Mycotoxin contamination of the feed supply chain: Implications for animal productivity and feed security

Anti-mycotoxin feed additives: effects on metabolism, mycotoxin excretion, performance, and total tract digestibility of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different anti-mycotoxin feed additives on the concentration of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma of dairy cows fed artificially multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets. Secondarily, performance, total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients, and blood parameters were evaluated. Twelve multiparous cows (165 ± 45 d in milk, 557 ± 49 kg body weight, and 32.1 ± 4.57 kg/d milk yield at the start of the experiment) were blocked according to parity, milk yield, and days in milk and used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment with 21-d periods, where the last 7 d were used for sampling and data analysis. Treatments were: 1) Mycotoxin group (MTX), basal diet (BD) without anti-mycotoxin feed additives; 2) Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCA), HSCA added to the BD at 25g/cow/d; 3) Mycotoxin deactivator 15 (MD15), MD (Mycofix® Plus, dsm-firmenich) added to the BD at 15 g/cow/d; and 4) Mycotoxin deactivator 30 (MD30), MD added to the BD at 30 g/cow/d. Cows from all treatments were challenged with a blend of mycotoxins containing 404 μg aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), 5,025 μg deoxynivalenol (DON), 8,046 μg fumonisins (FUM), 195 μg T2 toxin (T2), and 2,034 μg of zearalenone (ZEN) added daily to the BD during the last 7 d of each period. Neither performance (milk yield and composition) nor nutrient digestibility was affected by treatments. All additives reduced aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentration in milk, whereas MD15 and MD30 group had lower excretion of AFM1 in milk than HSCA. DON, FUM, T2, or ZEN were not detected in milk of MD15 and MD30. Concentrations in milk of DON, FUM, T2, and ZEN were similar between MTX and HSCA. Except for AFM1, none of the analyzed mycotoxins were detected in urine of MD30 group. Comparing HSCA to MD treatments, the concentration of AFM1 was greater for HSCA, whereas MD30 was more efficient at reducing AFM1 in urine than MD15. AFM1, DON, FUM, and ZEN were not detected in the plasma of cows fed MD30, and DON was also not detected in MD15 group. Plasma concentration of FUM was lower for MD15, similar plasma FUM concentration was reported for HSCA and MTX. Plasma concentration of ZEN was lower for MD15 than MTX and HSCA. Serum concentrations of haptoglobin and hepatic enzymes were not affected by treatments. Blood concentration of sodium was lower in HSCA compared with MD15 and MD30 groups. In conclusion, the mycotoxin deactivator proved to be effective in reducing the secretion of mycotoxins in milk, urine, and blood plasma, regardless of the dosage. This reduction was achieved without adverse effects on milk production or total-tract digestibility in cows fed multi-mycotoxin-contaminated diets over a short-term period. Greater reductions in mycotoxin secretion were observed with full dose of MD.

The Potential of Multi-Screening Methods and Omics Technologies to Detect Both Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Different Matrices

Mycotoxins are well-known secondary metabolites produced by several fungi that grow and occur in different crops during both pre-harvest and post-harvest conditions. The contamination and occurrence of mycotoxins currently represent some of the major issues in the entire agri-food system. The quantification of mycotoxins in different feeds and foodstuffs is extremely difficult because of the low concentration ranges; therefore, both sample collection and preparation are essential to providing accurate detection and reliable quantification. Currently, several analytical methods are available for the detection of mycotoxins in both feed and food products, and liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) represents the most reliable instrumental approach. In particular, the fast development of high-throughput methods has made it possible to screen and analyze, in the same analytical run and with high accuracy, multiple mycotoxins, such as those regulated, masked, or modified, and emerging ones. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of the state of the art of mycotoxins occurrence, health-related concerns, and analyses, discussing the need to perform multi-screening approaches combined with omics technologies to simultaneously analyze several mycotoxins in different feed and food matrices. This approach is expected to provide more comprehensive information about the profile and distribution of emerging mycotoxins, thus enhancing the understanding of their co-occurrence and impact on the entire production chain.

Mycotoxin patulin contamination in various fruits and estimating its dietary impact on the consumers: From orchard to table

The present research examined patulin's presence across the whole supply chain of selected fruits. A comprehensive analysis was conducted on 442 samples of fruits (oranges, apples, apricots, lemons, and guava) to determine the presence of patulin contamination. This analysis used Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a UV detector. The findings indicate that 17, 23, and 28 % of selected fruit samples tested positive for patulin levels in farm, transportation, and market samples. However, the sample collected during the transportation step showed that 56 % (percentage of positive samples) of fruits have patulin levels greater than 50 μg/kg, and 41 % (percentage of positive samples) have greater levels than 50 μg/kg in market samples. The findings of the one-way analysis of variance indicated that no statistically significant variation existed between the amounts of patulin across the various stages of the food supply chain system (p > 0.05). Nevertheless, the analysis of the correlation study, namely Kendall's tau_b and Spearman's rho, denote a robust association between the levels of patulin and the food supply system. The apple samples exhibited the most significant average dietary intake of patulin, with an average value of 0.11 μg/kg bw/day. The maximum mean hazard quotient (HQ) of 0.28 was also recorded. The prevalence and incidence of patulin in specific fruits were found to be relatively high, and it was observed that market samples had elevated levels of patulin in the selected fruits.

An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits

Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.

The protective effects of Lactobacillus SNK-6 on growth, organ health, and intestinal function in geese exposed to low concentration Aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a prevalent mycotoxin present in feed ingredients. In this study, we investigated the effects of Lactobacillus salivarius (L. salivarius) on the Landes geese exposed to AFB1. The 300 one-day-old Landes geese were randomly divided into five groups: The control group received a basic diet, while the other groups were fed a basic diet supplemented with 10 μg/kg AFB1, 10 μg/kg AFB1+ 4*108 cfu/g L. salivarius, 50 μg/kg AFB1, and 50 μg/kg AFB1 + 4*108 cfu/g L. salivarius for 63 d. Results showed that high level AFB1 exposure significantly decreased final BW and ADG, increased feed/gain ratio (F/G) and liver index (P < 0.05). L. salivarius improved levels of IL-1, IL-6, and IL-12 under low level of AFB1 exposure (P < 0.05), along with similar trends observed in serum IgA, IgG, IgM, T3, T4, TNF-ɑ, and EDT (P < 0.05). AFB1 exposure reduced jejunum villus high and villus high/crypt depth ratio, and suppressed expression of ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin-1 mRNA, and significant improved with L. salivarius supplementation under low level AFB1 exposure (P < 0.05). AFB1 significantly increased expression levels of TLR3 and NF-kB1, with supplementation of L. salivarius showing significant improvement under low AFB1 exposure (P < 0.05). Cecal microbiota sequencing revealed that under low level AFB1 exposure, supplementation with L. salivarius increased the abundance of Bacteroidetes and Lactococcus. In summary, supplementation with 4*108 cfu/g L. salivarius under 10 μg/kg AFB1 exposure improved growth performance and immune capacity, enhanced jejunum morphology, reduced liver inflammation, altered the cecal microbial structure, and positively affected the growth and development of geese.

Evaluation of Aflatoxins and Heavy Metals Exposure in the Local Feeds of Fish and Shrimp in Bangladesh

This study aims to comprehensively assess the presence of aflatoxins, pervasive fungal toxins, and heavy metals (lead, chromium, cadmium) in the local feed of fish and shrimp. Forty-eight samples of the fish and shrimp feed were collected from the Dhaka and Sathkhira districts of Bangladesh respectively. Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, G2) were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) was used for the heavy metal detection after sample digestion. The standard analytical methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists were followed for analyzing the proximate composition of the feed samples. The findings revealed the high toxic concentration of total aflatoxins particularly in fish feed (196.25 μg/kg). Concurrently, varying concentrations of heavy metals, including lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr), were detected, with the highest levels found in shrimp feed at 3.324 and 174.6 mg/kg, respectively. In comparison, highest contamination of cadmium (Cd) was found in fish feed at 0.398 mg/kg. The outcomes are growing concerns regarding the quality of locally sourced feed and emphasizing the need for prompt corrective actions. Otherwise, neglecting this concern may lead to the possibility of both fish and, ultimately, humans who consume them being vulnerable to the absorption and accumulation of these assessed toxic compounds.

