients with a baseline metabolic condition (HRs ranging from 1.51 to 3.33), followed by those who had a baseline metabolic condition but with no COVID-19 infection (HRs ranging from 1.33 to 2.35), and those who had COVID-19 but no baseline metabolic condition (HRs ranging from 1.34 to 2.85).

Conclusions

In a large national cohort of commercially insured adults, COVID-19 patients with a baseline metabolic condition had the highest risk of developing new clinical sequelae post-acute infection phase, followed by those who had baseline metabolic condition but no COVID-19 infection and those who had COVID-19 but no baseline metabolic disorder.

Host genetic variants associated with COVID-19 reconsidered in a Slovak cohort

We present the results of an association study involving hospitalized coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients with a clinical background during the 3rd pandemic wave of COVID-19 in Slovakia. Seventeen single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the eleven most relevant genes, according to the COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative, were investigated. Our study confirms the validity of the influence of LZTFL1 and 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS)1/OAS3 genetic variants on the severity of COVID-19. For two LZTFL1 SNVs in complete linkage disequilibrium, rs17713054 and rs73064425, the odds ratios of baseline allelic associations and logistic regressions (LR) adjusted for age and sex ranged in the four tested designs from 2.04 to 2.41 and from 2.05 to 3.98, respectively. The OAS1/OAS3 haplotype 'gttg' carrying a functional allele G of splice-acceptor variant rs10774671 manifested its protective function in the Delta pandemic wave. Significant baseline allelic associations of two DPP9 variants in all tested designs and two IFNAR2 variants in the Omicron pandemic wave were not confirmed by adjusted LR. Nevertheless, adjusted LR showed significant associations of NOTCH4 rs3131294 and TYK2 rs2304256 variants with severity of COVID-19. Hospitalized patients' reported comorbidities were not correlated with genetic variants, except for obesity, smoking (IFNAR2), and hypertension (NOTCH4). The results of our study suggest that host genetic variations have an impact on the severity and duration of acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Considering the differences in allelic associations between pandemic waves, they support the hypothesis that every new SARS-CoV-2 variant may modify the host immune response by reconfiguring involved pathways.

Analyzing the Outcomes of COVID-19 Infection on Patients With Comorbidities: Insights From Hospital-Based Study

Introduction COVID-19 exhibits a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from asymptomatic or mild cases to severe respiratory distress and, in some instances, fatal outcomes. The pre-existing inflammatory state in the patient prior to exposure to COVID-19, which could be because of any etiology or comorbidity, has been associated with prolonged morbidity, and adverse outcomes like increased mortality have been found. This study endeavors to investigate the principal risk factors linked to the morbidity and mortality of COVID-19, such as age, gender, and co-morbidities such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and others. Material and methods Patient demographic data like age, gender, and co-morbidities like diabetes mellitus, hypertension, respiratory illness, and coronary artery diseases, cerebrovascular accident was observed. The patient clinical profile, hematological, inflammatory markers at the time of admission, and outcome were noticed. Patients were divided into two groups - patients with comorbidity and those without comorbidity. Results In each cohort of COVID-19 patients, comprising those with and without comorbidities, there were 145 participants. The mean age of patients without comorbidities was found to be 49.97 years, whereas the mean age of those with comorbidities was 64.35 years. Within the comorbidity group, males formed the majority, accounting for 77.2% of the cohort; in the group without comorbidity also males predominated, representing 68.3% of the participants. Hypertension was the most common co-morbidity (89.7%), followed by diabetes mellitus (39.3%), and ischemic heart disease (8.3%). The multivariate logistic regression analysis for prediction of mortality showed hypothyroidism with odds ratio (OR) of 336.26 and confidence intervals (CI) (1.19-9477.13), ischemic heart disease with OR of 320.94 (CI 3.19-3237.4) and presence greater than two co-morbidities with OR of 42.14 (CI 1.34-1325.76). Cox regression analysis showed a statistically significant hazard ratio of 0.294 in patients with greater than two co-morbidities. Conclusion Hypothyroidism, ischemic heart disease, and the presence of multiple comorbid conditions were associated with the severity of COVID-19 illness and mortality.

The Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Due to COVID-19 Pandemic

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infection caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that produces respiratory symptoms and has serious consequences for people's cardiovascular systems (CVS). It is a severe issue and a major task not only for health care experts but also for governments to contain this pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh member of the human coronavirus family to be implicated in this zoonotic outbreak. COVID-19's CV interactions are comparable to those of SARS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), and influenza. Those who have COVID-19 and underlying cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are at a higher risk of serious illness and mortality, and disease has been linked to several direct and indirect CV consequences. COVID-19 causes CVDs such as arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, cardiogenic shock, myocarditis, stress-cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial damage (AMD) as a consequence of acute coronary syndrome. The provision of CV care may expose health care professionals to risk as they become hosts or vectors of viral transmission. It binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor, causing constitutional and pulmonary signs in the beginning, and then as the infection advances, it affects other organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, CVS, neurological system, and so on. COVID-19 mortality is increased by underlying CVDs comorbidities.

Risk of COVID-19 among patients with respiratory illnesses and comorbidities at Eastern Province of Sri Lanka: A retrospective study

Background: There is a general belief that patients with comorbidities have a higher risk of contracting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and subsequent death. However, there are significant gaps in understanding these risks. Objective: The study aimed to assess the risk of COVID-19 among respiratory illness patients admitted to the hospital with comorbidities. Method: A retrospective cohort study was conducted in a hospital in Sri Lanka, where the records of 428 patients with respiratory illness were studied for COVID-19 infection and comorbidities from 2020 to 2022. Results: In this sample, 67.1% had been infected with COVID-19 and 51.6% had comorbidities. The age group ≥60 years had two times higher risk for comorbidities, and the most frequently occurring condition was hypertension (58.8%). Surprisingly, the infection rate of COVID-19 among patients with comorbidities was 28% lower compared to patients with no comorbidities, but the odds ratio (OR) for dying was greater once the patient with comorbidities was infected with COVID-19 (OR = 7.5). An increased risk of death was observed for COVID-19 patients with diabetes mellitus (OR = 2), hypertension (OR = 2.5), heart diseases (OR = 4.3), and renal diseases (OR = 2.4). Conclusion: It was surprising to find that the infection rate and risk of death due to COVID-19 were lower among patients with chronic lung diseases. This could be due to early death at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, less hospital admissions for patients with chronic lung diseases, or resistance to COVID-19, and these are factors that require further exploration.

A Study on Mortality Predictors in Hemodialysis Patients Infected with COVID-19: Impact of Vaccination Status

The global outbreak of COVID-19, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has prompted significant public health concerns. This study focuses on 442 chronic hemodialysis patients diagnosed with COVID-19, emphasizing the impact of vaccination status on clinical outcomes. The study investigates the correlation between vaccination status and laboratory findings, aiming to identify predictive factors for mortality. Results indicate that vaccination status plays a crucial role in outcomes. Full vaccination, evidenced by two or three doses, is associated with better outcomes, including reduced incidence of bilateral pneumonia and lower risks of complications such as hemorrhage and thrombosis. Laboratory analyses reveal significant differences between vaccinated and unvaccinated patients in parameters like C-reactive protein, ferritin, and white blood cell counts. Univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression analyses identify several factors influencing mortality, including comorbidities, pneumonia development, and various inflammatory markers. In conclusion among hemodialysis patients affected by COVID-19 infection, vaccination with at least three doses emerges as a protective factor against fatal outcomes. Independent predictors of mortality are CRP levels upon admission, maximum CRP values during the illness and cardiovascular comorbidities. Noteworthy lymphocytopenia during infection exhibits a notable level of specificity and sensitivity in predicting mortality.

