The importance of straw for pig and cattle welfare: A review

Access to bedding and outdoor runs for growing-finishing pigs: is it possible to improve welfare without increasing environmental impacts?

Providing bedding or access to an outdoor run are husbandry aspects intended to improve pig welfare, which is currently financially supported through animal welfare schemes in several European countries. However, they may significantly affect the environment through changes in feed efficiency and manure management. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to compare farms differing in animal welfare relevant husbandry aspects regarding (1) the welfare of growing-finishing pigs and (2) environmental impact categories such as global warming (GW), acidification (AC), and freshwater (FE) and marine eutrophication (ME), by employing an attributional Life Cycle Assessment. We collected data on 50 farms with growing-finishing pigs in seven European countries. Ten animal-based welfare indicators were aggregated into three pig welfare indices using principal component analysis. Cluster analysis of farms based on husbandry aspects resulted in three clusters: NOBED (31 farms without bedding or outdoor run), BED (11 farms with bedding only) and BEDOUT (eight farms with bedding and outdoor run). Pigs on farms with bedding (BED and BEDOUT) manipulated enrichment more often (P < 0.001), pen fixtures less frequently (P = 0.003) and showed fewer oral stereotypies (P < 0.001) than pigs on NOBED farms. There were fewer pigs with a short(er) tail on farms with than without bedding (P < 0.001). Acidification of BEDOUT and BED farms was significantly higher (compared to NOBED farms P = 0.002) due to higher ammonia emissions related to farmyard manure. Also, BEDOUT farms had higher ME than NOBED farms (P = 0.035). There were no significant differences regarding GW and FE between husbandry clusters, due to the large variability within clusters regarding feed composition and conversion. Therefore, both husbandry aspects associated with improved animal welfare have a significant influence on some environmental impacts, such as acidification and marine eutrophication. Nevertheless, the large variation within clusters suggests that trade-offs may be minimised through e.g. AC and ME.

Husbandry practices associated with extensification in European pig production and their effects on pork quality

This review has been developed as part of the mEATquality project with the main objective to examine the types of extensification practices used in European pig husbandry and their effect on intrinsic meat quality. Literature search has resulted in 679 references in total, from which 53 showed a strict compliance with the goals of this review: 1) the use of local European breeds and their crossbreds (22 papers); 2) addition of forage to diet (9 papers); 3) increased space allowance (3 papers); 4) enrichment of environment (19 papers). The evaluation of selected extensification factors showed that not all of them have a clear impact on meat quality, and are often confounded. The most clear differences were observed when comparing autochthonous with commercial breeds, and systems with access to pastures or woodlands vs. indoor housing. Despite many studies focusing on the extensification of husbandry practices, some of the factors cannot be confirmed to have a direct effect on pork intrinsic quality.

Tracking behavioral changes of confined sows from the first mating to the third parity

The occurrence pattern of stereotypic behavior in high-parity confined sows is still unclear. We continually observed the behavioral changes in activity-restricted sows from the first mating to the end of the third parity. The results showed that the second- or third-parity weaned sows exhibited more vacuum chewing and total oral behavior than the first-parity sows. The vacuum chewing of sows in the second and third pregnancies was significantly more than that of the first-pregnancy sows at each stage of pregnancy, and the total oral behavior changed similarly. The sitting of sows in the second and third pregnancies was significantly more than that of the first-pregnancy sows in the early stage of pregnancy, whereas sitting behavior in the third pregnancy was significantly more than that in the middle stages of the first and second pregnancies. Vacuum chewing or sitting was positively correlated with confinement duration. In summary, vacuum chewing and sitting behaviors in sows confined from the first mating were significantly affected by parity. From the late stage of the first pregnancy to the middle stage of the second pregnancy is the key period of stereotypic behavior development for low-parity sows.

Indicators of improved gestation housing of sows. Part I: Effects on behaviour, skin lesions, locomotion, and tear staining

Commercial gestation housing systems for sows generally fail to cater fully for their needs in terms of comfort or the ability to perform highly motivated behaviours, which can lead to chronic stress and an impairment to welfare. We compared a typical gestation system (CONTROL) with an IMPROVED one as regards oral stereotypies, aggressive behaviour, skin lesions, locomotion, and tear staining. Sows were mixed into 12 stable groups (six groups per treatment, 20 sows per group), 29 days post-service in pens with free-access, full-length individual feeding/lying stalls. CONTROL pens had fully slatted concrete floors, with two blocks of wood and two chains suspended in the group area. IMPROVED pens were the same but with rubber mats and a length of manila rope in each feeding stall, and straw provided in three racks in the group area. Direct observations of oral stereotypical (30 instantaneous scans per sow per day) and aggressive (all-occurrence sampling, 3 h per sow per day) behaviours were conducted 72 h post-mixing, in mid and late gestation. Skin lesions were counted 24 h and three weeks post-mixing, and in late gestation. Sows' locomotion (locomotory ability) was scored using a visual analogue scale in mid and late gestation. Right and left eye tear staining was scored in late gestation. Indications of better welfare in IMPROVED sows included performance of fewer oral stereotypies in mid and late gestation, and lower tear stain scores. These sows performed more aggression in late gestation, which was associated with access to enrichment, but skin lesion counts were not affected. Thus, the changes made in the IMPROVED treatment benefitted aspects of sow welfare.

Indicators of improved gestation housing of sows. Part II: Effects on physiological measures, reproductive performance and health of the offspring

Prenatal stress is the mechanism through which poor welfare of pregnant sows has detrimental effects on the health and resilience of their piglets. We compared two gestation housing systems (IMPROVED versus [conventional] CONTROL) in terms of sow stress and welfare indicators and sought to determine whether potential benefits to the sows would translate into improved offspring health. Sows were mixed into 12 stable groups (six groups per treatment, 20 sows per group) 29 days post-service in pens with free-access, full-length individual feeding/lying-stalls. CONTROL pens had fully slatted concrete floors, with two blocks of wood and two chains suspended in the group area. IMPROVED pens were the same but with rubber mats and manila rope in each stall, and straw provided in three racks in the group area. Saliva was collected from each sow on day 80 of pregnancy and analysed for haptoglobin. Hair cortisol was measured in late gestation. Sows' right and left eyes were scored for tear staining in mid lactation and at weaning. Numbers of piglets born alive, dead, mummified, and total born were recorded. Piglets were weighed and scored for vitality and intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) at birth. Presence of diarrhoea in farrowing pens was scored every second day throughout the suckling period. IMPROVED sows had lower haptoglobin levels and tear-stain scores during lactation. IMPROVED sows produced fewer mummified piglets, and these had significantly lower IUGR scores, and scored lower for diarrhoea than piglets of CONTROL sows. Hence, improving sow welfare during gestation improved the health and performance of their offspring.