The effects of probiotic-based additives on aflatoxin intoxication in Piaractus mesopotamicus: a study of liver histology and metabolic performance

Mycotoxins, produced by fungi, can contaminate fish food and harm their health. Probiotics enhance immune balance and primarily function in the animal intestine. This study aimed to assess aflatoxin's impact on Piaractus mesopotamicus and explore probiotic-based additive (PBA) benefits in mitigating these effects, focusing on antioxidant activity, biochemical indices, and hepatic histopathology. Two experiments were conducted using P. mesopotamicus fry. The first experimental assay tested various levels of aflatoxin B1 (0.0, 25.0, 50.0, 100.0, 200.0, and 400.0 µg kg-1) over a 10-day period. The second experimental assay examined the efficacy of the probiotic (supplemented at 0.20%) in diets with different levels of aflatoxin B1 (0.0, 25.0, and 400.0 µg kg-1) for 15 days. At the end of each assay, the fish underwent a 24-hour fasting period, and the survival rate was recorded. Six liver specimens from each treatment group were randomly selected for metabolic indicator assays, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and albumin. Additionally, histopathological analysis was performed on six specimens. The initial study discovered that inclusion rates above 25.0 µg kg-1 resulted in decreased activity of AST (aspartate aminotransferase), ALT (alanine aminotransferase), ALB (albumin), CAT (catalase), and SOD (superoxide dismutase), accompanied by liver histopathological lesions. In the second study, the inclusion of PBA in diets contaminated with AFB1 improved the activity of AST and ALT up to 25.0 µg kg-1 of AFB1, with no histopathological lesions observed. The study demonstrated the hepatoprotective effects of PBA in diets contaminated with AFB1. The enzyme activity and hepatic histopathology were maintained, indicating a reduction in damage caused by high concentrations of AFB1 (400.0 µg kg-1 of AFB1). The adverse effects of AFB1 on biochemical and histopathological parameters were observed from 25.0 µg kg-1 onwards. Notably, PBA supplementation enhanced enzymatic activity at a concentration of 25 µg kg-1 of AFB1 and mitigated the effects at 400.0 µg kg-1 of AFB1. The use of PBAs in pacu diets is highly recommended as they effectively neutralize the toxic effects of AFB1 when added to diets containing 25.0 µg kg-1 AFB1. Dietary inclusion of aflatoxin B1 at a concentration of 25.0 µg kg-1 adversely affects the liver of Piaractus mesopotamicus (Pacu). However, the addition of a probiotic-based additive (PBA) to the diets containing this concentration of aflatoxin neutralized its toxic effects. Therefore, the study recommends the use of PBAs in Pacu diets to mitigate the adverse effects of aflatoxin contamination.

Development of a label-free, sensitive gold nanoparticles-poly(adenine) aptasensing platform for colorimetric determination of aflatoxin B1 in corn

In this work, a sensitive colorimetric bioassay method based on a poly(adenine) aptamer (polyA apt) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was developed for the determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The polyA apt, adsorbed on the AuNPs, especially can bind to the analyte while deterring non-specific interactions. This nano aptasensor uses cationic polymer poly(diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) (PDDA), as an aggregating agent, to aggregate gold nanoparticles. PolyA apt-decorated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs/polyA apt) show resistance to PDDA-induced aggregation and maintains their dispersed state (red color) with the optical absorbance signal at λ = 520 nm. However, in the presence of AFB1 in the assay solution, the specific aptamer reacts with high affinity and folds into its three-dimensional form. Aggregation of AuNPs induced by PDDA caused their optical signal shift to λ = 620 nm (blue color). AFB1 concentration in the bioassay solution determines the amount of optical signal shift. Therefore, optical density ratio in two wavelengths (A620/520) can be used as a sturdy colorimetric signal to detect the concentration of aflatoxin B1. AFB1 was linearly detected between 0.5 and 20 ng mL-1, with a detection limit of 0.09 ng mL-1 (S/N = 3). The fabricated aptasensor was applied to the detection of AFB1 in real corn samples.

Effects of a Curcumin/Silymarin/Yeast-Based Mycotoxin Detoxifier on Redox Status and Growth Performance of Weaned Piglets under Field Conditions

The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the effects of a novel mycotoxin detoxifier whose formulation includes clay (bentonite and sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin and silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast products) on the health, performance and redox status of weaned piglets under the dietary challenge of fumonisins (FUMs). The study was conducted in duplicate in the course of two independent trials on two different farms. One hundred and fifty (150) weaned piglets per trial farm were allocated into two separate groups: (a) T1 (control group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed and (b) T2 (experimental group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed with the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent from the day of weaning (28 days) until 70 days of age. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs), protein carbonyls (CARBs) and the overall antioxidant capacity (TAC) were assessed in plasma as indicators of redox status at 45 and 70 days of age. Furthermore, mortality and performance parameters were recorded at 28, 45 and 70 days of age, while histopathological examination was performed at the end of the trial period (day 70). The results of the present study reveal the beneficial effects of supplementing a novel mycotoxin detoxifier in the diets of weaners, including improved redox status, potential hepatoprotective properties and enhanced growth performance.

Protective Effects of Carbonated Chitosan Montmorillonite on Vomitoxin-Induced Intestinal Inflammation

Exposure to vomitoxin (DON) can negatively impact the intestinal health of livestock and poultry, leading to compromised nutrient absorption and utilization, resulting in slowed growth and reduced production efficiency. In this study, we synthesized carbonated chitosan montmorillonite intercalation complexes (CCM) through solution precipitation. The successful formation of intercalation complexes was confirmed by examining functional groups and surface features using infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. To assess the impact of CCM on DON-infected mice, we established an experimental mouse model of jejunal inflammation induced by DON infection. We analyzed the effects of CCM on blood biochemical and conventional indices, jejunal inflammatory factors, pathological changes, and the expression of proteins in the MAPK pathways in DON-infected mice. Our results indicate that CCM effectively mitigates the adverse effects of DON on growth performance, jejunal injury, and the inflammatory response in mice. CCM supplementation alleviated the negative effects of DON infection on growth performance and reduced intestinal inflammation in mice. Moreover, CCM supplementation successfully inhibited the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway induced by DON. These findings suggest that the mitigating effect of CCM on DON-induced inflammatory injury in the murine jejunum is closely linked to the regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway.

Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

A Three-Year Study on the Nutritional Composition and Occurrence of Mycotoxins of Corn Varieties with Different Transgenic Events Focusing on Poultry Nutrition

Corn is one of the most produced cereals in the world and plays a major role in poultry nutrition. As there is limited scientific information regarding the impact of transgenic technology on the quality and nutrient composition of the grains, this study investigated the effect of three major transgenic corn varieties-VT PRO3®, PowerCore® ULTRA, and Agrisure® Viptera 3-on the field traits, nutrient composition, and mycotoxin contamination of corn grains cultivated in southern Brazil during three consecutive harvests. VT PRO3®, while demonstrating superior crop yield, showed susceptibility to mycotoxins, particularly fumonisins. In contrast, PowerCore® ULTRA, with the lowest yield, consistently exhibited lower levels of fumonisins. VT PRO3® had higher AMEn than the other varieties, while PowerCore® ULTRA had the highest total and digestible amino acid contents over the three years. The study's comprehensive analysis reveals the distinct impact of transgenic corn technologies on both productivity and nutritional levels. Balancing the crops yield, mycotoxin resistance, and nutritional content of corn is crucial to meet the demands of the poultry feed industry. Such insights are essential for decision-making, ensuring sustainability and efficiency in agricultural production as well as meeting the demands of the poultry industry.

Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation

Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.