Clinical and laboratory characteristics of children with severe and nonsevere COVID-19 in Kermanshah, west of Iran: A retrospective study

Background and Aims

The study aimed to collect and compare clinical and laboratory findings of children with severe and nonsevere COVID-19 in Kermanshah City, located in the west of Iran.

Methods

The study was conducted on 500 children with COVID-19 hospitalized in Mohammad-Kermanshahi Hospital in Kermanshah City. Pediatric COVID-19 was confirmed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test using respiratory secretion samples. Medical records were reviewed and information related to demographic characteristics, underlying diseases, clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, and chest computed tomography (CT) scans were all extracted from electronic and paper records. Patients were divided into three groups according to the severity of the disease: mild, moderate, and severe. Clinical and laboratory findings were compared between the groups and the collected data were analyzed by statistical methods.

Results

Out of 500 patients, 286 were boys and 214 were girls. Of the patients, 321 cases were only COVID-19, while 179 patients were diagnosed as Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) positive. The average age of COVID-19 patients was 3.85 ± 4.48 and of MIS-C patients was 3.1 ± 3.5. In order, fever, cough, and heart disorders were the most common symptoms in patients with COVID-19 and MIS-C, respectively. In terms of disease severity, 246 patients had mild disease, 19 patients had moderate disease, and 56 patients had severe disease. In severe patients, the average number of white blood cells (WBC) was higher, while the average number of lymphocytes was lower. Also, in these patients, the average age was lower, and most of them had respiratory distress. In mild patients, often cough, diarrhea, and vomiting were observed.

Conclusion

The results of our study showed that laboratory factors such as WBC count, lymphocyte count, CT findings, Respiratory distress, cough, diarrhea, and vomiting can be used to evaluate the severity of COVID-19 in children.

Antibody response and soluble mediator profile in the first six months following acute SARS-CoV-2 infection

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a severe global health and economic crisis, with significant consequences for human mortality and morbidity. Therefore, there is an urgent need for more studies on the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, both to enhance its effectiveness and prevent its deleterious effects. This study presents the chronology of antibodies during six months after infection in hospitalized patients and the kinetics of serum soluble mediators of the cellular response triggered by SARS-CoV-2. Samples and clinical data from 330 patients hospitalized at the Hospital da Baleia in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, who were suspected of having COVID-19, were collected at the time of hospitalization and during 6 months after infection. The immune response was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry. There was a significant difference in IgM specific antibody titers from the 7th to 60th days after infection between COVID-19 negative and positive patients. Soon after 60 days after infection, antibody levels started to reduce, becoming similar to the antibody levels of the COVID-19 negative patients. IgG specific antibodies started to be detectable after 9 days of infection and antibody levels were comparatively higher in positive patients as soon as after 7 days. Furthermore, IgG levels remained higher in these patients during the complete period of 180 days after infection. The study observed similar antibody profiles between different patient groups. The soluble systemic biomarkers evaluated showed a decrease during the six months after hospitalization, except for CCL11, CXCL8, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, IL-6, IFN-g, IL-17, IL-5, FGF-basic, PDGF, VEGF, G-CSF, and GM-CSF. The results indicate that IgM antibodies are more prominent in the early stages of infection, while IgG antibodies persist for a longer period. Additionally, the study identified that patients with COVID-19 have elevated levels of biomarkers after symptom onset, which decrease over time.

The impact of COVID-19 on the lives of Canadians with and without non-communicable chronic diseases: results from the iCARE Study

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic and its prevention policies have taken a toll on Canadians, and certain subgroups may have been disproportionately affected, including those with non-communicable diseases (NCDs; e.g., heart and lung disease) due to their risk of COVID-19 complications and women due to excess domestic workload associated with traditional caregiver roles during the pandemic.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES

We investigated the impacts of COVID-19 on mental health, lifestyle habits, and access to healthcare among Canadians with NCDs compared to those without, and the extent to which women with NCDs were disproportionately affected.

METHODS

As part of the iCARE study ( www.icarestudy.com ), data from eight cross-sectional Canadian representative samples (total n = 24,028) was collected via online surveys between June 4, 2020 to February 2, 2022 and analyzed using general linear models.

RESULTS

A total of 45.6% (n = 10,570) of survey respondents indicated having at least one physician-diagnosed NCD, the most common of which were hypertension (24.3%), chronic lung disease (13.3%) and diabetes (12.0%). In fully adjusted models, those with NCDs were 1.18-1.24 times more likely to report feeling lonely, irritable/frustrated, and angry 'to a great extent' compared to those without (p's < 0.001). Similarly, those with NCDs were 1.22-1.24 times more likely to report worse eating and drinking habits and cancelling medical appointments/avoiding the emergency department compared to those without (p's < 0.001). Moreover, although there were no sex differences in access to medical care, women with NCDs were more likely to report feeling anxious and depressed, and report drinking less alcohol, compared to men with NCDs (p's < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that people with NCDs in general and women in general have been disproportionately more impacted by the pandemic, and that women with NCDs have suffered greater psychological distress (i.e., feeling anxious, depressed) compared to men, and men with NCDs reported having increased their alcohol consumption more since the start of COVID-19 compared to women. Findings point to potential intervention targets among people with NCDs (e.g., prioritizing access to medical care during a pandemic, increasing social support for this population and mental health support).

The Intersection Between COVID-19, Cardiovascular Disease, and Diet: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the top comorbidities associated with COVID-19-both pre- and post-infection. This review examines the relationships between COVID-19 infection and cardiovascular health, with a specific focus on diet as an important modifiable risk factor.

RECENT FINDINGS

Pandemic era studies of individuals battling and recovering from COVID-19 infection suggest a strong link between metabolic diseases, such as CVD, and SARS-CoV-2 infection susceptibility and severity. Other studies also demonstrate how COVID-19 lockdown policies and quarantine recommendations led to drastic lifestyle changes associated with increased CVD risk, such as reduced physical activity and lower diet quality. At the same time, new research is emerging that plant-based diets, which have previously been associated with lower CVD risk, may lower COVID-19 infection rates and severity of symptoms. Diet, COVID-19, and CVD intersect through complex biological mechanisms and related behavioral factors evidenced by clinical trials and epidemiological studies. Diet may be a critical tool for modifying risk of communicable and non-communicable conditions in the post-pandemic world.