A Practical Approach to Providing Environmental Enrichment to Pigs and Broiler Chickens Housed in Intensive Systems

In Europe, regulations contain guidance to maintain high standards of animal welfare. In many parts of the world, large buyers for supermarkets or restaurants are the main enforcers of basic animal welfare standards. They can have considerable influence on improving standards on large commercial farms. Research clearly shows that straw is one of the most effective environmental enrichment for pigs. On some large farms, there are concerns that straw will either clog waste management systems or bring in disease. This paper contains a review of both scientific research and practical experience with enrichment devices that are easy to implement. Pigs prefer enrichment objects that they can chew up and deform. Broiler chickens prefer to climb up on objects, hide under them or peck them. It is always essential to uphold basic welfare standards such as animal cleanliness and low levels of lameness (difficulty walking). It is also important to reduce lesions, and maintain body conditions of breeding animals. An environment enrichment device is never a substitute for poorly managed facilities. It should enhance animal welfare on well-managed farms.

Changes in amount and length of periods of stereotypic behavior in Jersey cows with and without access to pasture

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the access to pasture affects the stereotypic behavior of Jersey cows kept in loose housing systems. Therefore, a total of 21 randomly selected Jersey cows housed in two different investigation farms were observed once a week for four weeks in winter and summer, respectively, using the focal sampling method. On every examination day, each cow was observed for 15 min and the amount (AP) and length (LP) of periods, in which the cows showed stereotypic behavior within this observation time, were counted. Wilcoxon signed rank tests were carried out to estimate differences between pasture access and no pasture access regarding AP and LP. Welch two sample t-tests were performed to detect differences in AP and LP between both investigation farms. The results of the study show significant differences between the option of pasture access and no pasture access regarding the values of AP and LP. The values of AP (p = 0.001) as well as the values of LP (p = 0.006) were lower when the cows had access to the pasture. No differences could be found between the investigation farms. It could be concluded that the access to pasture has a significant influence on the stereotypic behavior of Jersey cows. Further studies are needed to intensively analyze the causes of stereotypic behavior in Jersey cows.

Management factors affecting gestating sows’ welfare in group housing systems — A review

Public concern on the methods of raising food-producing animals has increased, especially in the last two decades, leading to voluntary and mandated changes in the animal production methods. The primary objective of these changes is to improve the welfare of farm animals. The use of gestational stalls is currently a major welfare issue in swine production. Several studies assessed the welfare of alternative housing systems for gestating sows. A comparative study was performed with gestating sows housed in either individual stalls or in groups in a pen with an electronic sow feeder. This review assessed the welfare of each housing system using physiological, behavioral, and reproductive performance criteria. The current review identified clear advantages and disadvantages of each housing system. Individual stall housing allowed each sow to be given an individually tailored diet without competition, but the sows had behavioral restrictions and showed stereotypical behaviors (e.g., bar biting, nosing, palate grinding, etc.). Group-housed sows had increased opportunities to display such behavior (e.g., ability to move around and social interactions); however, a higher prevalence of aggressive behavior, especially first mixing in static group type, caused a negative impact on longevity (more body lesions, scratch and bite injuries, and lameness, especially in subordinate sows). Conclusively, a more segmented and diversified welfare assessment could be beneficial for a precise evaluation of each housing system for sows. Further efforts should be made to reduce aggression-driven injuries and design housing systems (feeding regimen, floor, bedding, etc.) to improve the welfare of group-housed sows.

Integrative Sustainability Analysis of European Pig Farms: Development of a Multi-Criteria Assessment Tool

Societal interest in all aspects of sustainability has increased. Therefore, pig farmers need to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses in all dimensions of sustainability: economy, environment, social wellbeing, and animal health and welfare. Our aim was to describe and critically discuss the development of a sustainability assessment tool for pig farms and to evaluate its suitability by applying it to 63 European pig farms (13 breeding, 27 breeding-to-finishing, and 23 finishing farms). The multi-criteria assessment tool was developed in several steps (the selection and scaling of indicators and their aggregation and weighting) in order to summarise the indicators into subtheme and theme scores. The indicators contributing the most to the subtheme/theme scores were identified and discussed in order to evaluate the procedure of the development. For example, some indicators, such as Ecological compensation area, Fairness of prices, and Tail docking, for which farms were scored low, were also identified as “real world problems” in other studies. For other sustainability aspects with low performance, the threshold might have been set too ambitiously, e.g., for Number of sows per annual working unit. Furthermore, to analyse the suitability of the tool, we assessed the best and worst median theme scores (good and poor performances) for each dimension, as well as the variability of the performances of the farms within the themes. Some themes were found to be moderate, such as Pig comfort, Biodiversity, or Resilience, whereas others were found to be good, e.g., Water and the Human–animal relationship, as well as several themes of the social wellbeing dimension. Overall, the sustainability tool provides a comprehensive assessment of the sustainability of pig production. Furthermore, this publication contributes to both the theory (development of a robust sustainability tool) and the practice (provision of a tool to assess and benchmark the sustainability on farms). As a next step, a sensitivity analysis should be performed, and the tool should be applied for further development.

Risk Factors for Chronic Stress in Sows Housed in Groups, and Associated Risks of Prenatal Stress in Their Offspring

Chronic stress has a detrimental effect on sow welfare and productivity, as well as on the welfare and resilience of their piglets, mediated prenatally. Despite this, the specific risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows are understudied. Group-housed pregnant sows continuously face numerous challenges associated with aspects of the physical (group type and size, flooring, feeding system) and social (stocking density, mixing strategy) environment. There are many well-known potent stressors for pigs that likely contribute to chronic, physiological stress, including overcrowding, hot temperatures, feed restriction, inability to forage, uncomfortable floors, and poor handling. Some of these stressors also contribute to the development of production diseases such as lameness, which in turn are also likely causes of chronic stress because of the associated pain and difficulty accessing resources. The aim of this review is to discuss potential risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows such as space allowance, group size and type (stable/dynamic), feeding level, lameness, pen design, feed system, enrichment and rooting material, floor type, the quality of stockmanship, environmental conditions, and individual sow factors. The mechanisms of action of both chronic and prenatal stress, as well as the effects of the latter on offspring are also discussed. Gaps in existing research and recommendations for future work are outlined.