Protective effects of feed additives on broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxins-contaminated feed: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Aflatoxin contamination in feed is a common problem in broiler chickens. The present systematic review and meta-analysis examined the impact of aflatoxin-contaminated feed and the efficacy of various feed additives on the production performance of broiler chickens fed aflatoxin-contaminated feed (AF-feed). A total of 35 studies comprising 53 AF-feed experiments were selected following PRISMA guidelines. Feed additives included in the analyses were toxins binder (TB), mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS), organic acid (OA), probiotics (PRO), protein supplementation (PROT), phytobiotics (PHY), and additive mixture (MIX). Random effects model and a frequentist network meta-analysis (NMA) were performed to rank the efficacy of feed additives, reported as standardized means difference (SMD) at 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Overall, broiler chickens fed AF-feed had significantly lower final body weight (BW) (SMD = 198; 95% CI = 198 to 238) and higher feed conversion ratio (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI = 0.13 to 0.21) than control. Treatments with TB, MOS, and PHY improved the BW of birds fed AF-feed (P < 0.05) to be comparable with non-contaminated feed or control. Predictions on final BW from the broiler-fed aflatoxin-contaminated diet were 15% lower than the control diet. Including feed additives in the aflatoxins diet could ameliorate the depressive effect. Remarkably, our network meta-analysis highlighted that TB was the highest-performing additive (P-score = 0.797) to remedy aflatoxicosis. Altogether, several additives, especially TB, are promising to ameliorate aflatoxicosis in broiler chickens, although the efficacy was low regarding the severity of the aflatoxicosis.

Adsorption of aflatoxin B1 by different antimycotoxin additives: bentonite, clinoptilolite, and beta-glucans extracted from yeast cell wall

The present study aims to evaluate and compare antimycotoxin additives (AMAs) composed of bentonite (AMA 1), clinoptilolite (AMA 2), and beta-glucans extracted from yeast cell wall (AMA 3), with respect to their ability to bind Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) using the isothermal models of Freundlich, Langmuir, and BET. The additives were submitted to an in vitro adsorption experiment with AFB1 (0.05-4 mg L-1), using solutions of pH 3 and pH 6, with an inclusion rate of 0.5%, and analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. At pH 3, for the seven concentrations evaluated, AMA 1 obtained adsorption rates (99.69 to 99.98%) higher (p < 0. 05) than the other AMAs, which were from 82.97 to 88.72% (AMA 2) and from 79.43 to 89.32% (AMA 3). At pH 6, in concentrations of 1, 2, and 4 mg L-1 of AFB1, AMA 1 obtained higher (p < 0.05) adsorption results (97.86 to 99.86%) than AMA 2 (91.98 to 96.12%) and AMA 3 (87.56 to 93.50%). The Freundlich model best fitted the AMA 1 adsorption data. For the other additives, the Langmuir model obtained the best fit, demonstrating qm of 8.6 mg g-1 at pH 3 and 2.3 mg g-1 at pH 6 for AMA 2; and for AMA 3, with qm of 3.4 mg g-1 at pH 3 and 2.3 mg g-1 at pH 6. The isotherm models work as an effective tool to describe the adsorption process whereas the AMA adsorption capacity varies as a function of product composition, pH, and mycotoxin content.

Monitoring of Animal Feed Contamination by Mycotoxins: Results of Five Years of Official Control by an Accredited Italian Laboratory

Mycotoxin contamination of animal feed is a complex issue in both animal wellness and food safety. The most diffused mycotoxins subject to the official control of animal feed are Aflatoxin B1 (AF), Zearalenone (ZEA), Deoxynivalenol (DON), Ochratoxin A (OCRA), Fumonisins (FUMO), and T-2/HT-2 toxins. This work describes the results of five years of monitoring focused on the evaluation of mycotoxin contamination of animal feed. Analytical determinations were carried out by means of accredited ELISA. The obtained results showed a non-alarming scenario, with several samples resulting as "non-compliant" according to the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) set in European Regulation No. 574/2011. Out of 722 analyzed samples coming from 2 Italian regions, Apulia and Basilicata, 14 samples were characterized by mycotoxin concentrations higher than related MRL; in particular, 5, 4, and 5 non-compliant samples for DON, AF, and ZEA, respectively. This study also evaluated the possible correlations between mycotoxin type and feed use with a special focus on animal sensitivity to mycotoxins.

Evaluation of mycotoxins in grains sold in Idah, Ajaka and Ogbogbo areas of Nigeria

Mycotoxin contamination in grains is a significant concern due to its adverse effects on human and animal health. Understanding the levels and patterns of mycotoxin contamination in different regions and storage conditions is crucial for developing effective control strategies. This study aimed to assess mycotoxin levels in stored and recently harvested grains in three regions (Idah, Ajaka, and Ogbogbo) and investigate the implications for food safety. The study involved the analysis of mycotoxin levels in maize, rice, sorghum, and millet using appropriate mycotoxin extraction method based on the mycotoxins of interest and a suitable HPLC system. The findings revealed the presence of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (1±0.2-5±0.4 µg kg-1), deoxynivalenol (520±0.8-700±1.2 µg kg-1), zearalenone (200±0.4-370±0.6 µg kg-1), ochratoxins (2±0.2-4±0.3 µg kg-1), and fumonisin (0±0.0-4±0.3 µg kg-1) in both recently harvested and stored grains. Patulin was absent in most of the samples. Variations in mycotoxin levels were observed among different grains and regions, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. The European Commission mycotoxin standards in grains for human consumption are: aflatoxins 4 µg kg-1 in maize, millet and sorghum while rice is 8 µg kg-1, deoxynivalenal 1750 µg kg-1, zearalenone 100 µg kg-1, ochratoxin A 5 µg kg-1 for maize, rice and millet, then 10 µg kg-1 for sorghum. Fumonisin is 4000 µg kg-1 but no level for rice and patulin is 50 µg kg-1 for rice and none for the other grains. This study demonstrates the persistence of mycotoxin contamination in stored grains and the importance of considering specific crop types and geographical locations when addressing mycotoxin contamination. The findings underscore the significance of implementing effective control measures to mitigate mycotoxin contamination and enhance food safety. The study provides valuable insights into mycotoxin contamination and emphasizes the need for comprehensive risk assessment studies and appropriate regulatory measures.

Individual and combined effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) with other Fusarium mycotoxins on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) growth performance and health

This study assessed whether the toxicological effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium graminearum in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are altered by the co-exposure to a mixture of toxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides (FUmix). This FUmix contained fusaric acid and fumonisin B1, B2 and B3. Four diets were formulated according to a 2 × 2 factorial design: CON-CON; CON-FUmix; DON-CON; and DON-FUmix. Diets with and without DON contained on average 2700 and 0 µg/kg feed, respectively. The sum of the analysed FUmix toxins was 12,700 and 100 µg/kg feed in the diets with and without FUmix, respectively. The experiment consisted of a 6-week restrictive feeding period immediately followed by a 2-week ad libitum feeding period. Growth performance measurements were taken per feeding period. Histopathological measurements in the liver and gastrointestinal tract (pyloric caeca, midgut and hindgut) were assessed at the end of week 1 and week 6 of the restrictive feeding period and at week 8, the last day of the ad libitum feeding period. During both restrictive and ad libitum feeding, the effects of FUmix and DON on growth performance were additive (no interaction effect; p > 0.05). During the restrictive feeding period, exposure to DON (p ≤ 0.001) and FUmix (p ≤ 0.01) inhibited growth and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR). During this period, DON exposure decreased the protein (p ≤ 0.001) and energy retention (p ≤ 0.05) in the trout. During the ad libitum feeding period, FUmix affected HSI (p ≤ 0.01), while DON exposure reduced feed intake (p ≤ 0.001) and growth (p ≤ 0.001) and increased FCR (p ≤ 0.01). In general, for both liver and intestinal tissue measurements, no interaction effects between DON and FUmix were observed. In the liver, histopathological analysis revealed mild alterations, increased necrosis score by DON (p ≤ 0.01), increased glycogen vacuolization by FUmix (p ≤ 0.05) and decreased percentage of pleomorphic nuclei by FUmix (p ≤ 0.01). DON had a minor impact on the intestinal histological measurements. Over time, some of the liver (glycogen vacuolization score, pleomorphic nuclei; p ≤ 0.01) and intestinal measurements (mucosal fold and enterocyte width; p ≤ 0.01) were aggravated in fish fed the FUmix contaminated diets, with the most severe alterations being noted at week 8. Overall, the co-exposure to FUmix and DON gave rise to additive effects but showed no synergistic or antagonistic effects for the combination of DON with other Fusarium mycotoxins.