Risk Factors Associated with Severity and Death from COVID-19 in Iran: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Study

Objectives: This study aims to investigate the risk factors associated with severity and death from COVID-19 through a systematic review and meta-analysis of the published documents in Iran. Methods: A systematic search was performed based on all articles indexed in Scopus, Embase, Web of Science (WOS), PubMed, and Google Scholar in English and Scientific Information Database (SID) and Iranian Research Institute for Information Science and Technology (IRA)NDOC indexes in Persian. To assess quality, we used the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. Publication bias was assessed using Egger's tests. Forest plots were used for a graphical description of the results. We used HRs, and ORs reported for the association between risk factors and COVID-19 severity and death. Results: Sixty-nine studies were included in the meta-analysis, of which 62 and 13 had assessed risk factors for death and severity, respectively. The results showed a significant association between death from COVID-19 and age, male gender, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD), cerebrovascular disease, chronic kidney disease (CKD), Headache, and Dyspnea. We observed a significant association between increased white blood cell (WBC), decreased Lymphocyte, increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN), increased creatinine, vitamin D deficiency, and death from COVID-19. There was only a significant relationship between CVD and disease severity. Conclusion: It is recommended that the predictive risk factors of COVID-19 severity and death mentioned in this study to be used for therapeutic and health interventions, to update clinical guidelines and determine patients' prognoses.

Comorbidities of COVID-19 Patients

The novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) responsible for the coronavirus disease outbreak initiated in 2019 (COVID-19) has been shown to affect the health of infected patients in a manner at times dependent on pre-existing comorbidities. Reported here is an overview of the correlation between comorbidities and the exacerbation of the disease in patients with COVID-19, which may lead to poor clinical outcomes or mortality. General medical issues are also reviewed, such as the types of symptoms present in people infected with SARS-CoV-2, the long-term effects of COVID-19 disease, and the types of treatment that are currently used.

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on Emergency Department Visits in a Tertiary Hospital

Purpose

This study aimed to highlight the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on emergency department (ED) visits of non-COVID-19 patients in a tertiary hospital and evaluate protocol development during this period.

Patients and Methods

Clinical data of patients who visited the ED of Foshan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine during the first-level response in Foshan, Guangdong province in 2020 (from January 23 to February 24) and the same period in 2019 and 2021 were collected. A retrospective cross-sectional analysis was performed to understand the characteristics of critically ill patients and compare the proportion of hospitalizations, deaths, and emergency ambulance calls (EACs).

Results

The number of patients presenting to the ED was significantly decreased, with a 37.75% reduction in 2020 (6196) compared to the same period in 2019 (9954). A rise in patient ED presentations was observed in the same period in 2021 (10,503). This decline was mostly in the 15-45 age group. In 2019, 2020, and 2021, critically ill patients treated by the ED totaled 568 (5.706%), 339 (5.495%), and 590 (5.617%), respectively. Compared to the same period in 2019 and 2021, the proportion of critically ill patients with respiratory system involvement, severe trauma, and poisoning decreased most significantly in 2020 (P<0.05). In contrast, the rates of EACs, hospitalizations, and deaths increased significantly (P<0.05).

Conclusion

The number of ED visits to hospitals was decreased during the 2020 lockdown, while the rates of EACs, hospitalizations, and deaths increased significantly though there were no documented COVID-19 cases. Optimizing emergency medical resources and ensuring the safety of healthcare providers and patients were essential to provide efficient emergency diagnosis and treatment during the lockdown.

In-Person and Telehealth Provider Access and Glycemic Control for People With Diabetes During the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory care underwent rapid changes at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Care for people with diabetes shifted from an almost exclusively in-person model to a hybrid model consisting of in-person visits, telehealth visits, phone calls, and asynchronous messaging.

METHODS

We analyzed data for all patients with diabetes and established with a provider at a large academic medical center to identify in-person and telehealth ambulatory provider visits over two periods of time (a "pre-COVID" and "COVID" period).

RESULTS

While the number of people with diabetes and any ambulatory provider visit decreased during the COVID period, telehealth saw massive growth. Per Hemoglobin A1c, glycemic control remained stable from the pre-COVID to COVID time periods.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support continued use of telehealth, and we anticipate hybrid models of care will be utilized for people with diabetes beyond the pandemic.

Potential drug-drug interactions and their associated factors in hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities

Background

Hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities receive more complex drug therapy. This increases the probability of potential drug-drug interactions (pDDIs). Studies on pDDIs in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in countries with limited resources like Indonesia during the later period of the disease are still limited. This study aims to identify the pattern of pDDIs in hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities and their associated factors, especially in the second wave of the disease in Indonesia.

Methods

This study was a longitudinal-retrospective study observing hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities using medical record data in June-August 2021 at a public hospital in a region in Indonesia. pDDIs were identified using the Lexicomp^® database. Data were descriptively analyzed. Factors associated with important pDDIs were analyzed in multivariate logistic regression model.

Results

A total of 258 patients with a mean age of 56.99 ± 11.94 years met the inclusion criteria. Diabetes mellitus was the most common comorbidity experienced by 58.14% of the patients. More than 70% of the patients had one comorbidity and the average number of administered drugs was 9.55 ± 2.71 items per patient. Type D pDDIs, which required modification of therapeutic regimens, amounted to 21.55% of the total interactions. Only the number of drugs was significantly and independently associated with type D pDDIs (adjusted odds ratio 1.47 [1.23-1.75], p < 0.01).

Conclusion

The drugs involved in the pDDIs of hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities may differ depending on the disease periods, hospital settings, or countries. This study was small, single center, and of short duration. However, it may give a glimpse of important pDDIs during the delta variant of COVID-19 in a similar limited-resource setting. Further studies are needed to confirm the clinical significance of these pDDIs.

Post-COVID symptom profiles and duration in a global convalescent COVID-19 observational cohort: Correlations with demographics, medical history, acute COVID-19 severity and global region

Background

Post-COVID conditions are characterised by persistent symptoms that negatively impact quality of life after SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis. While post-COVID risk factors and symptoms have been extensively described in localised regions, especially in the global north, post-COVID conditions remain poorly understood globally. The global, observational cohort study HVTN 405/HPTN 1901 characterises the convalescent course of SARS-CoV-2 infection among adults in North and South America and Africa.

Methods

We categorised the cohort by infection severity (asymptomatic, symptomatic, no oxygen requirement (NOR), non-invasive oxygen requirement (NIOR), invasive oxygen requirement (IOR)). We applied a regression model to assess correlations of demographics, co-morbidities, disease severity, and concomitant medications with COVID-19 symptom persistence and duration across global regions.

Results

We enrolled 759 participants from Botswana, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Peru, and the USA a median of 51 (interquartile range (IQR) = 35-66) days post-diagnosis, from May 2020 to March 2021. 53.8% were female, 69.8% were 18-55 years old (median (md) = 44 years old, IQR = 33-58). Comorbidities included obesity (42.8%), hypertension (24%), diabetes (14%), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (11.6%) and lung disease (7.5%). 76.2% were symptomatic (NOR = 47.4%; NIOR = 22.9%; IOR = 5.8%). Median COVID-19 duration among symptomatic participants was 20 days (IQR = 11-35); 43.4% reported symptoms after COVID-19 resolution, 33.6% reported symptoms ≥30 days, 9.9% reported symptoms ≥60 days. Symptom duration correlated with disease severity (P < 0.001, NIOR vs NOR; P = 0.003, IOR vs NOR), lung disease (P = 0.001), race (P < 0.05, non-Hispanic Black vs White), and global region (P < 0.001). Prolonged viral shedding correlated with persistent abdominal pain (odds ratio (OR) = 5.51, P < 0.05) and persistent diarrhoea (OR = 6.64, P < 0.01).