Implementation of a Pig Toilet in a Nursery Pen with a Straw-Littered Lying Area

Simple Summary

Generally, pigs are known to be very clean and intelligent animals. The present study tested whether it is possible to train nursery pigs to defaecate and urinate in a pig toilet while keeping a straw-bedded lying area clean. The pig toilet was separated into a defaecation area and a urination area. An automatic rewarding system installed in the urination area and pig faeces placed in the corners of the defaecation area were used to help the pigs to identify the elimination area. By means of direct observation and video analysis, all eliminations within the experimental pen were analysed. Altogether, the pig toilet was very well accepted by the pigs, but a spatial separation of faeces and urine was not achieved. The lying area was kept clean, so that keeping pigs on straw in combination with a pig toilet would be quite conceivable in the future to enable a more animal-friendly life.

Abstract

In this study, a pig toilet was installed on an organic pig farm, which enabled pigs to use a lying area littered with straw and keep it clean. The pig toilet was separated into a defaecation area and a urination area and nursery pigs were trained to use the urination area by means of a rewarding system. A total of 24 piglets were weaned at 6–7 weeks of age and housed in the experimental system for four-week periods. Per trial, a group of four pigs was formed, and videos were recorded on two days per week (08:00 to 18:00). Direct observation was carried out in the first and last week of each trial. In total, 1500 eliminations were video-analysed. An individual pig had an average of 7.1 ± 1.4 defaecations and 4.8 ± 0.8 urinations per day. In total, 96.4% of all urinations and 97.4% of all defaecations were performed in the pig toilet. However, most urinations took place in the defaecation area as well (90.4%). Even if the training to spatially separate defecation and urination behaviour was not successful, we showed that a pig toilet offers the possibility to create littered lying areas, possibly increasing animal welfare.

How Housing Conditions Determine the Welfare of Pigs

Humans who care for pigs prefer an environment that not only allows the pigs to express their natural behaviors but also limits the development of aggression and stereotypes. Most of the behavioral and health problems encountered by pigs in barren, conventional conditions are solved by alternative housing systems. However, it is not known whether these systems are advantageous in terms of the performance of pigs. In this work, we review the effects of housing systems on pigs' behaviors and performance, which are among the major indicators of the welfare of these animals. Research results point out that outdoor systems are more ideal for sows and fatteners than buildings. Nonetheless, outdoor housing is associated with two major effects in both groups: increased activity due to environmental exploration and higher space allowance, and increased incidence of injuries compared to indoor systems. Sows are more active when housed in groups, but they experience an increased frequency of injuries. According to the literature, group-housed sows give birth to healthy piglets with good daily weight gains. The difference in the fattening and slaughter performance of pigs raised indoors vs. outdoors remains unclear, and the results reported so far are inconsistent. Outdoor systems seem to be associated with a higher incidence of osteochondrosis and lesions of elbow and hock joints, whereas indoor systems cause a greater degree of body soiling in pigs. Based on the reviewed literature, it may be concluded that outdoor housing helps to solve behavioral issues in pigs but leads to other problems in pig production.

Early Detection of Locomotion Disorders in Gilts Using a Novel Visual Analogue Scale; Associations with Chronic Stress and Reproduction

Locomotion scoring is crucial for the early detection of lameness, which reduces sow welfare and performance. Our objective was to test the effectiveness of a visual analogue scale (VAS) to measure locomotory ability (OVERALL) compared to a categorical scoring system (CAT) and to investigate associations with hair cortisol and reproductive performance. Locomotion was scored in gilts (n = 51) at service, on day 57 and day 108 of pregnancy, and at weaning, using a VAS (150 mm line: 0 mm (perfect)-150 mm (severely lame)), and a CAT (1 (perfect)-5 (severely lame)). Hair cortisol concentration was measured on day 108 of pregnancy. Reproductive performance data (parity 1-4) were acquired from farm records. VAS detected deviations from optimal locomotion more effectively than the CAT (F_3,145 = 2.70; p ≤ 0.05 versus F_3,195 = 2.45; p = 0.065). Higher OVERALL scores at service (REG = 0.003 ± 0.0012; F_1,48 = 4.25; p ≤ 0.05) and on day 57 (REG = 0.003 ± 0.0013; F_1,48 = 6.95; p ≤ 0.05) were associated with higher hair cortisol concentrations on day 108. Positive associations were detected between OVERALL at service and the number of piglets born dead (REG = 0.01 ± 0.006; F_1,36 = 4.24; p ≤ 0.05), and total born (REG = 0.1 ± 0.03; F_1,120 = 4.88; p ≤ 0.05). The VAS better facilitates early detection of lameness, which could help to prevent detrimental effects, possibly mediated by chronic stress, on reproductive performance.

The effect of straw based housing on selected quality attributes of pork – a meta-analysis

<b>The aim of the research was to estimate the effect of straw-based housing on selected quality attributes of pork, using a meta-analytical approach. Meta-analysis is statistical procedure that combines the results of individual, independent studies into one common treatment effect, called the effect size. Data were extracted from 17 independent studies (20 experiments) and analysed using a random-effect model to estimate the effect of straw-based housing on the pH (initial pH at 45 min post mortem and ultimate pH), drip loss, colour (L*, a*, b*) and Warner-Bratzler shear force of pork loins. The meta-analysis of the available results showed that pigs from straw-based systems may produce pork with a faster early post-mortem pH decline (pH45), higher drip loss, and greater lightness than those reared under barren conditions with concrete (slatted) floors. A subgroup analysis showed that greater space allowance for straw-housed pigs had a greater negative effect on initial pH (pH45), drip loss, and lightness than straw housing with normal/minimal floor space requirements.

Animal Welfare Risks in Live Cattle Export from Australia to China by Sea

There are long-standing and ongoing concerns about the welfare of animals in the Australian live export trade by sea. However, scrutiny of animal welfare on board vessels is generally hindered by a lack of independent reporting. Cattle voyages from Australia to China have concerned animal welfare advocates due to their long duration and lack of consistent veterinary oversight. In April 2018, following a media exposé of animal cruelty and declining public trust, the Australian government installed Independent Observers on some live export voyages. Summaries of Independent Observer (IO) reports by the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (DAWR) provided a new and independent source of information about management of animals in the live export trade. The IO summaries on live cattle export voyages to China for the period July 2018 to December 2019 (n = 37) were reviewed. The IO summaries detailed voyages that carried 147,262 slaughter, feeder or breeder cattle which included both dairy and beef breeds. The long-haul voyages averaged 20 days in duration, generally departing the ports of Fremantle and Portland and discharging at ports in northern China. Key animal welfare risk factors identified in the IO summaries included: hunger, thirst, exposure to extreme temperatures, poor pen conditions, health issues, absence of veterinarians, rough seas, poor ship infrastructure, mechanical breakdown and mismanagement at discharge.