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites in total mixed rations of cows from dairy farms in Punjab, Pakistan

After India and the USA, Pakistan is the third country leading in global dairy production, a sector of very high socioeconomic relevance in Asia. Mycotoxins can affect animal health, reproduction and productivity. This study analysed a broad range of co-occurring mycotoxins and fungal secondary metabolites derived from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium and other fungal species. To complete this, a validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometric (LC/ESI-MS/MS) method was employed, detecting 96 of > 500 tested secondary fungal metabolites. This first preliminary study demonstrated that total mixed rations (TMRs) (n = 30) from big commercial dairy cattle farms (> 200 lactating cows) in Punjab, Pakistan, presented ubiquitous contamination with mixtures of mycotoxins. The mean of mycotoxins per sample was 14, ranging from 11 to 20 mycotoxins among all TMR samples. Metabolites derived from other fungi and Fusarium spp. showed the highest levels, frequency and diversity among the detected fungal compounds. Among the most prevalent mycotoxins were Fusarium toxins like fumonisins B1 (FB1) (93%), B2 (FB2) (100%) and B3 (FB3) (77%) and others. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was evidenced in 40% of the samples, and 7% exceeded the EU maximum limit for feeding dairy cattle (5 µg/kg at 88% dry matter). No other mycotoxin exceeds the EU guidance values (GVs). Additionally, we found that dietary ingredients like corn grain, soybean meal and canola meal were related to increased contamination of some mycotoxins (like FB1, FB2 and FB3) in TMR from the province of Punjab, Pakistan. Among typical forage sources, the content of maize silage was ubiquitous. Individually, the detected mycotoxins represented relatively low levels. However, under a realistic scenario, long-term exposure to multiple mycotoxins and other fungal secondary metabolites can exert unpredictable effects on animal health, reproduction and productivity. Except for ergot alkaloids (73%), all the groups of metabolites (i.e. derived from Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and other fungi) occurred in 100% of the TMR samples. At individual levels, no other mycotoxins than AFB1 represented a considerable risk; however, the high levels of co-occurrence with several mycotoxins/metabolites suggest that long-term exposure should be considered because of their potential toxicological interactions (additive or synergistic effects).

Effects of a Multi-Component Mycotoxin-Detoxifying Agent on Oxidative Stress, Health and Performance of Sows

This in vivo study aimed to investigate the effects of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, containing clays (bentonite, sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin, silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast cell wall, hydrolyzed yeast) on the antioxidant capacity, health and reproductive performance of pregnant and lactating sows challenged by mycotoxins. Eighty (80) primiparous sows (mean age 366 ± 3 days) per each of the two trial farms were divided into two groups in each farm: a) T1 (control group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed and b) T2 group (experimental group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed plus the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, one month before farrowing until the end of the lactation period. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), protein carbonyls (CARBS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were evaluated as biomarkers of oxidative stress. Clinical and reproductive parameters were recorded. Our results indicate that the administration of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent's administration in sow feed has beneficial effects on oxidative stress biomarkers and can improve sows' health and performance.

Optimization Workflow of Fumonisin Esterase Production for Biocatalytic Degradation of Fumonisin B1

Industrial enzyme production with the Pichia pastoris expression system requires a well-characterized production strain and a competitively priced fermentation medium to meet the expectations of the industry. The present work shows a workflow that allows the rapid and reliable screening of transformants of single copy insertion of the target production cassette. A constitutive expression system with the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter (pGAP) with homology arms for the glycerol kinase 1 (GUT1) was constructed for the targeted integration of the expression plasmid in a KU70 deficient Pichia pastoris and the production of a bacterial fumonisin esterase enzyme (CFE). A robust colony qPCR method was developed for the copy number estimation of the expression cassette. Optimization of the protein production medium and the scale-up ability was aided by design of experiments (DOE) approach resulting in optimized production conditions at a semi-industrial scale. A novel fermentation medium containing 3% inactivated yeast and 2% dextrose in an ammonium-citrate buffer (IYD) was shown to be a promising alternative to YPD media (containing yeast extract, peptone, and dextrose), as similar protein titers could be obtained, while the cost of the medium was reduced 20-fold. In a demonstration-scale 48 h long fed-batch fermentation, the IYD media outperformed the small-scale YPD cultivation by 471.5 ± 22.6%.

Advances in aptamers, and application of mycotoxins detection: A review

Mycotoxin contamination in food products can easily cause serious health hazards and economic losses to human beings. How to accurately detect and effectively control mycotoxin contamination has become a global concern. Mycotoxins conventional detection techniques e.g; ELISA, HPLC, have limitations like, low sensitivity, high cost and time-consuming. Aptamer-based biosensing technology has the advantages of high sensitivity, high specificity, wide linear range, high feasibility, and non-destructiveness, which overcomes the shortcomings of conventional analysis techniques. This review summarizes the sequences of mycotoxin aptamers that have been reported so far. Based on the application of four classic POST-SELEX strategies, it also discusses the bioinformatics-assisted POST-SELEX technology in obtaining optimal aptamers. Furthermore, trends in the study of aptamer sequences and their binding mechanisms to targets is also discussed. The latest examples of aptasensor detection of mycotoxins are classified and summarized in detail. Newly developed dual-signal detection, dual-channel detection, multi-target detection and some types of single-signal detection combined with unique strategies or novel materials in recent years are focused. Finally, the challenges and prospects of aptamer sensors in the detection of mycotoxins are discussed. The development of aptamer biosensing technology provides a new approach with multiple advantages for on-site detection of mycotoxins. Although aptamer biosensing shows great development potential, still some challenges and difficulties are there in practical applications. Future research need high focus on the practical applications of aptasensors and the development of convenient and highly automated aptamers. This may lead to the transition of aptamer biosensing technology from laboratory to commercialization.

Evaluation of reduced graphene oxide-based nanomaterial as dispersive solid phase extraction sorbent for isolation and purification of aflatoxins from poultry feed, combined with UHPLC-MS/MS analysis

Poultry feed comprises cereals and their by-products and is vulnerable to aflatoxins contamination. This study utilised reduced graphene oxide-titanium dioxide (rGO-TiO2) nanomaterial as a dispersive solid phase extraction (d-SPE) adsorbent to extract, enrich and purify aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1 and aflatoxin G2). The synthesis of rGO-TiO2 nanomaterials through hydrothermal process and characterisation by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and X-ray diffraction reveals that the nanomaterials have a single-layer structure embedded with TiO2 nanoparticles. The matrix-spiked technique was employed for the extraction process, optimisation of d-SPE, and analytical method validation. The most appropriate extraction solvent was acetonitrile/water/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v), with 30 min of extraction time assisted by ultra-sonication. The optimised d-SPE parameters were: 50 mg of rGO-TiO2 as sorbent amount, 2% methanol as the sample loading solvent, 30 min as adsorption time, and absolute ethanol as the washing reagent. The d-SPE method exhibited good desorption efficiency with 3 mL of acetonitrile/formic acid (99/1, v/v) and 20 min desorption time. After validation, the UHPLC-MS/MS analytical method has an acceptable range of specificity, linearity (R2 ≥ 0.999), sensitivity (LOQ 0.04-0.1 µg kg-1), recoveries (74-105% at three matrix-spiked levels) and precision (RSD 1.5-9.6%). Poultry feed samples (n = 12) were pretreated by this method to extract, enrich and analyse aflatoxins, which were detected in all poultry feed samples. The contamination levels were within the permissible limits.

Effect of Fungicide Treatment on Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in French Wheat during a 4-Year Period

Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018-2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography-tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.