Conclusions

Post-COVID duration varied with infection severity, race, lung disease, and region. Better understanding post-COVID conditions, including regionally-diverse symptom profiles, may improve clinical assessment and management globally.

Registration

Clinicaltrials.gov (#NCT04403880).

Changes in clinic visits and diabetes and metabolic control in patients with type 2 diabetes during COVID-19 pandemic: A real world evidence

PURPOSE

The study aim was to evaluate the effects of public lockdown during the covid-19 pandemic on glucose and metabolic parameters as well as body weight control in type 2 diabetic patients.

METHODS

This study was conducted in two outpatient Diabetes Clinics and analyzed data available in database of Diabetes Clinic. Data related to a year before covid-19 pandemic and a year during covid-19 pandemic was collected from the database and analyzed. Patients with type 2 diabetes included in the analysis if they had referred to Diabetes Clinics both before and during covid-19 pandemic. Demographic information and data about metabolic status were collected from the records of previous outpatient Clinic visits and compared RESULTS: Finally 9440 patients with mean age of 61.08 ± 11.62 referred to Diabetes Clinics in both the year before and the year of the corona pandemic. Mean FBS and HbA1c in diabetes patients reduced significantly from 155.37 ± 62.93 and 7.97 ± 1.74 before pandemic, respectively to 138.77 ± 45.39 and 7.54 ± 1.34, respectively during covid-19 outbreak. During covid-19 pandemic, all metabolic parameters including glycemic and lipid profile (except for triglyceride) and BMI (body mass index) reduced significantly statistically, but, these changes were not clinically significant. However, triglyceride level increased statistically significantly but again it was not significant clinically.

CONCLUSION

During COVID-19 lockdown, glycemic and metabolic control of diabetes patients have improved significantly except for triglycerides.

Disability-Adjusted Life-Years for Drug Overdose Crisis and COVID-19 Are Comparable During the Two Years of Pandemic in the United States

OBJECTIVES

The drug overdose crisis with shifting patterns from primarily opioid to polysubstance uses and COVID-19 infections are 2 concurrent public health crises in the United States, affecting the population of sizes in different magnitudes (approximately < 10 million for substance use disorder [SUD] and drug overdoses vs 80 million for COVID-19 within 2 years of the pandemic). Our objective is to compare the relative scale of disease burden for the 2 crises within a common framework, which could help inform policy makers with resource allocation and prioritization strategies.

METHODS

We calculated disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for SUD (including opioids and stimulants) and COVID-19 infections, respectively. We collected estimates for SUD prevalence, overdose deaths, COVID-19 cases and deaths, disability weights, and life expectancy from multiple publicly available sources. We then compared age distributions of estimated DALYs.

RESULTS

We estimated a total burden of 13.83 million DALYs for SUD and drug overdoses and 15.03 million DALYs for COVID-19 in 2 years since March 2020. COVID-19 burden was dominated by the fatal burden (> 95% of total DALYs), whereas SUD burden was attributed to both fatal (53%) and nonfatal burdens (47%). The highest disease burden was among individuals aged 30 to 39 years for SUD (27%) and 50 to 64 years for COVID-19 (31%).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the smaller size of the affected population, SUD and drug overdoses resulted in comparable disease burden with the COVID-19 pandemic. Additional resources supporting evidence-based interventions in prevention and treatment may be warranted to ameliorate SUD and drug overdoses during both the pandemic and postpandemic recovery.

Overview of the cardio-metabolic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Evidence has shown that cardiometabolic disorders (CMDs) are amongst the top contributors to COVID-19 infection morbidity and mortality. The reciprocal impact of COVID-19 infection and the most common CMDs, the risk factors for poor composite outcome among patients with one or several underlying diseases, the effect of common medical management on CMDs and their safety in the context of acute COVID-19 infection are reviewed. Later on, the changes brought by the COVID-19 pandemic quarantine on the general population's lifestyle (diet, exercise patterns) and metabolic health, acute cardiac complications of different COVID-19 vaccines and the effect of CMDs on the vaccine efficacy are discussed. Our review identified that the incidence of COVID-19 infection is higher among patients with underlying CMDs such as hypertension, diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular disease. Also, CMDs increase the risk of COVID-19 infection progression to severe disease phenotypes (e.g. hospital and/or ICU admission, use of mechanical ventilation). Lifestyle modification during COVID-19 era had a great impact on inducing and worsening of CMDs. Finally, the lower efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines was found in patients with metabolic disease.

Clinical courses of 24,563 hospitalized COVID-19 patients during the first 12 months of the pandemic in the Central City of Iran

This study was designed and implemented to analyze and establish documents related to the above cases in the first to third COVID-19 epidemic waves for the use of researchers and doctors during and after the epidemic. The current case series study was conducted on 24,563 thousand hospitalized COVID-19 patients by examining their clinical characteristics within a one-year period from the beginning of the pandemic on 02.22.2020 to 02.14.2021, which included the first to the third waves, based on gender and severity of COVID-19. The mean age of the participants was 56 ± 20.71, and 51.8% were male. Out of a total of 24,563 thousand hospitalized COVID-19 patients until February 2021, there were 2185 mortalities (9.8%) and 2559 cases of severe COVID-19 (13.1%). The median length of hospitalization from the time of admission to discharge or death in the hospital (IQR: 13-41) was estimated to be 21 days. The rate of hospital mortality was higher in severe (37.8%) than in non-severe (4.8%) cases of COVID-19, While the risk of severe cases increased significantly in the third (HR = 1.65, 95% CI: 1.46-1.87, P < 0.001) and early fourth waves (HR = 2.145, 95% CI: 1.7-2.71, P < 0.001). Also, the risk of contracting severe COVID-19 increased significantly in patients aged ≥ 65 years old (HR = 2.1, 95% CI 1.1.93-2.72, P < 0.001). As shown by the results, the rates of hospital mortality (9.3% vs. 8.5%) and severe cases of COVID-19 (13.6% vs. 12.5%) were higher among men than women (P < 0.01). In our study, the mortality rate and severity of COVID-19 were within the scope of global studies. Men experienced higher severity and mortality than women. The was a significantly higher prevalence of old age and underlying diseases in individuals with severe COVID-19. Our data also showed that patients with a previous history of COVID-19 had a more severe experience of COVID-19, while most of these patients were also significantly older and had an underlying disease.

Evaluation of the effects of anakinra treatment on clinic and laboratory results in patients with COVID-19

OBJECTIVE

Some anti-cytokine treatments are being used to control the hyperinflammatory condition defined as cytokine storm that develops during COVID-19 infection. In this study, we aim to investigate the effects of anakinra, an IL-1 antagonist, on the clinical status and laboratory values of hospitalized patients with the COVID-19 infection. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of anakinra, an IL-1 antagonist, on the clinical and laboratory results of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 infection.