Evolution of welfare indicators of pigs housed in deep bedding systems during growing and finishing phases: assessment of good health principles and housing conditions

The aim of the study was to monitor the evolution of welfare indicators of pigs throughout growing and finishing phases housed in a deep bedding system by principles of good health and housing. In all, 16,500 animals, distributed in 15 facilities, were evaluated over a 4-month period. Three assessments were carried out in each facility by a single evaluator, according to the following time distribution: phase one (75 to 85 days old), phase two (86 to 161 days old), and phase three (162 to 180 days old). Only the parameters related to good health and good housing were considered. Data were analyzed by logistic regression for longitudinal data. Poisson distribution was used on the coughing and sneezing data, with subsequent chi-square analysis. There were no cases of poor body condition, shivering, panting, huddling, tail biting, pumping, twisted snout, rectal prolapse, lameness, and skin conditions. The final evaluations were associated with greater chances of hernia and bursitis, with greater prevalence in males than in females. The prevalence of wound and manure on the body parameters was influenced by the interaction of the evaluation and animal category. The incidence of coughing and the number of animals presenting this symptom gradually increased, becoming considerably higher in the final stage of evaluation. Health-related problems change throughout the production cycle. The evaluation of a broad and reliable view on animal welfare allows for the most appropriate management of production systems using deep bedding.

Chemical analysis of materials used in pig housing with respect to the safety of products of animal origin

Bedding, environmental enrichment materials and disinfectant powders in pig farming are meant to ensure a hygienic bedding environment or allow pigs to perform explorative behaviour. To our knowledge, no legal regulation exists, that established maximum contents for undesirable substances, such as toxic metals, dioxins or trace elements in these materials, although oral ingestion could be expected. In the present study, a total of 74 materials (disinfectant powders [n = 51], earth/peat [n = 12], biochar [n = 8], recycled manure solids [n = 3]) were analysed for their content of various toxic metals, trace elements, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls. The data suggest that, in some samples, trace elements like iron, copper and zinc might have been added intentionally in order to induce physiological effects (iron supply to piglets, copper and zinc as growth promoter in pigs). Moreover, some materials contained high levels of lead, cadmium or arsenic. Consequently, if farm animals repeatedly consume environmental enrichment and bedding materials or disinfectant powders in considerable amounts and these quantities are added to the daily ration, the amount of ingested undesirable substances and trace elements might exceed the maximum levels set for complete feedstuffs, and an elevated transfer into food of animal origin might occur. Future studies are required to address the possible quantitative contribution in the light of feed and food safety. Finally, the excretion of undesirable substances with manure needs to be considered due to their possible accumulation in soils.

Providing live black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) improves welfare while maintaining performance of piglets post-weaning

During weaning, piglets experience concurrent social, physical, and nutritional stressors. Consequently, piglets often have poor feed intake and display increased oral manipulative behaviours post-weaning, indicative of compromised welfare. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) possess many attractive properties for pigs and could therefore function as effective edible enrichment, potentially alleviating weaning stress by facilitating exploration and promoting feed intake. In this study, pairs of piglets received a small amount of either live BSFL or wood shavings (8 pens/treatment) scattered throughout the pen twice a day for 11 days after weaning. Home-pen behaviour was scored by instantaneous scan sampling on day 2, 5 and 8, and behavioural responses to a novel environment and novel object were scored on day 10/11. Performance-related parameters were observed regularly. Larvae provisioning increased floor-directed exploration and decreased object-directed exploration, pig-directed oral manipulation, fighting and eating of pellets, and reduced neophobia towards a novel object. Pellet intake was significantly decreased by BSFL provisioning during day 4-11 post-weaning, although feed and net energy intake including BSFL never differed between treatments. BSFL provisioning did not influence piglet growth, feed efficiency, energy efficiency, and faecal consistency. To conclude, live BSFL provisioning positively affected post-weaning piglet behaviour while maintaining performance.

Effect of Straw Provision in Racks on Tail Lesions, Straw Availability, and Pen Hygiene in Finishing Pigs

Unfulfilled exploratory behavior in pigs has been linked to tail biting, which causes reduced performance and welfare. Provision of straw can reduce tail biting, but large straw rations can cause poor hygiene in pens. This study examined whether provision of straw in racks, rather than on the pen floor, can enable larger straw rations without compromising hygiene. The study was conducted on a commercial farm with 458 undocked pigs in 42 pens provided with straw in racks or on the floor. Available straw and manual cleaning requirement were assessed daily, and presence of tail lesions was assessed weekly. Both treatments had a low requirement for manual cleaning (Floor: 1.7%, Rack: 1.8%). Pigs in the rack treatment had a higher incidence of lesions early in the production period, which coincided with these pigs initially not consuming straw from the rack, leading to low straw access. Late in the production period, these pigs had learned how to use the rack and had a lower incidence of lesions than pigs in the floor treatment. Delayed use of the rack may have been linked to undeveloped spatial skills in the pigs, which needs further research.

Litter and perch type matter already from the start: exploring preferences and perch balance in laying hen chicks

Early chick environment, such as provision of litter and perches, can be a predictor of laying hen welfare. Inadequate or nonpreferred litter and perch types could have similar negative effects as those seen when not providing these resources at an early stage, such as increased feather pecking and cannibalism in adult flocks. However, suitable litter and perch types for chicks are not well explored. In the present project, 6 different types of litter (crushed straw pellets, hemp shavings, peat, sand, straw, wood shavings) and 6 different types of perches (narrow or wide forms of rope, flat or round wood) were presented in a controlled way (3 at a time) to chicks in 6 pens. Usage was compared in 93 chicks of Lohmann Selected Leghorn Classic divided across the pens, during their first 3 wk after hatch. Different litter types were seen to be preferred for different behaviors. The majority of dustbathing bouts occurred in sand and peat. Chicks foraged more in wood shavings, hemp shavings, and sand than in peat and pellets (P < 0.05). Perch width and shape were found to affect both usage and perch balance, measured as the probability of successful or problematic landings. The wide rope was generally used more during the first week (P < 0.05) and was used more for sleeping or resting (P < 0.05) than the other wide perch types. Furthermore, birds were more likely to land on the wide rope or on flat perches successfully than they were to have a problematic landing (P < 0.05). That birds were more likely to be observed preening on flat perches than on the potentially shaky rope perches could further reflect a sense of security. Our results suggest that presenting several litter types could better fulfill chicks' behavioral needs and that flat perches or a wide rope (4.5-cm diameter) could be appropriate perch types for laying hen chicks and thereby promote early perch use and training.