Effects of undesired substances and their bioaccumulation on the black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)-a literature review

Black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), is predominantly reared on organic wastes and other unused complementary substrates. However, BSF may have a buildup of undesired substances in their body. The contamination of undesired substance, e.g., heavy metals, mycotoxins, and pesticides, in BSF mainly occurred during the feeding process in the larval stage. Yet, the pattern of accumulated contaminants in the bodies of BSF larvae (BSFL) is varied distinctively depending on the diets as well as the contaminant types and concentrations. Heavy metals, including cadmium, copper, arsenic, and lead, were reported to have accumulated in BSFL. In most cases, the cadmium, arsenic, and lead concentration in BSFL exceeded the recommended standard for heavy metals occurring in feed and food. Following the results concerning the accumulation of the undesired substance in BSFL's body, they did not affect the biological parameters of BSFL, unless the amounts of heavy metals in their diets are highly exceeding their thresholds. Meanwhile, a study on the fate of pesticides and mycotoxins in BSFL indicates that no bioaccumulation was detected for any of the target substances. In addition, dioxins, PCBs, PAHs, and pharmaceuticals did not accumulate in BSFL in the few existing studies. However, future studies are needed to assess the long-term effects of the aforementioned undesired substances on the demographic traits of BSF and to develop appropriate waste management technology. Since the end products of BSFL that are contaminated pose a threat to both human and animal health, their nutrition and production process must be well managed to create end products with a low contamination level to achieve a closed food cycle of BSF as animal feed.

Development of a real-time PCR and multiplex PCR assay for the detection and identification of mycotoxigenic fungi in stored maize grains

This study aimed to identify important mycotoxigenic fungi and accurate detection of mycotoxin in stored maize grains using molecular methods. The current study also optimised the real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assay. The melting curve was established to identify isolated fungal species of Aspergillus (4), Fusarium (3), Penicillium (3), and Alternaria (one). A multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR) technique was developed for the detection and characterisation of mycotoxin producing fungi, mycotoxin metabolic pathway genes, and the determination of eleven mycotoxins in stored maize grains using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The mPCR results indicated positive signals for potentially mycotoxigenic fungal species tested of Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. A protocol for multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR) was tested to distinguish between free and contaminated, stored maize with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The expression pattern of four aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway genes, AFB1 (aflQ, aflP, aflO, and aflD), was a good marker for contaminated, stored maize grains. HPLC analysis showed that maize grain samples were contaminated with mycotoxins, and the concentration was above the detection level. The results indicate that the polyphasic approach might provide a sensitive, rapid, and accurate method for detecting and identifying mycotoxigenic fungal species and mycotoxins in stored maize grains.

Post-Harvest Prevention of Fusariotoxin Contamination of Agricultural Products by Irreversible Microbial Biotransformation: Current Status and Prospects

Biological degradation of mycotoxins is a promising environmentally-friendly alternative to chemical and physical detoxification methods. To date, a lot of microorganisms able to degrade them have been described; however, the number of studies determining degradation mechanisms and irreversibility of transformation, identifying resulting metabolites, and evaluating in vivo efficiency and safety of such biodegradation is significantly lower. At the same time, these data are crucial for the evaluation of the potential of the practical application of such microorganisms as mycotoxin-decontaminating agents or sources of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes. To date, there are no published reviews, which would be focused only on mycotoxin-degrading microorganisms with the proved irreversible transformation of these compounds into less toxic compounds. In this review, the existing information about microorganisms able to efficiently transform the three most common fusariotoxins (zearalenone, deoxinyvalenol, and fumonisin B1) is presented with allowance for the data on the corresponding irreversible transformation pathways, produced metabolites, and/or toxicity reduction. The recent data on the enzymes responsible for the irreversible transformation of these fusariotoxins are also presented, and the promising future trends in the studies in this area are discussed.

Drug-independent control strategy of clostridial infection in broiler chickens using anti-toxin environmentally friendly multienzymes

The study investigated the effect of enzymes as a toxin detoxifier (DETOXIZYME) dietary supplementation on performance during growth, blood chemistry, and immunity under clostridia infection in chickens. A total of 480, day-old male chicks were randomly distributed to four groups, with six replicates of 20 birds each. The first control negative treatment (A) fed the basal formula as commercial feed prepared following the strain's needs, the second control positive group (B) fed the basal formula challenged with Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) type A, the third group (C) fed the basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed and challenged with clostridia, and the fourth group (D) fed the control basal formula with 100 g DETOXIZYME/ton of feed. DETOXIZYME dietary supplementation significantly boosted body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and European production efficiency factor (EPEF) and improved the feed conversion rate (FCR) of the broilers. The dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME significantly increased carcass trait and spleen. However, liver and abdominal fat weight significantly decreased compared with clostridia-challenged groups. The values of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), uric acid, creatinine, and Malondialdehyde (MDA) were decreased. While calcium, phosphate, zinc, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels were improved in birds that took basal formulas fortified with DETOXIZYME contrary to the other treatment groups during 35 days of age. Plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) values were reduced versus the other treatment groups. Dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME increased total protein, albumin, globulin, and Newcastle Disease (ND) immunity titer levels in the overall period compared to other groups. Dietary DETOXIZYME supplementation decreased clostridia and E. coli bacteria counts and improved gut morphometry. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of DETOXIZYME had a positive impact on performance, blood biochemistry, immunity, and bacterial counts and improved the gut morphology in broilers under clostridia infection.

Dietary beauvericin and enniatin B exposure cause different adverse health effects in farmed Atlantic salmon

The extensive use of plant ingredients in novel aquafeeds have introduced mycotoxins to the farming of seafood. The emerging enniatin B (ENNB) and beauvericin (BEA) mycotoxins have been found in the novel aquafeeds and farmed fish. Little is known about the potential toxicity of ENNs and BEA in farmed fish and their feed-to-organ transfer. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) pre-smolt (75.3 ± 8.10 g) were fed four graded levels of spiked chemical pure ENNB or BEA feeds for three months, in triplicate tanks. Organismal adverse health end-point assessment included intestinal function (protein digestibility), disturbed hematology (red blood cell formation), bone formation (spinal deformity), overall energy use (feed utilization), and lipid oxidative status (vitamin E). Both dietary BEA and ENNB had a low (<∼0.01%) transfer to organs (kidney > liver > brain > muscle), with a higher transfer for ENNB compared to BEA. BEA caused a growth reduction combined with a decreased protein digestion and feed conversion rate- ENNB caused a stunted growth, unrelated to feed utilization capacity. In addition, ENNB caused anemia while BEA gave an oxidative stress response. Lower bench-mark dose regression assessment showed that high background levels of ENNB in commercial salmon feed could pose a risk for animal health, but not in the case of BEA.

The protective effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the growth performance, intestinal health, and antioxidative capacity of mullet (Liza ramada) fed diets contaminated with aflatoxin B1

Plant protein ingredients are increasingly included in mullet feeds and are expected to be contaminated with mycotoxins (AFB1). Thus, this study investigated the protective role of Saccharomyces cerevisiae against oxidative stress and hepato-renal malfunction induced by AFB1 contamination in mullets. Four diets were formulated, where the first was kept as the control diet, and the second was supplemented with S. cerevisiae at 5 × 106 cells/g. The third diet was supplied with AFB1 at 1 mg/kg, and the fourth was supplemented with S. cerevisiae and AFB1. Mullet fed the control or both AFB1 and S. cerevisiae (yeast/AFB1) had similar FBW, WG, SGR, and FCR (P˃0.05). Mullet treated with S. cerevisiae without AFB1 contamination showed the highest FBW, WG, and SGR (P<0.05), while fish in the AFB1 group had lower FBW, WG, and SGR and higher FCR than fish in the control and yeast/AFB1 groups (P<0.05). Using yeast with AFB1 prevented pathological hazards and improved intestinal structure. Further, yeast combined with AFB1 reduced the degenerative changes and enhanced the histological structure except for a mild inflammatory reaction around the bile duct. Fish in the control or yeast/AFB1 group had higher HB, PCV, RBCs, and WBCs than fish in the AFB1 group (P<0.05). Fish fed the control, or the yeast/AFB1 diets had similar total protein and albumin levels with higher values than fish contaminated with AFB1 (P<0.05). Fish fed the control and yeast/AFB1 diets had similar ALT, AST, urea, and creatinine levels (P˃0.05) and were lower than fish contaminated with AFB1. Additionally, fish fed the control and yeast/AFB1 diets had similar CAT, GPx, SOD, and MDA (P˃0.05) and were lower than fish contaminated with AFB1 (P<0.05). In conclusion, incorporating S. cerevisiae ameliorated the negative impacts of AFB1 toxicity on mullets’ growth, hepato-renal function, and antioxidative capacity.