METHODS

This study was planned as a retrospective study. The age, gender, and current comorbidities of a total of 66 patients who were treated with anakinra for COVID-19 infection from November 2020 to January 2021 were analyzed. The amount of oxygen demand (L/s), the type of oxygen supplementation, oxygen saturation, radiological findings, WBC count, lymphocyte count, neutrophil count, C-reactive protein, LDH, ferritin, fibrinogen, D-dimer levels were monitored before the treatment, and after the anakinra treatment, newly gathered results were compared. Patients' hospitalization period, oxygen need, and their clinical status at discharge were evaluated. The effects of early anakinra treatment (9 days before and after the onset of symptoms) on the prognosis were evaluated. SPSS version 21.0 provided by IBM Company in the USA, Chicago, IL was used for statistical analysis and p<0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Sixty-six patients were included in the study. There was no significant gender difference in the prognosis of the patients. There was a significant difference in the statistical deterioration in patients with comorbidities (p=0.004). Patients who started the anakinra treatment at an early stage developed less need for intensive care and low mortality ratios (p=0.019). There were significant improvements on the levels of WBC (p=0.045), neutrophils (p=0.016), lymphocyte (p=0.001), LDH (p=0.005), ferritin (p=0.02), and fibrinogen (p=0.01) after the administration of anakinra therapy.

CONCLUSION

We found that earlier and appropriate use of anakinra therapy in COVID-19 patients with the signs of macrophage activation syndrome reduces the need for oxygen support in patients and contributes to improvement in laboratory results and radiological findings, and most importantly reduces the need for intensive care.

Assessing and Reassessing the Association of Comorbidities and Coinfections in COVID-19 Patients

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has posed an enormous global health and economic burden. To date, 324 million confirmed cases and over 5.5 million deaths have been reported. Several studies have reported comorbidities and coinfections associated with complicated and serious COVID-19 infections. Data from retrospective, prospective, case series, and case reports from various geographical locations were assessed, which included ~ 2300 COVID-19 patients with varying comorbidities and coinfection. We report that Enterobacterales with Staphylococcus aureus was the most while Mycoplasma pneumoniae was the least prevalent coinfection in COVID-19 patients with a comorbidity. In this order, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary disease were the prevalent comorbidities observed in COVID-19 patients. There was a statistically significant difference in the prevalent comorbidities observed in patients coinfected with Staphylococcus aureus and COVID-19 and a statistically non-significant difference in the prevalent comorbidities in patients coinfected with Mycoplasma pneumoniae and COVID-19 as compared to similar infections in non-COVID-19 coinfection. We report a significant difference in the prevalent comorbidities recorded in COVID-19 patients with varying coinfections and varying geographic study regions. Our study provides informative data on the prevalence of comorbidities and coinfections in COVID-19 patients to aid in evidence-based patient management and care.

Comorbidity-stratified estimates of 30-day mortality risk by age for unvaccinated men and women with COVID-19: a population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

The mortality risk following COVID-19 diagnosis in men and women with common comorbidities at different ages has been difficult to communicate to the general public. The purpose of this study was to determine the age at which unvaccinated men and women with common comorbidities have a mortality risk which exceeds that of 75- and 65-year-old individuals in the general population (Phases 1b/1c thresholds of the Centre for Disease Control Vaccine Rollout Recommendations) following COVID-19 infection during the first wave.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based retrospective cohort study using linked administrative datasets in Ontario, Canada. We identified all community-dwelling adults diagnosed with COVID-19 between January 1 and October 31st, 2020. Exposures of interest were age (modelled using restricted cubic splines) and the following conditions: major cardiovascular disease (recent myocardial infarction or lifetime history of heart failure); 2) diabetes; 3) hypertension; 4) recent cancer; 5) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; 6) Stages 4/5 chronic kidney disease (CKD); 7) frailty. Logistic regression in the full cohort was used to estimate the risk of 30-day mortality for 75- and 65-year-old individuals. Analyses were repeated after stratifying by sex and medical condition to determine the age at which 30-day morality risk in strata exceed that of the general population at ages 65 and 75 years.

RESULTS

We studied 52,429 individuals (median age 42 years; 52.5% women) of whom 417 (0.8%) died within 30 days. The 30-day mortality risk increased with age, male sex, and comorbidities. The 65- and 75-year-old mortality risks in the general population were exceeded at the youngest age by people with CKD, cancer, and frailty. Conversely, women aged < 65 years who had diabetes or hypertension did not have higher mortality than 65-year-olds in the general population. Most people with medical conditions (except for Stage 4-5 CKD) aged < 45 years had lower predicted mortality than the general population at age 65 years.

CONCLUSION

The mortality risk in COVID-19 increases with age and comorbidity but the prognostic implications varied by sex and condition. These observations can support communication efforts and inform vaccine rollout in jurisdictions with limited vaccine supplies.

Severity Status of COVID-19 and Its Associated Factors at the Nyarugenge Treatment Center in Rwanda

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has continued to be a public health emergency currently; on March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared it a global pandemic. Despite the Rwanda National Health Measures that have been put in place to protect the public including lockdowns, curfew, face mask mandate, handwashing sensitization, etc., severe morbidity and mortality cases of COVID-19 are continued to be seen. Some studies have linked COVID-19 complications to its direct chain of mechanism; however, other studies have linked comorbidity or underlying disease conditions to its poor prognosis. Studies have not yet been conducted in Rwanda on the severe status of COVID-19 and its associated factors among patients. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the severe status of COVID-19 and its associated factors at the Nyarugenge Treatment Center. Methods A descriptive cross-sectional study was done. All patients admitted to the Nyarugenge Treatment Center from January 8, 2021, when the hospital opened, until the end of May 2021 were recruited in the study. The eligible participants were all patients who were admitted and tested positive for COVID-19 by RT-PCR method according to the Rwanda Ministry of Health criteria. Results All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). The number of patients admitted during the study period was 648, with a median age of 53; 45.2% of them were females, and 54.2% were males. Of these, 81.2% (526) were discharged from the hospital, while 18.8% (122) died. The proportion of severe status of COVID-19 was 42.1%. The factors that showed a risk of severe COVID-19 status were age and the number of comorbidities. Patients aged above 60 years (OR = 11.7, 95% CI: 5.35-25.67, p-value < 0.001) and those between the age of 51 and 60 (OR = 6.86, 95% CI: 2.96-15.93, p-value < 0.001) were 12 and seven times more likely to have severe COVID-19 status compared to those aged below 30 years. Having two comorbidities had twice the risk of developing a severe COVID-19 status compared to those with no comorbidity (OR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.20-3.77, p-value < 0.001). Conclusion Elderly people and those with comorbidities are encouraged to obtain all standard operating procedures and comply with the vaccination program.