A High Enrichment Replenishment Rate Reduces Damaging Behaviors and Increases Growth Rate in Undocked Pigs Kept in Fully Slatted Pens

One of the difficulties in complying with the prohibition of routine tail docking is a lack of effective alternative solutions to prevent tail biting, especially in fully slatted systems. This study compared three slat-compatible enrichment replenishment strategies for pigs. Forty-eight mixed-sex pens (six males and six females/pen) of undocked pigs were followed from birth to slaughter. Pre-weaning, half the pigs were provided with enrichment materials (a cardboard cup, rubber toy, hessian cloth and bamboo), in addition to a rope for the sows, in all farrowing crates. Post-weaning, all pens were enriched with eight identical items, including an elevated rack supplied with fresh-cut grass, and objects of wooden, bamboo, rubber, and fabric materials presented in various ways. However, three different replenishment frequencies were applied: "Low" (replenished on Monday/Wednesday/Friday), "Medium" (replenished once daily), and "High" (replenished ad libitum). Individual pigs were weighed on days 0, 49, 91, and 113 post-weaning. Direct behavior observations were conducted twice weekly at pen level (10 min/day/pen), and tail and ear lesion scores of individual pigs were also recorded every other week. These measurements were taken during the post-weaning period. The cost of all enrichment materials used was calculated. Pre-weaning enrichment only contributed to a lower ear lesion score (P = 0.04). No difference in lesion scores was found between post-weaning treatments. "Low" replenishment rate pigs performed more damaging behaviors (tail/ear biting, belly-nosing, mounting, other biting, and aggressive behaviors combined) than "High" and "Medium" pigs (P < 0.01). The average daily gain in the finishing stage was higher in "High" than "Low" pigs (P < 0.05). Although sporadic tail biting occurred, only 0.69% of the pigs had their tails bitten severely enough that they became shorter than half of a normal undocked tail. The average enrichment cost for the post-weaning period was <€2 per pig. In conclusion, the high enrichment replenishment rate increased growth and reduced damaging behaviors compared to the low replenishment rate pigs. Overall, these findings show that the provision and regular replenishment of multiple, slat-compatible, enrichment sources can reduce tail damage to manageable levels without the need for tail docking.

Invited review: Lying time and the welfare of dairy cows

Adequate time lying down is often considered an important aspect of dairy cow welfare. We examine what is known about cows' motivation to lie down and the consequences for health and other indicators of biological function when this behavior is thwarted. We review the environmental and animal-based factors that affect lying time in the context of animal welfare. Our objective is to review the research into the time that dairy cows spend lying down and to critically examine the evidence for the link with animal welfare. Cows can be highly motivated to lie down. They show rebound lying behavior after periods of forced standing and will sacrifice other activities, such as feeding, to lie down for an adequate amount of time. They will work, by pushing levers or weighted gates, to lie down and show possible indicators of frustration when lying behavior is thwarted. Some evidence suggests that risk of lameness is increased in environments that provide unfavorable conditions for cows to lie down and where cows are forced to stand. Lameness itself can result in longer lying times, whereas mastitis reduces it. Cow-based factors such as reproductive status, age, and milk production influence lying time, but the welfare implications of these differences are unknown. Lower lying times are reported in pasture-based systems, dry lots, and bedded packs (9 h/d) compared with tiestalls and freestalls (10 to 12 h/d) in cross-farm research. Unfavorable conditions, including too few lying stalls for the number of cows, hard or wet lying surfaces, inadequate bedding, stalls that are too small or poorly designed, heat, and rain all reduce lying time. Time constraints, such as feeding or milking, can influence lying time. However, more information is needed about the implications of mediating factors such as the effect of the standing surface (concrete, pasture, or other surfaces) and cow behavior while standing (e.g., being restrained, walking, grazing) to understand the effect of low lying times on animal welfare. Many factors contribute to the difficulty of finding a valid threshold for daily lying time to use in the assessment of animal welfare. Although higher lying times often correspond with cow comfort, and lower lying times are seen in unfavorable conditions, exceptions occur, namely when cows lie down for longer because of disease or when they spend more time standing because of estrus or parturition, or to engage in other behaviors. In conclusion, lying behavior is important to dairy cattle, but caution and a full understanding of the context and the character of the animals in question is needed before drawing firm conclusions about animal welfare from measures of lying time.

Soiling of Pig Pens: A Review of Eliminative Behaviour

Simple Summary

The soiling of pig pens has important negative consequences in terms of animal welfare, health, workload, and environmental emissions of pig farming. The aim of this review is to present the state-of-the-art regarding pigs’ normal eliminatory behaviour (i.e., defaecation and urination) and pen soiling, aimed here at solving pen-soiling problems in existing systems, and in a following publication aimed at the design of a more sustainable pig-farming system. To this end, we summarize a large body of literature on pen soiling and pigs’ eliminative behaviour in different farming systems. We propose a “disease framework” interpretation of pen soiling, to help identify its causes, underlying mechanisms, and solutions.

Abstract

This is a comprehensive review on the pigs’ normal eliminatory behaviour (i.e., defaecation and urination) and pen soiling. This review is aimed primarily at solving issues with pen soiling in current systems, and ultimately at the future design of a well-functioning pig toilet, which we intend to elaborate on in a subsequent publication. In this paper, first, normal elimination is described in relation to what is known about its phylogeny, ontogeny, causation, and function, i.e., according to Tinbergen’s four why questions concerning animal behaviour. Then, pen soiling is described as if it were a medical disorder, highlighting its importance, aetiology, symptoms, diagnosis, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention. Due to its negative consequences in terms of animal welfare, health, workload, and environmental emissions, possible methods to address pen soiling in current systems are described. Probably, pigs do not choose a specific place to eliminate but rather choose the most comfortable place for resting, and avoid eliminating there. We identified four main strategies to reduce pen soiling: (1) reducing the suitability of the designated elimination area to be used for other functions, especially resting or thermoregulation; (2) improving the suitability of other functional areas in the pen to be used for their specific function, such as resting and activity; (3) reducing the suitability of other functional areas to be used for elimination; and (4) improving the suitability of the elimination area for elimination. These prevention strategies and the encompassing disease framework provide a structured approach to deal with pen soiling in existing systems and to support the future design, development, and implementation of a well-functioning pig toilet that can help to achieve some of the main goals of modern pig production, namely reducing environmental emissions as well as substantially improving pig welfare.