Mixtures of Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens, and Other Secondary Metabolites in Whole-Plant Corn Silages and Total Mixed Rations of Dairy Farms in Central and Northern Mexico

Mycotoxins and endocrine disruptors such as phytoestrogens can affect cattle health, reproduction, and productivity. Most studies of mycotoxins in dairy feeds in Mexico and worldwide have been focused on a few (regulated) mycotoxins. In contrast, less known fungal toxins, phytoestrogens, and other metabolites have been neglected and underestimated. This study analyzed a broad spectrum (>800) of mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and fungal, plant, and unspecific secondary metabolites in whole-plant corn silages (WPCSs) and total mixed rations (TMRs) collected from 19 Mexican dairy farms. A validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometric (LC/ESI-MS/MS) method was used. Our results revealed 125 of >800 tested (potentially toxic) secondary metabolites. WPCSs/TMRs in Mexico presented ubiquitous contamination with mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and other metabolites. The average number of mycotoxins per TMR was 24, ranging from 9 to 31. Fusarium-derived secondary metabolites showed the highest frequencies, concentrations, and diversity among the detected fungal compounds. The most frequently detected mycotoxins in TMRs were zearalenone (ZEN) (100%), fumonisin B1 (FB1) (84%), and deoxynivalenol (84%). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA), previously reported in Mexico, were not detected. All TMR samples tested positive for phytoestrogens. Among the investigated dietary ingredients, corn stover, sorghum silage, and concentrate proportions were the most correlated with levels of total mycotoxins, fumonisins (Fs), and ergot alkaloids, respectively.

E-Nose Technology for Mycotoxin Detection in Feed: Ready for a Real Context in Field Application or Still an Emerging Technology?

Mycotoxin risk in the feed supply chain poses a concern to animal and human health, economy, and international trade of agri-food commodities. Mycotoxin contamination in feed and food is unavoidable and unpredictable. Therefore, monitoring and control are the critical points. Effective and rapid methods for mycotoxin detection, at the levels set by the regulations, are needed for an efficient mycotoxin management. This review provides an overview of the use of the electronic nose (e-nose) as an effective tool for rapid mycotoxin detection and management of the mycotoxin risk at feed business level. E-nose has a high discrimination accuracy between non-contaminated and single-mycotoxin-contaminated grain. However, the predictive accuracy of e-nose is still limited and unsuitable for in-field application, where mycotoxin co-contamination occurs. Further research needs to be focused on the sensor materials, data analysis, pattern recognition systems, and a better understanding of the needs of the feed industry for a safety and quality management of the feed supply chain. A universal e-nose for mycotoxin detection is not realistic; a unique e-nose must be designed for each specific application. Robust and suitable e-nose method and advancements in signal processing algorithms must be validated for specific needs.

Immunohistochemical Expression (IE) of Oestrogen Receptors in the Intestines of Prepubertal Gilts Exposed to Zearalenone

This study was conducted to determine if a low monotonic dose of zearalenone (ZEN) affects the immunohistochemical expression (IE) of oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and oestrogen receptor beta (ERβ) in the intestines of sexually immature gilts. Group C (control group; n = 18) gilts were given a placebo. Group E (experimental group; n = 18) gilts were dosed orally with 40 μg ZEN /kg body weight (BW), each day before morning feeding. Samples of intestinal tissue were collected post-mortem six times. The samples were stained to analyse the IE of ERα and Erβ in the scanned slides. The strongest response was observed in ERα in the duodenum (90.387-average % of cells with ERα expression) and in ERβ in the descending colon (84.329-average % of cells with ERβ expression); the opposite response was recorded in the caecum (2.484-average % of cells with ERα expression) and the ascending colon (2.448-average % of cells with ERα expression); on the first two dates of exposure, the digestive tract had to adapt to ZEN in feed. The results of this study, supported by a mechanistic interpretation of previous research findings, suggest that ZEN performs numerous functions in the digestive tract.

Heat Shock Protein Response to Stress in Poultry: A Review

Compared to other animal species, production has dramatically increased in the poultry sector. However, in intensive production systems, poultry are subjected to stress conditions that may compromise their well-being. Much like other living organisms, poultry respond to various stressors by synthesising a group of evolutionarily conserved polypeptides named heat shock proteins (HSPs) to maintain homeostasis. These proteins, as chaperones, play a pivotal role in protecting animals against stress by re-establishing normal protein conformation and, thus, cellular homeostasis. In the last few decades, many advances have been made in ascertaining the HSP response to thermal and non-thermal stressors in poultry. The present review focuses on what is currently known about the HSP response to thermal and non-thermal stressors in poultry and discusses the factors that modulate its induction and regulatory mechanisms. The development of practical strategies to alleviate the detrimental effects of environmental stresses on poultry will benefit from detailed studies that describe the mechanisms of stress resilience and enhance our understanding of the nature of heat shock signalling proteins and gene expression.

Research progress of ochratoxin a bio-detoxification

Ochratoxins (OTs) is an extremely toxic mycotoxin in which Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most toxic and prevalent in the ochratoxin family. OTA is among the five most critical mycotoxins that are subject to legal regulations. Animals and humans may be exposed to OTA through dietary intake, inhalation, and dermal contact. OTA is considered nephrotoxic, genotoxic, cytotoxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, immunotoxic, and myelotoxic. So, intake of OTA contaminated foods and feeds can impact the productivity of animals and health of people. According to this review, several studies have reported on the approaches that have been established for OTA removal. This review focused on the control approaches to mitigate OTA contamination, OTA bio-detoxification materials and their applicable techniques, recombinant strains for OTA bio-detoxification, and their detoxification effects, recombinant OTA-degrading enzymes and their sources, recombinant fusion enzymes for OTA, ZEN and AFB1 mycotoxins detoxification, as well as the current application and commercialized OTA bio-detoxification products. However, there is no single technique that has been approved to detoxify OTA by 100% to date. Some preferred current strategies for OTA bio-detoxification have been recombinant degrading enzymes and genetic engineering technology due to their efficiency and safety. Therefore, prospective studies should focus on standardizing pure enzymes from genetically engineered microbial strains that have great potential for OTA detoxification.

Mycotoxin Occurrence in Feeds and Raw Materials in China: A Five-Year Investigation

Mycotoxins are ubiquitously present in feeds and raw materials and can exert toxicity on animals and humans. Therefore, mycotoxin occurrence should be monitored. We report here a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples in China from 2017 to 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and zearalenone were determined in a total of 9392 samples collected throughout China. Regional differences and year-to-year variation of mycotoxin occurrence were also assessed in new-season corn. Generally, Fusarium mycotoxins were prevalent, while mycotoxin contamination in each feed commodity showed a distinct pattern, e.g., wheat and bran were typically affected by trichothecenes type B, peanut meals were highly susceptible to aflatoxins, and finished feeds exhibited a comparatively high prevalence of all mycotoxins. In new-season corn, trichothecenes type B and fumonisins were most prevalent, with positive rates of 84.04% and 87.16%, respectively. Regions exhibited different patterns of mycotoxin occurrence. The Anhui and Jiangsu provinces of East China exhibited a high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins with a positive rate and a positive average of 82.61% and 103.08 μg/kg, respectively. Central China obtained high fumonisins levels of 4707.84 μg/kg. Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone occurred more frequently in temperate regions of Northeast China, and their positive rates reached 94.99% and 55.67%, respectively. In these regions, mycotoxin concentrations in new-season corn exhibited pronounced year-to-year variations and this could be due to the unusual changes of rainfall or temperature during sensitive periods of corn growing. A large fraction of new-season corn samples contained multiple mycotoxins with two to three classes (75.42%), and the most frequently observed co-contaminants were the combination of trichothecenes type B and fumonisins (73.52%). Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone concentrations were highly positively correlated with a coefficient of 0.775. In conclusion, mycotoxins contamination and co-contamination of feeds are common. Mycotoxin contamination in new-season corn exhibited regional patterns and year-to-year variations, with climate and weather conditions as determinant factors.