An extended picture fuzzy multicriteria group decision analysis with different weights: A case study of COVID-19 vaccine allocation

The high contagion rates of COVID-19 and the limited amounts of vaccines forced public health authorities to develop vaccinations strategies for minimizing mortality, avoiding the collapse of health care infrastructure, and reducing their negative impacts to societies and economies. We propose a Multi Criteria Group Decision Making for prioritizing a set of COVID-19 vaccination alternatives, under a picture fuzzy environment, where the weights for Decisions Experts (DE) and criteria are unknown. A panel of six DEs assess six criteria for prioritizing four groups for vaccination. The weights for DE and criteria are handled in the form of fuzzy sets. Three types of weights are calculated: subjective, objective, and mixture weights. According to our results, three out of the six criteria hold 60% of the strategic importance: 1) allocation and distribution, 2) COVID-19 strains and 3) capabilities and infrastructures. However, persons with comorbidities became the group with the highest priority, followed by essential workers, women, and adults older than 40 years. Governments, decision makers, and policy makers can find rigorous scientific evidence for articulating effective vaccinations campaigns from this work, and contribute to minimize undesired outputs, such as high mortality rates or collapse of hospitals.

The effects of comorbidities on the change of taste and smell in COVID-19 patients

Background

Sudden chemosensory changes were considered an early predictor of COVID-19. Here, the effects of comorbidities on changes in taste and smell in COVID-19 patients were investigated based on a worldwide study.

Methods

Data analyzed here were collected from the Global Consortium for Chemosensory Research (GCCR) core questionnaire, including questions regarding preexisting disease conditions. Overall, the final sample of 12,438 participants who were diagnosed with COVID-19 included patients with preexisting conditions. Mixed linear regression models were used to test our hypothesis, and the p-value of interaction was examined.

Results

A total of 61,067 participants completed the GCCR questionnaire, including 16,016 participants had preexisting diseases. The multivariate regression analysis showed that individuals with high blood pressure, lung disease, or sinus problems, or neurological diseases exhibited worse self-reported smell loss (p < .05), but no apparent significant differences in the smell or taste recovery. COVID-19 patients with seasonal allergy/hay fever lost their olfactory ability more than patients who did not have it (with 11.90 [9.67, 14.13] vs. without 6.97 [6.04, 7.91], p < .0001). The taste ability, smell loss and taste loss after COVID-19 recovery also decreased in the COVID-19 patients with seasonal allergy/hay fever (p < .001). Preexisting condition of diabetes did not worsen to chemosensory disorder but also had no obvious impact on the chemosensory recovery after acute infection. Preexisting diseases also affected the type of smell change in the COVID-19 patients with seasonal allergy/hay fever or sinus problems (p < .05).

Conclusions

COVID-19 patients with high blood pressure, lung disease, or sinus problems, or neurological diseases exhibited worse self-reported smell loss, but no differences in the smell or taste recovery. COVID-19 patients with seasonal allergy/hay fever had greater loss of smell and taste, poorer smell and taste recovery.

Level of Evidence

4.

Immunosenescence and inflamm-ageing in COVID-19

The destructive effects of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on the elderly and people with cardiovascular disease have been proven. New findings shed light on the role of aging pathways on life span and health age. New therapies that focus on aging-related pathways may positively impact the treatment of this acute respiratory infection. Using new therapies that boost the level of the immune system can support the elderly with co-morbidities against the acute form of COVID-19. This article discusses the effect of the aging immune system against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the pathways affecting this severity of infection.

Patient-reported disruptions to cancer care during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to evaluate the extent and associations with patient-reported disruptions to cancer treatment and cancer-related care during the COVID-19 pandemic utilizing nationally representative data.

METHODS

This analysis uses data from the 2020 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), an annual, cross-sectional survey of US adults. Adults (age >18) who reported requiring current cancer treatment or other cancer-related medical care in the second half of 2020 were included. Estimated proportions of patients with self-reported changes, delays, or cancelations to cancer treatment or other cancer care due to the COVID-19 pandemic were calculated using sampling weights and associations with sociodemographic and other health-related variables were analyzed.

RESULTS

In total, 574 (sample-weighted estimate of 2,867,326) adults reported requiring cancer treatment and/or other cancer care since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. An estimated 32.1% reported any change, delay, or cancelation. On sample-weighted univariable analysis, patients who were younger, female, had one or fewer comorbidities, and uninsured were significantly more likely to report disruptions. On sample-weighted, multivariable analysis, patients who were younger and female remained significant predictors. Nearly 90% of patients included in the study reported virtual appointment use. Patients reporting disruptions were also significantly more likely to report feelings of anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

An estimated 1/3 of patients experienced disruptions to cancer care due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Patients experiencing disruptions in care were more likely to be female or younger which may reflect risk stratification strategies in the early stages of the pandemic, and also had higher rates of anxiety. The longitudinal impact of these disruptions on outcomes merits further study.

Prevalence, attitude, knowledge, and risk perception towards COVID-19 in COPD patients associated to biomass exposure

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients due to biomass exposure (BE-COPD) could be more affected than COPD due to tobacco smoke (TE-COPD) by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The aim of this work was to determine the prevalence of COVID-19 in BE-COPD and TE-COPD and if housing conditions, poor attitude, knowledge, and risk perception towards COVID-19, particularly in BE-COPD women, could represent a risk factor for contagion.An 11% prevalence of COVID-19 was found with no significant difference between COPD groups. The BE-COPD group showed poorer socioeconomic status. No significant differences were found to be associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection regarding housing conditions, poor knowledge, attitude, and risk perception towards COVID-19. Living in urban areas and perceiving risk in COVID-19 were significantly associated with increased adherence to sanitary measures and concern of contagion. Around 40% of all patients showed poor risk perception and adherence to sanitary measures towards COVID-19.

Prevalence and Motivators of Getting a COVID-19 Booster Vaccine in Canada: Results from the iCARE Study

Studies have shown that the protection afforded by COVID-19 vaccines against hospitalization and death decreases slowly over time due to the emergence of new variants and waning immunity. Accordingly, booster doses remain critical to minimizing the health impacts of the pandemic. This study examined the prevalence rate, sociodemographic determinants, and motivators of getting a COVID-19 booster vaccine within the Canadian population. We recruited a representative sample of 3001 Canadians aged 18+ years as part of the iCARE study using an online polling form between 20 January and 2 February 2022. Participants self-reported their booster status and were dichotomized into two groups: those who did vs. did not receive at least one booster dose. A total of 67% of participants received a booster dose. Chi-square analyses revealed that older age (p < 0.001) and having a chronic disease diagnosis (p < 0.001) were associated with being more likely to get a booster. Boosted individuals reported motivators tied to efficacy and altruism, whereas non-boosted individuals reported motivators tied to efficacy and safety. Results suggest that messaging will require careful tailoring to address the identified behavioral motivators among non-boosted individuals who emphasize safety and efficacy of additional vaccine doses.

Precision public-health intervention for care coordination: a real-world study

BACKGROUND

Health emergencies disproportionally affect vulnerable populations. Digital tools can help primary care providers find, and reach, the right patients.

AIM

To evaluate whether digital interventions delivered directly to GPs' clinical software were more effective at promoting primary care appointments during the COVID-19 pandemic than interventions delivered by post.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Real-world, non-randomised, interventional study involving GP practices in all Australian states.