Impact of amount of straw on pig and pen hygiene in partly slatted flooring systems

BACKGROUND

Straw is a beneficial enrichment material for pigs, shown to improve welfare through reducing tail biting. Straw has previously been identified as one of the means of how to raise pigs without tail docking, through improving natural exploratory behaviour. Straw has however been linked to poor pen hygiene, making farmers reluctant to use straw and has largely not been implemented in commercial farming worldwide. Straw is a beneficial enrichment material for pigs, shown to improve welfare and reduce abnormal behaviour such as tail biting.

RESULTS

This study investigates the impact of straw on pig and pen hygiene in pens with partly slatted floor in three grower and four finishing pig batches on five commercial farms (2329 pigs, 211 pens) in Sweden which were providing straw daily. Each batch was divided into two treatments; Control: 50-600 g straw/pen/day based on the farm normal straw ration; and Extra straw; (=doubled Control ration). The pens were scored based on cleanliness of the pigs, solid and slatted pen floor every second week. The pig and pen hygiene were mostly scored as clean in both treatments, overall around 1% of the observations were considered dirty/soiled.

CONCLUSIONS

As very few pens or pigs were considered dirty, it was concluded that straw provision is possible without risking poor pig and pen hygiene. Few observations in this study were considered dirty regardless of amount of straw that was provided, and had likely to do with other factors in the production rather than straw ration. These results implies that straw could be used in partly slatted pens in order to improve pig environment but more research is needed to quantify the impact of other external factors related to climate (e.g. temperature, humidity, velocity).

Dairy Calf Welfare and Factors Associated with Diarrhea and Respiratory Disease Among Chilean Dairy Farms

Simple Summary

Since 2013, a Chilean law regulates the welfare of farm animals. Despite advances in scientific knowledge and legislation, many farms use management practices that can be detrimental to animals. The objectives of this study were to describe common management practices that may affect the welfare status of unweaned dairy calves and identify factors associated with diarrhea and respiratory disease. We visited 29 dairy farms and collected information on management practices, environment, and animal health. Management practices identified as risk factors for poor calf welfare were: reliance on the mother to provide colostrum, use of restrictive milk feeding (<4 L/day), disbudding performed with no pain control, and lack of appropriate euthanasia protocols. Factors associated with diarrhea were: frequency of bed cleaning, calf cleanliness score, type of milk, and herd size. Factors associated with respiratory disease were: calf cleanliness score, pen space allowance, and colostrum quality evaluation. Showing critical points that impact the health and welfare of dairy calves facilitates the implementation of improvement strategies.

Abstract

This study aimed to describe management practices that may compromise the welfare of unweaned dairy calves on 29 dairy farms in Chile, and identify factors associated with diarrhea and respiratory disease (n = 700 calves). Evaluations were divided into protocol-, facility-, and animal-based measurements. Calf diarrhea and respiratory disease data were analyzed using logistic regression models. Management practices identified as risk factors for poor calf welfare were: relying on the mother to provide colostrum (48.0% of the farms); using restrictive milk feeding (65.5%), and unpasteurized waste milk (51.7%); giving water after 30 days of age (17.2%); disbudding without analgesia (89.6%) or anesthesia (79.3%); lacking euthanasia protocols (61.5%). Factors significantly (p < 0.05) associated with increased odds of diarrhea were: cleaning the calves’ bed once a week and 2–3 times a week compared with every day, using milk replacer and untreated waste milk compared with treated waste milk (pasteurized or acidified), animals scored dirty in the calf cleanliness score compared with clean animals, and greater herd size. Factors significantly associated with increased odds of respiratory disease were: less pen space allowance (<1.8 m²), farms that did not check colostrum quality, and animals that scored dirty and moderately dirty compared with clean calves. These results suggest the need to improve specific management practices associated with reduced welfare and health in dairy calves in Chile.

The Influence of Different Types of Outdoor Access on Dairy Cattle Behavior

Pasture access for dairy cows is highly valued both by cows and the public at large. When pasture access is not feasible, farmers can provide cows with alternative forms of outdoor access, such as an outdoor bedded pack, that may be easier to implement on some farms. We reviewed the literature on how lying, standing, walking, feeding, social, and estrus behaviors are influenced by pasture and other types of outdoor areas. Pasture allows the expression of grazing and can facilitate the expression of lying, standing, walking, and estrus behaviors. In addition, pasture can decrease the number of negative social interactions between cows, likely because more space per cow is provided than what is normally available indoors. The provision of soft flooring and an open space in outdoor bedded packs appears to provide some benefits for lying, standing, and walking behavior and may also have positive effects on social behavior, especially with larger space allowances. The effects of an outdoor bedded pack on estrus behavior are less well-documented, but the provision of a standing surface that provides better footing than typically available indoors may promote estrus behavior. Alternative outdoor areas assessed to date appear to be less attractive for cows than pasture, perhaps because these areas do not provide the opportunity to graze. We encourage future research to investigate the importance of grazing for dairy cows. The motivation of dairy cows to access alternative outdoor areas should also be investigated. As cow preference for the outdoors depends on many factors, providing cows a choice may be of particular importance.

Equipping Farrowing Pens with Straw Improves Maternal Behavior and Physiology of Min-Pig Hybrid Sows

Simple Summary

This study used different sow breeds combined with an enriched environment to relieve stress and to improve the welfare level of sows. Both groups of sows were in loose-housed pens. Sows living in a barren environment (BE) without straw were compared with sows in farrowing crates that received 3.5 kg of straw daily (enriched environment (EE)). Compared with BE sows, EE sows showed more nest-building behavior prior to farrowing, more nursing behavior, and less ventral recumbency behavior during the first three days postpartum. Furthermore, compared with BE sows, EE sows tended to have higher concentrations of serum oxytocin and prolactin, while the concentration of cortisol was lower, suggesting an increase in maternal behavior and a reduction of stress in this group. In addition, the concentration of oxytocin and both the frequency and duration of prepartum nest-building behavior were higher in Duroc × Min and Landrace × Min sows compared with Landrace × Yorkshire sows. However, the concentration of prolactin was significantly lower in both Duroc × Min and Landrace × Min sows than in Landrace × Yorkshire sows, indicating that hybrid sows of Min-pig inherited good maternal characteristics. Based on these results, straw enrichment improved Min-pig hybrid sow welfare during farrowing and lactation.