Enzymatic Degradation of Zearalenone in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Pigs, Chickens, and Rainbow Trout

The estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a common contaminant of animal feed. Effective strategies for the inactivation of ZEN in feed are required. The ZEN-degrading enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme^®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) converts ZEN to hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN), thereby enabling a strong reduction in estrogenicity. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of ZenA added to feed to degrade ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of three monogastric animal species, i.e., pigs, chickens, and rainbow trout. For each species, groups of animals received (i) feed contaminated with ZEN (chickens: 400 µg/kg, pigs: 200 µg/kg, rainbow trout: 2000 µg/kg), (ii) feed contaminated with ZEN and supplemented with ZenA, or (iii) uncontaminated feed. To investigate the fate of dietary ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract in the presence and absence of ZenA, concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were analyzed in digesta of chickens and rainbow trout and in feces of pigs. Upon ZenA administration, concentrations of ZEN were significantly decreased and concentrations of the degradation product HZEN were significantly increased in digesta/feces of each investigated animal species, indicating degradation of ZEN by ZenA in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, upon addition of ZenA to the diet, the concentration of the highly estrogenic ZEN metabolite α-ZEL was significantly reduced in feces of pigs. In conclusion, ZenA was effective in degrading ZEN to HZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, pigs, and rainbow trout, and counteracted formation of α-ZEL in pigs. Therefore, ZenA could find application as a ZEN-degrading feed additive for these animal species.

Short-term consumption of the mycotoxin zearalenone by pubertal gilts causes persistent changes in the histoarchitecture of reproductive tissues

Consumption of zearalenone (ZEN) detrimentally affects tissues and systems throughout the body, and these deleterious effects are especially pronounced in swine. The objectives of this project were to determine the effects of short-term consumption of ZEN (at concentrations that could be found on-farm) on growth, carcass weight, liver weight, and reproductive tissues of pubertal gilts, and to determine if the effects are transient or persistent. Cross-bred gilts (107.25 ± 2.69 kg) were randomly assigned to one of three feed treatments: 1) solvent only for 21 d (CON; n = 10), 2) ZEN for 7 d followed by 14 d of solvent (ZEN-7; 6 mg/d; n = 10), and 3) ZEN for 21 d (ZEN-21; 6 mg/d; n = 10). Body weights were collected at the beginning and end of the experiment (189.1 ± 0.8 and 211.1 ± 0.8 d of age, respectively). Carcass weights and tissues were collected at harvest. There were no treatment-based differences in growth, carcass, liver, or reproductive tissue weights. Histological analyses revealed differences based on treatment and the interaction between treatment and luteal status. The thickness of the ampullary muscularis declined with ZEN exposure (P < 0.05), while the isthmic epithelial cell height (P < 0.01) and uterine endometrial thickness (P < 0.02) increased. Interestingly, the thickness of the isthmic muscularis, uterine myometrium, and epithelial cell height only differed in the presence of a corpus luteum. Uterine epithelial cell height in the luteal phase was lowest in ZEN-7 pigs (P < 0.01). The isthmic muscularis in the luteal phase was thinner in pigs from both ZEN treatments (P < 0.01). Conversely, the luteal-stage myometrium was thicker in pigs from both ZEN treatments (P < 0.01). The discovery of these tissue-based differences during the luteal phase is particularly concerning since this corresponds with the time when embryos would be affected by the functional competency of the oviduct and uterus. The results of this work demonstrate that short-term consumption of ZEN produces microscopic, but not macroscopic alterations in reproductive organs which are likely to have negative effects on their subsequent function and that these differences persist even after ZEN consumption ceases. Taken together, these results indicate that it is insufficient to rely solely on outwardly visible symptoms as indicators of zearalenone exposure, as detrimental effects on reproductive tissues were found in the absence of phenotypic and morphologic changes.

Compound mycotoxin detoxifier alleviating aflatoxin B1 toxic effects on broiler growth performance, organ damage and gut microbiota

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of compound mycotoxin detoxifier (CMD) on alleviating the toxic effect of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) for broiler growth performance. One-kilogram CMD consists of 667 g aflatoxin B₁-degrading enzyme (ADE, 1,467 U/g), 200 g montmorillonite and 133 g compound probiotics (CP). The feeding experiment was divided into 2 stages (1-21 d and 22-42 d). In the early stage, a total of 300 one-day-old Ross broilers were randomly divided into 6 groups, 5 replications for each group, 10 broilers (half male and half female) in each replication. In the later feeding stage, about 240 twenty-two-day-old Ross broilers were randomly divided into 6 groups, 8 replications for each group, 5 broilers in each replication. Group A: basal diet; group B: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁; group C: basal diet with 1 g/kg CMD; groups D, E, and F: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁ plus 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 g/kg CMD, respectively. The results indicated that AFB₁ significantly decreased average daily gain (ADG), protein metabolic rate, organ index of thymus, bursa of Fabricius (BF), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and catalase activities in serum, and increased AFB₁ residues in serum and liver (P < 0.05). Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining analysis of jejunum, liver and kidney showed that AFB₁ caused the main pathological changes with different degrees of inflammatory cell infiltration. However, CMD additions could alleviate the negative effects of AFB₁ on the above parameters. The gut microbiota analysis indicated that AFB₁ could significantly increase the abundances of Staphylococcus-xylosu, Esherichia-coli-g-Escherichia-Shigella, and decrease Lactobacillus-aviarius abundance (P < 0.05), but which were adjusted to almost the same levels as the control group by CMD addition. The correlative analysis showed that Lactobacillus-aviarius abundance was positively correlated with ADG, SOD and BF (P < 0.05), whereas Staphylococcus-xylosus abundance was positively correlated with AFB₁ residues in serum and liver (P < 0.05). In conclusion, CMD could keep gut microbiota stable, alleviate histological lesions, increase growth performance, and reduce mycotoxin toxicity. The optimal CMD addition should be 1 g/kg in AFB₁-contaminated broilers diet.

The dual antimicrobial and immunomodulatory roles of host defense peptides and their applications in animal production

Host defense peptides (HDPs) are small molecules with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities against infectious bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Increasing evidence suggests that HDPs can also indirectly protect hosts by modulating their immune responses. Due to these dual roles, HDPs have been considered one of the most promising antibiotic substitutes to improve growth performance, intestinal health, and immunity in farm animals. This review describes the antimicrobial and immunomodulatory roles of host defense peptides and their recent applications in animal production.

Traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins disrupt homeostasis of bovine mammary cells by altering cell permeability and innate immune function

High incidence of traditional and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in cereal grains and silages can be a potential threat to feed safety and ruminants. Inadequate biodegradation of Fusarium mycotoxins by rumen microflora following ingestion of mycotoxin-contaminated feeds can lead to their circulatory transport to target tissues such as mammary gland. The bovine udder plays a pivotal role in maintaining milk yield and composition, thus, human health. However, toxic effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on bovine mammary gland are rarely studied. In this study, the bovine mammary epithelial cell line was used as an in-vitro model of bovine mammary epithelium to investigate effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin B (ENB) and beauvericin (BEA) on bovine mammary gland homeostasis. Results indicated that exposure to DON, ENB and BEA for 48 h significantly decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.001). Exposure to DON at 0.39 μmol/L and BEA at 2.5 μmol/L for 48 h also decreased paracellular flux of FITC-40 kDa dextran (P < 0.05), whereas none of the mycotoxins affected transepithelial electrical resistance after 48 h exposure. The qPCR was performed for assessment of expression of gene coding tight junction (TJ) proteins, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cytokines after 4, 24 and 48 h of exposure. DON, ENB and BEA significantly upregulated the TJ protein zonula occludens-1, whereas markedly downregulated claudin 3 (P < 0.05). Exposure to DON at 1.35 μmol/L for 4 h significantly increased expression of occludin (P < 0.01). DON, ENB and BEA significant downregulated TLR4 (P < 0.05). In contrast, ENB markedly increased expression of cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) (P < 0.001), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-a) (P < 0.05) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) (P < 0.01). BEA significantly upregulated IL- 6 (P < 0.001) and TGF-β (P = 0.01), but downregulated TNF-α (P < 0.001). These results suggest that DON, ENB and BEA can disrupt mammary gland homeostasis by inducing cell death as well as altering its paracellular permeability and expression of genes involved in innate immune function.