METHOD

Intervention material was developed to promote care coordination for vulnerable older veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic, and sent to GPs either digitally to the clinical practice software system or in the post. The intervention material included patient-specific information sent to GPs to support care coordination, and education material sent via post to veterans identified in the administrative claims database. To evaluate the impact of intervention delivery modalities on outcomes, the time to first appointment with the primary GP was measured; a Cox proportional hazards model was used, adjusting for differences and accounting for pre-intervention appointment numbers.

RESULTS

The intervention took place in April 2020, during the first weeks of COVID-19 social distancing restrictions in Australia. GPs received digital messaging for 51 052 veterans and postal messaging for 26 859 veterans. The digital group was associated with earlier appointments (adjusted hazard ratio 1.38 [1.34 to 1.41]).

CONCLUSION

Data-driven digital solutions can promote care coordination at scale during national emergencies, opening up new perspectives for precision public-health initiatives.

Ephedrae Herba: A Review of Its Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Clinical Application, and Alkaloid Toxicity

Ephedrae Herba (Ephedra), known as "MaHuang" in China, is the dried straw stem that is associated with the lung and urinary bladder meridians. At present, more than 60 species of Ephedra plants have been identified, which contain more than 100 compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sugars, and organic phenolic acids. This herb has long been used to treat asthma, liver disease, skin disease, and other diseases, and has shown unique efficacy in the treatment of COVID-19 infection. Because alkaloids are the main components causing toxicity, the safety of Ephedra must be considered. However, the nonalkaloid components of Ephedra can be effectively used to replace ephedrine extracts to treat some diseases, and reasonable use can ensure the safety of Ephedra. We reviewed the phytochemistry, pharmacology, clinical application, and alkaloid toxicity of Ephedra, and describe prospects for its future development to facilitate the development of Ephedra.

A novel scoring system for early assessment of the risk of the COVID-19-associated mortality in hospitalized patients: COVID-19 BURDEN

BACKGROUND

Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) presentations range from those similar to the common flu to severe pneumonia resulting in hospitalization with significant morbidity and/or mortality. In this study, we made an attempt to develop a predictive scoring model to improve the early detection of high risk COVID-19 patients by analyzing the clinical features and laboratory data available on admission.

METHODS

We retrospectively included 480 consecutive adult patients, aged 21-95, who were admitted to Faghihi Teaching Hospital. Clinical and laboratory features were collected from the medical records and analyzed using multiple logistic regression analysis. The final data analysis was utilized to develop a simple scoring model for the early prediction of mortality in COVID-19 patients. The score given to each associated factor was based on the coefficients of the regression analyses.

RESULTS

A novel mortality risk score (COVID-19 BURDEN) was derived, incorporating risk factors identified in this cohort. CRP (> 73.1 mg/L), O2 saturation variation (greater than 90%, 84-90%, and less than 84%), increased PT (> 16.2 s), diastolic blood pressure (≤ 75 mmHg), BUN (> 23 mg/dL), and raised LDH (> 731 U/L) were the features constituting the scoring system. The patients are triaged to the groups of low- (score < 4) and high-risk (score ≥ 4) groups. The area under the curve, sensitivity, and specificity for predicting mortality in patients with a score of ≥ 4 were 0.831, 78.12%, and 70.95%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Using this scoring system in COVID-19 patients, the patients with a higher risk of mortality can be identified which will help to reduce hospital care costs and improve its quality and outcome.

Comparative analysis of clinical and biological characteristics of COVID-19 patients: A retrospective cohort study

Background

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by a betacoronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has rapidly evolved into a pandemic since it was first reported in December 2019. thus, SARS-CoV-2 has become a major global public health issue.

Objective

The objective of this work is to compare demographics, comorbidities, clinical symptoms, biology and imaging findings between severe and non-severe COVID-19 patients and to identify clinical and biological risk factors and biomarkers for the development of severe COVID-19 as well as predictive thresholds for severity in order to best rationalize management and decrease the morbidity and mortality caused by this condition.

Patients and methods

This is a single-center retrospective study, from June 25 to December 31, 2021, on 521 patients at the level of the unit COVID-19 of the central laboratory of the Mohammed VI University Hospital Center Oujda, then classified into two groups according to the severity of the disease.

Results

Out of a total of 521 patients, a severe group including 336 cases (64.5%) and a non-severe group with 185 cases (35.5%). Hypertension, diabetes and obesity were noted in the majority of patients. Severe COVID-19 cases had higher C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, D-dimer, ferritin, elevated white blood cell count, and lower lymphocyte count than non-severe cases with a significant difference between the two groups. The areas under the curve (AUC) for C-reactive protein, procalcitonin and D-dimer were 0.886, 0.708, and 0.736 respectively. The optimal thresholds predictive of severity were 105 mg/l for C-reactive protein, 0.13 ng/ml for procalcitonin, 7420/μl for white blood cell count, and 0.55 mg/l for D-dimer.

Conclusion

Comparison of the proportion of clinical, biological and radiological data between severe and non-severe cases of COVID-19, as well as identification of biomarkers for the development of severe form in the present study, will allow optimal streamlining of management with rapid triage of patients.

COVID-19 effect on patients with noncommunicable diseases: A narrative review

Background and Aims

On March 11, 2020, the WHO has declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, affecting our day-to-day lives. Physical distancing and lockdown made significant obstacles to populations, particularly healthcare systems. Most healthcare workers were reallocated to COVID-19 facilities. Noncommunicable disease patients were given low priority and are at a higher risk of severe COVID-19 infection, which disrupted the treatment and disease management of these patients. This review aimed to assess the effect of COVID-19 on different types of noncommunicable diseases and the severity it may cause to patients.

Methods

We have conducted a review of the literature on COVID-19 and noncommunicable diseases from December 2019 until January 2022. The search was done in PubMed and Cochrane for relevant articles using variety of searching terms. Data for study variables were extracted. At the end of the selection process, 46 papers were selected for inclusion in the literature review.

Result

The result from this review found that the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the efficiency of the patient's treatment indirectly by either delaying or canceling sessions, which solidified the need to rely more on telemedicine, virtual visits, and in-home visits to improve patient education and minimize the risk of exposure to the patients. The major and most common types of noncommunicable diseases are known to be related to the severe outcomes of COVID-19 infection. It is strongly recommended to prioritize these patients for vaccinations against COVID-19 to provide them with the protection that will neutralize the risk imposed by their comorbidities.

Conclusion

We recommend conducting more studies with larger population samples to further understand the role of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) in this pandemic. However, this pandemic has also affected the efficiency of NCDs treatment indirectly by delaying or canceling sessions and others.

Diabetes Prevention and Measures to Ensuring a Healthy Lifestyle during COVID-19 Pandemic and after

The incidence of diabetes mellitus (DM) is increasing exponentially globally, with 90% of the confirmed cases being type 2 DM. The global incidence of DM is expected to increase by 48% during 2017-2045. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues to have a massive impact on human health, causing sudden lifestyle changes through quarantine measures, such as lockdown, social distancing, various curfews, and isolation at home. This in turn might increase the risk of developing numerous chronic diseases, such as DM, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases, which increase the severity of COVID-19. To this end, we performed a comprehensive review to determine viable measures for the prevention of DM and its subsequent upsurge globally. Additionally, we have determined strategies that should be adopted globally to ensure a healthy lifestyle during the COVID-19 pandemic and later.