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of two factors, enriched environment (EE) and different crossbreeds, on the maternal behavior and physiology of Min-pig hybrid sows. The analysis was performed on a total of 72 multiparous sows, including Duroc × Min pig (DM), Landrace × Min pig (LM), and Landrace × Yorkshire (LY) sows, using a total of 24 sows per cross. The sows were housed in two different farrowing pens, one with straw (EE) and one without straw (barren environment (BE)). The results showed that nest-building behavior, including the frequency, total duration, and bout duration, was significantly higher in EE sows than in BE sows (p < 0.01). The frequency and duration of prepartum nest-building behavior were higher in DM and LM sows than in LY sows (p < 0.0001). During the first three days postpartum, EE sows spent a shorter time in ventral recumbency compared with BE sows (p < 0.05). The oxytocin (p < 0.05) and prolactin (p < 0.01) concentrations of EE sows were significantly higher than in BE sows; however, the concentration of cortisol followed the opposite (p < 0.01). The concentration of oxytocin was significantly higher in DM and LM sows than in LY sows (p < 0.01). In conclusion, both EE increased the expression of hormones related to parental behaviors and prenatal nesting and nursing behavior of sows. Furthermore, an EE can also reduce stress in sows. Min-pig hybrids may inherit highly advantageous characteristics of maternal behavior of Min-pig sows.

Irish pig farmer's perceptions and experiences of tail and ear biting

Abnormal behaviours such as ear and tail biting of pigs is of significant welfare and economic concern. Currently, pig welfare legislation is under renewed focus by the EU commission and is likely to be enforced more thoroughly. The legislation prohibits routine tail docking and requires adequate enrichment to be provided. In Ireland, tail-docking is still the most utilised control mechanism to combat tail biting, but biting is still widespread even in tail-docked pigs. In addition, as pig farms are almost all fully slatted, bedding type material cannot be provided. Thus, the opinions, and practices of farmers in countries like Ireland, which may need to make significant adaptations to typical pig management systems soon, need to be considered and addressed. We carried out a survey of pig farmers during 2015 in order to gain a greater understanding of the extent of biting on Irish farms, perception on the most important preventive measures, current enrichment use and actions following outbreaks. Fifty-eight farmers from 21 Counties responded with an average herd size of 710 ± 597 sows (range 90–3000 sows). Only two farms had experienced no biting in the last year. Of the farms that had experienced tail biting (88%), 86% had also experienced ear biting. The most common concerns relating to biting were condemnation and reduced productivity of bitten pigs with both receiving an average score of 4 (most serious). Ear biting occurred most commonly in the 2nd stage (approximately 47–81 days from weaning) weaner and tail biting in the finishing stage. The most important preventive measures were felt to be taking care of animal health, restricting density, maintaining an even quality of feed/content and maintaining good air movement. Sixty-five percent of respondents added additional enrichment following an outbreak. Chains were the most common form of enrichment currently used (83%). Those not using chains favoured wood, toys and rope (17%). Identification of the most effective and accessible control and prevention measures both for the animals and for the farming community is thus essential. Improved understanding of the concerns and practices of producers, which this survey contributes to, is a first step towards this aim.

An investigation into the effectiveness of compressed straw blocks in reducing abnormal behaviour in growing pigs

The provision of manipulable material to pigs is a legal requirement to ensure their good welfare. Loose straw is edible, chewable, investigable and manipulable, and has been proven to be effective in reducing abnormal behaviour. However, it is incompatible with slatted systems and therefore not a viable option for many intensive units. Thus, there is a need to identify enrichment materials that are as effective as loose straw and compatible with slatted floors. This study investigated the viability of using compressed straw blocks on a commercial farm in terms of cost and effectiveness in reducing biting relative to plastic hanging toys. A total of 880 slaughter pigs were used, among which half (n = 440, 8 groups) were provided with commercial pig toys (TOY) and the other half (n = 440, 8 groups) were provided compressed straw blocks (STRAW BLOCK). Animals were separated according to sex to investigate whether there was a higher propensity to tail and ear bite depending on sex. Pigs were monitored from weaning to slaughter, with tails being examined post scalding and any condemnations recorded at the abattoir. Throughout their life, the tails and ears of all pigs were examined individually, and behavioural observations of each pig group were conducted fortnightly. Salivary cortisol was also obtained from a subsample of pigs from each group every fortnight to monitor stress levels. The highest straw usage was recorded in the second weaner stage (39 to 67 days after weaning). Enrichment type or sex had no effect on tail lesion scores or cold carcass weight recorded at the abattoir. There was also no effect of enrichment type or sex on body, tail, or ear lesion scores during either the weaner (0 to 39 days after weaning) or finisher stage (67 to145 days after weaning). Female pigs showed more biting behaviour than males, and female pigs that were provided STRAW BLOCK performed better than those provided TOY. In both the weaner and finisher accommodation, more instances of interaction were recorded with TOY pens as enrichment than with STRAW BLOCK, but the interaction duration was not recorded. There was no effect of sex on either stage. More instances of aggression were observed with the TOY than with STRAW BLOCK in the weaner stage (P < 0.05). Enrichment type or sex had no effect on cortisol levels. Thus, relative to plastic hanging toys, compressed straw blocks provided in this manner did not benefit pig welfare.

Damaging Behaviour and Associated Lesions in Relation to Types of Enrichment for Finisher Pigs on Commercial Farms

Simple Summary

EU legislation states that all pigs must have access to material that allows them to perform investigation and manipulation activities. This reduces the risk of pigs performing damaging behaviours (e.g., tail, ear and flank biting). The aim of this study was to determine associations between damaging behaviours performed by finisher pigs, the related lesions and the use of different types of enrichment. Finisher pigs were observed on 31 commercial pig farms in Ireland and the number of pigs affected by tail, ear and flank lesions as well as all occurrences of damaging behaviour (tail-, ear- and flank-directed behaviour) were recorded. The type (chain, plastic or wood) of enrichment provided was noted; chains were the most common (41.4% of farms), followed by plastic (37.9%) and wood (20.7%). Damaging behaviour was more frequent on farms that provided chains compared to plastic or wood, particularly tail- and flank-directed behaviour was affected. The prevalence of lesions tended to be higher on farms where chains were provided compared to wooden enrichment devices. This was due to a higher prevalence of mild tail lesions on farms using chains. Results suggest that despite chains being commonly used, they did not fulfill their role in reducing damaging behaviours and associated lesions in finisher pigs.