Time- and Dose-Dependent Effects of Dietary Deoxynivalenol (DON) in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at Organism and Tissue Level

This study with juvenile rainbow trout evaluated the effects of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) at industrially relevant doses (up to 1.6 mg/kg) on growth performance, the liver, and the gastrointestinal tract. Fifteen groups of 30 fish each were given one of five dietary treatments in triplicate: (1) control diet (CON; DON < 100 µg/kg feed), (2) naturally DON-contaminated diet (ND1) with a DON content of 700 µg/kg in the feed, (3) ND2 with a DON content of 1200 µg/kg feed, (4) a pure DON-contaminated diet (PD1) with 800 µg/kg of DON in the feed, and (5) PD2 with DON at a concentration of 1600 µg/kg in the feed. The feeding trial lasted eight weeks: six weeks of restrictive feeding followed by two weeks of ad libitum feeding. Exposure to DON during restrictive feeding for six weeks did not affect the growth performance of trout but did lead to a reduction in retained protein in fish fed with higher doses of DON in the ND2 and PD2 groups. During the two following weeks of ad libitum feeding, feed intake was similar among all groups, but body weight gain was lower in the ND2 and PD2 groups and feed efficiency was higher in PD2 (week 8). Histopathological assessment revealed liver damage, including altered nuclear characteristics and haemorrhages, in groups fed higher doses of natural DON (ND2) after just one week of restrictive feeding. Liver damage (necrosis and haemorrhage presence in ND2) was alleviated over time (week 6) but was again aggravated after ad libitum exposure (week 8). In contrast, gastrointestinal tract damage was generally mild with only a few histopathological alterations, and the absence of an inflammatory cytokine response was demonstrated by PCR at week 8. In conclusion, ad libitum dietary exposure of rainbow trout to either natural or pure DON resulted in reduced growth (dose-dependent), while restrictive exposure revealed time-dependent effects of natural DON in terms of liver damage.

Exposure to Low Zearalenone Doses and Changes in the Homeostasis and Concentrations of Endogenous Hormones in Selected Steroid-Sensitive Tissues in Pre-Pubertal Gilts

This study was undertaken to analyze whether prolonged exposure to low-dose zearalenone (ZEN) mycotoxicosis affects the concentrations of ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) in selected reproductive system tissues (ovaries, uterine horn-ovarian and uterine sections, and the middle part of the cervix), the hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, or the concentrations of selected steroid hormones in pre-pubertal gilts. For 42 days, gilts were administered per os different ZEN doses (MABEL dose [5 µg/kg BW], the highest NOAEL dose [10 µg/kg BW], and the lowest LOAEL dose [15 µg/kg BW]). Tissue samples were collected on days seven, twenty-one, and forty-two of exposure to ZEN (exposure days D1, D2, and D3, respectively). Blood for the analyses of estradiol and progesterone concentrations was collected in vivo on six dates at seven-day intervals (on analytical dates D1-D6). The analyses revealed that both ZEN and its metabolites were accumulated in the examined tissues. On successive analytical dates, the rate of mycotoxin accumulation in the studied tissues decreased gradually by 50% and proportionally to the administered ZEN dose. A hierarchical visualization revealed that values of the carry-over factor (CF) were highest on exposure day D2. In most groups and on most exposure days, the highest CF values were found in the middle part of the cervix, followed by the ovaries, both sections of the uterine horn, and the hypothalamus. These results suggest that ZEN, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL were deposited in all analyzed tissues despite exposure to very low ZEN doses. The presence of these undesirable compounds in the examined tissues can inhibit the somatic development of the reproductive system and compromise neuroendocrine coordination of reproductive competence in pre-pubertal gilts.

An Eight-Year Survey on Aflatoxin B1 Indicates High Feed Safety in Animal Feed and Forages in Northern Italy

Aflatoxins (AFs) remain the main concern for the agricultural and dairy industries due to their effects on the performances and quality of livestock production. Aflatoxins are always unavoidable and should be monitored. The objective of this paper is to bring to light a significant volume of data on AF contamination in several animal feed ingredients in Northern Italy. The Regional Breeders Association of Lombardy has been conducting a survey program to monitor mycotoxin contamination in animal feeds, and in this paper, we present data relating to AFB1 contamination. In most cases (95%), the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with the European Union's (EU's) maximum admitted levels for animal feed ingredients. However, the data show a high variability in AF contamination between different matrices and, within the same matrix, a high variability year over year. High levels of AFs were detected in maize and cotton, especially in the central part of the second decade of this century, i.e., 2015-2018, which has shown a higher risk of AF contamination in feed materials in Northern Italy. Variability due to climate change and the international commodity market affect future prospects to predict the presence of AFs. Supplier monitoring and control and reduced buying of contaminated raw materials, as well as performing analyses of each batch, help reduce AF spread.

The efficacy of mycotoxin binders to control mycotoxins in feeds and the potential risk of interactions with nutrient: a review

Mycotoxicosis are a common problem in livestock, where a group of six major mycotoxins represents a high risk for animal health and production profits. Mycotoxin binders (MTB) can reduce the mycotoxin burden in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal. Mycotoxin binders are classified in inorganic, as clays and activated carbon (AC), and organic, as yeast cell wall (YCW) and micro-ionized fibers. The adsorption of mycotoxins into MTB is due to: 1) chemical interactions where the cation exchange capacity involves different types of bounds like ion-dipole, Van der Walls forces, or hydrogen bonds; and 2) to physical characteristics of MTB like pore size, or mycotoxin structure and shape. The adsorption capacity of MTB is determined using different in vitro tests that mimic the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. A literature search was conducted to identify in vitro research where the efficacy of adsorption of MTB was determined. The search was based on 8 MTB [AC, bentonite, clinoptilolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), montmorillonite (MMT), sepiolite, YCW and zeolite] and 6 mycotoxins [aflatoxin (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin (FUM), ochratoxin (OTA), T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEA)]. Sixty-eight papers with 1842 data were selected and analyzed with the PROC MIXED of SAS. The response variable was the percentage mycotoxins adsorption by MTB, and the model included the fixed effects of MTB, mycotoxins, incubation media, pH and their interactions, and the random effect of the study. Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05 and with tendency when 0.05 < P < 0.10. The mycotoxins adsorption capacity was 83% ± 1.0 for AC, 76% ± 3.1 for MMT, 62% ± 1.0 for bentonite, 55% ± 1.9 for HSCAS, 52% ± 9.1 for sepiolite, 52% ± 4.3 for clinoptilolite and 44% ± 0.4 for YCW. For mycotoxins, the adsorption of AF was 76% ± 0.6, for FUM was 50% ± 1.8, for OTA was 42% ± 1.0, for ZEA was 48% ± 1.1, for DON was 35% ± 1.6, and for T-2 was 27% ± 2.8. The pH affected the adsorption capacity of YCW with higher adsorption at low pH, and the adsorption of OTA and ZEA, where OTA adsorption tended to be lower at intermediate pH, and adsorption of ZEA tended to be higher at the two-steps pH. The potential adsorption of some essential nutrients, including amino acids and vitamins, should also be considered. Results should be used as a guide in the selection of the appropriate mycotoxin binder based on the predominant mycotoxin in feeds.

Advances in the study of liver microsomes in the in vitro metabolism and toxicity evaluation of foodborne contaminants

Foodborne contaminants are closely related to anthropologic activities and represent an important food safety hazard. The study of metabolic transformation and toxic side effects of foodborne contaminants in the body is important for their safety assessment. Liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes related to substance metabolism and biotransformation. An in vitro model simulating liver metabolic transformation is associated with a significant advantage in the study of the metabolic transformation mechanisms of contaminants. This review summarizes the recent progress in the application of liver microsomes in metabolic transformation and toxicity evaluation of various foodborne pollutants based on metabolic kinetics, molecular docking and enzyme inhibition studies. The purpose of this review is to distinguish the existing studies involving liver microsomes and provide strategies for their application in the future. Finally, the prospects and challenges of the liver microsomal model are discussed.