Factors Affecting Confirmed COVID-19 Patient's Recovery Time at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic has become a threat to the public's health, especially to the elderly and those with chronic conditions. It is capable of spreading from carriers who are both asymptomatic and symptomatic. Associated factors such as age, sex, severe symptoms of COVID-19 disease, and chronic disease have a significant impact on the recovery time of patients.

AIM

The study aimed to determine associated factors on recovery time in COVID-19 patients hospitalized at King Abdulaziz Medical city.

METHODS

A single-center retrospective study was utilized to recruit 1776 confirmed COVID-19 patients from 13 September to 24 October 2020 at King Abdulaziz Medical City (KAMC) in Jeddah.

RESULTS

The patients were categorized into three age groups: below 5 years, 5 to 65 years, and above 65 years. The number of male patients in each group was 49, 764, and 73, and the number of female patients in each group was 54, 754, and 82, respectively. Impact recovery time on female patients was 11.75 days; with male patients was 10.95 days. Symptoms such as sore throat, diarrhea, and fever in female patients declined the recovery time. On the other hand, symptoms such as runny nose, diarrhea, fever, and headache in male patients declined the recovery time.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

It was revealed that older aged COVID-19 patients, male sex, and some symptoms decline recovery time. The study findings show an independent predictor of particular symptoms and sign which delay the time of recovery in the COVID-19 patients enrolled in the study differently, for male and female patients. Thus, patients who are infected with COVID-19 should be monitored keenly to prevent a prolonged rate of recovery and should be eligible for priority management to enhance a good clinical outcome.

Predictors of Mortality in COVID-19 patients: An observational study

Objectives

To identify the factors that affect outcome in COVID-19 patients in the Pakistani population.

Methods

A total of 225 patients of COVID-19 RT-PCR proven were included during November, 2020 to June, 2021 in this cross-sectional study. They were stratified into different disease severity categories as per WHO guidelines. The characteristics of survivors and non survivors were recorded and then compared to draw conclusions.

Results

Mean age was 59 years. Majority of the patients were male (68%) and the overall mortality rate was 30.1%. The non survivors were more likely to be female, had a greater number of comorbidities, had a higher respiratory rate and lower oxygen saturations at presentation and had a greater frequency of invasive mechanical ventilation. Non survivors had higher values of TLC, CRP, D-dimers and lower values of Hemoglobin and Platelets. The non survivors had higher incidence of ARDS, Septic shock and Multiorgan involvement. A higher CURB-65 score was observed in non survivors as compared to those who survived. Multivariate analysis showed that female gender, presence of and higher number of comorbid conditions and a higher CURB-65 score was linked with mortality.

Conclusion

Results are compatible with international studies; increasing age, number of comorbid conditions and high inflammatory markers are associated with increased mortality. Our study had an exception that female gender had higher mortality as compared to men.

Glycemic Control in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and COVID-19: What We Learned From the Lockdown Experience

INTRODUCTION

Confinement measures that were imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic drastically changed the routines of the population. Some studies on the impact of confinement on glycemic control suggest a reduction of 0.1 to 0.5% in glycated hemoglobin. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on glycemic control in adult patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

An observational retrospective cohort study of patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus followed in a Diabetes Unit was performed. The study compared the metabolic control of these patients before (between January 1st and March 18th, 2020) and after (between May 3rd and July 31st, 2020) the lockdown.

RESULTS

The study included 102 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (51% females), with a median age of 36 years (interquartile range 18.75, (24.25-43)) and a median duration of diabetes of 15 years (interquartile range 13, (8-21)). After lockdown, a significant decrease of 0.28±0.71% in glycated hemoglobin was observed (7.88±1.33% vs 7.59±1.23%, p=<0.001). In patients using continuous glucose monitoring a significant improvement in time in range was also noted (47.25±17.33% vs 49.97±18.61%, p=0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated an improvement in glycemic control after the lockdown. This might be explained by the positive impact of stable schedules, healthy meals and greater availability to make therapeutic adjustments to glycemic control. The fact that diabetes was considered a risk factor for the development of severe COVID-19 disease might also influence patients to increase their efforts to optimize their glycemic control.

Chronic Kidney Disease and COVID-19 Infection: A Case-Control Study

Background

To organize efforts to manage the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), it is necessary to understand which groups are at higher risk of infection. Kidney disease seems to be substantial in COVID-19 patients, but there are limited data on COVID-19 incidence and fatality among chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. In this study, we intend to examine the association between CKD and susceptibility to COVID-19 infection.

Materials and Methods

Participants were selected from those recruited in a population-based cross-sectional survey of CKD prevalence and associated risk factors in Iranian people 18 years and older. A three-part questionnaire was used for COVID-19 infection clinical symptoms and epidemiologic and hospitalization data.

Results

A total of 962 individuals including 403 CKD patients and 559 healthy controls were recruited in this study. Healthy controls were suffering more from common cold signs, cough, fever, sore throat, headache, anosmia, dyspnea, and abdominal pain (all P < 0.05). Furthermore, the number of healthy individuals with myalgia was marginally higher compared to the CKD patients (P = 0.057). Data regarding the number of CKD patients with/without COVID-19 infection throughout different CKD stages revealed that there was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of COVID-19 infection in different stages of CKD (P = 0.956).

Conclusion

We found that some of the clinical presentations of COVID-19 including common cold symptoms, cough, fever, sore throat, headache, anosmia, dyspnea, and abdominal pain were higher among healthy individuals compared to the CKD group. On the other hand, the susceptibility to COVID-19 infection was not significantly different in various early stages of CKD.

Drug-Drug Interactions among Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 in Greece

The modulation of the pharmacological action of drugs due to drug-drug interactions (DDIs) is a critical issue in healthcare. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and the clinical significance of potential DDIs in patients admitted to the University Hospital of Heraklion in Greece with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Cardiovascular disorders (58.4%) and diabetes (types I and II) (29.6%) were the most common comorbidities. A high occurrence of DDIs was observed, and clinically significant DDIs that may hamper response to treatment represented 40.3% of cases on admission, 21% during hospitalization, and 40.7% upon discharge. Polypharmacy and comorbidities were associated with a higher prevalence of DDIs in a statistically significant way (p < 0.05, 95% CI). Clinically significant DDIs and increased C-reactive protein values upon admission were associated with prolonged hospitalization. The results reveal that patients admitted due to COVID-19 in Greece often have an additional burden of DDIs that healthcare teams should approach and resolve.

SARS-CoV-2 in brief: from virus to prevention

The recent outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), ahighly transmissible virus with a likely animal origin, has posed major and unprecedentedchallenges to millions of lives across the affected nations of the world. This outbreak firstoccurred in China, and despite massive regional and global attempts shortly thereafter, itspread to other countries and caused millions of deaths worldwide. This review presents keyinformation about the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and its associated disease (namely,coronavirus disease 2019) and briefly discusses the origin of the virus. Herein, we also brieflysummarize the strategies used against viral spread and transmission.