Abstract

EU legislation states that all pigs must have access to material that allows them to perform investigation and manipulation activities, thereby reducing the risk of pigs performing damaging behaviours (e.g., tail, ear and flank biting). We aimed to determine associations between damaging behaviours performed by finisher pigs, the related lesions and the use of different types of enrichment. Six randomly selected pens of finisher pigs were observed for 10 min each on 31 commercial pig farms in Ireland. All pigs were counted and the number of pigs affected by tail, ear and flank lesions was recorded. During the last 5 min, all occurrences of damaging behaviour (tail-, ear- and flank-directed behaviour) were recorded. The type (chain, plastic or wood) and number of accessible enrichment objects/pen was recorded. Chains were the most common (41.4% of farms), followed by plastic (37.9%) and wood (20.7%). Damaging behaviour was more frequent on farms that provided chains compared to plastic or wood. Farms with chains were associated with a higher frequency of flank-directed behaviour and tended to be associated with a higher frequency of tail-directed behaviour compared to farms that provided plastic devices. The prevalence of lesions tended to be higher on farms where chains were provided compared to wooden enrichment devices, mostly driven by a difference in the prevalence of mild tail lesions. Results support expert opinions that despite being commonly used, chains did not fulfill a role in reducing damaging behaviours and associated lesions in finisher pigs compared to other forms of enrichment.

Behaviour and welfare of fattening lambs supplemented with varying sizes and types of straw

The aim was to evaluate the effect of size (long or chopped wheat straw), type (barley or wheat) and presence/absence (1 week) of straw supplementation on behaviour and welfare of fattening lambs. Sixteen lambs (65 days) were individually housed to be used in two simultaneous experiments (8 lambs each) for 5 weeks of fattening. After a habituation period, they were offered straw that differed either in size (Experiment 1) or type (Experiment 2), which was followed by a week without straw and then reallocation of straw. Maintenance behaviours, play and stereotypies were analysed using video recording. Physiological stress responses were measured using blood samples taken at the end of the week without straw and after the reallocation of the straw. A preference test was performed during the last week. Concentrate and roughage consumption, average daily gain and conversion index were estimated. Lambs provided with long straw spent more time eating forage, playing and performed fewer stereotypies (Experiment 1). Lambs given wheat straw increased their play behaviour compared with those given barley straw, without affecting stereotypies (Experiment 2). When the straw was removed, lambs performed more behaviours associated with stress; however, this was not reflected in blood stress indicators. Lambs clearly preferred long straw over chopped straw, but no clear preference was observed between wheat and barley straw. The amount of forage intake was consistent with the time spent eating forage, but the amount of concentrate intake did not vary with eating concentrate behaviour, since the amount of concentrate intake was higher when the straw was removed, especially in Experiment 2. Our results show that size more than type of straw supplement impact the behaviour of lambs. Long straw reduces the stereotypies and increases play. This may improve the welfare and performance of fattening lambs, adding ethical value to a highly appreciated product.

Housing Horses in Individual Boxes Is a Challenge with Regard to Welfare

Horses are mainly housed in individual boxes. This housing system is reported to be highly detrimental with regard to welfare and could trigger the expression of four behavioural indicators of a compromised welfare state: stereotypies, aggressiveness toward humans, unresponsiveness to the environment, and stress-related behaviours. The aim of this study was to identify housing and management factors that could alleviate the detrimental effects of individual boxes on welfare. A total of 187 horses were observed over 50 days by scan sampling. The impact of 12 factors was investigated on the expression of the four behavioural indicators in three different analyses. The results show that the majority of factors tested did not influence the expression of the behavioural indicators. Only three (straw bedding, a window opening onto the external environment, and a reduced quantity of concentrated feed) would have beneficial, although limited, effects. Furthermore, the longer the horses spent in individual boxes, the more likely they were to express unresponsiveness to the environment. To preserve the welfare of horses, it seems necessary to allow free exercise, interactions with conspecifics, and fibre consumption as often as possible, to ensure the satisfaction of the species' behavioural and physiological needs.

Enrichment with Lucerne Hay Improves Sow Maternal Behaviour and Improves Piglet Survival

This study investigated the effects of providing lucerne hay on the behaviour and the performance of sows housed in farrowing crates during farrowing and lactation. Seventy-two mixed parity sows received either 1 kg lucerne hay daily from entry into the farrowing crate (-2 d from expected farrowing date) until weaning at 17 d (lucerne group, n = 36), or received no additional enrichment (control group, n = 36). In the 18 h prior to farrowing, the sows in the lucerne treatment spent more time performing nest-building behaviour (14.8% lucerne vs 11.1% control, p = 0.0009) and less time sham-chewing (1.0% lucerne vs 1.9% control, p = 0.01) than control sows, and gave birth to fewer stillborn piglets/litter (0.1 lucerne vs 0.4 control, p = 0.027). After farrowing (Day 3), the control sows spent less time lying than the lucerne sows (26% control vs 43% lucerne, p < 0.05). The control sows also spent less time interacting with their piglets during early lactation compared to late lactation (25.5% Day 5 vs 47.3% Day 12, p < 0.05), suggesting reduced maternal behaviour in this group. The lucerne sows continued to interact with the lucerne throughout lactation, indicating that they still found the enrichment rewarding after the nesting period had ceased. Based on these results, lucerne enrichment was considered to improve sow welfare during farrowing and lactation and reduce the number of stillborn piglets.

Effects of stocking density during the dry period on dairy cow physiology, metabolism and behaviour

The effects of high stocking density during the dry period on dairy cow physiology, behaviour and welfare were investigated. Holstein Friesian cows (n = 48, calving over a seven month period) were dried-off 60 ± 4 d before their expected calving date, and allocated to either high (H) or low (L) stocking density groups. Cows were housed in cubicles from dry-off to 21 d before calving and then moved to straw yards until calving. In cubicle pens, H and L cows had 0.5 vs. 1.0 feed yokes/cow and 1.0 vs. 1.5 cubicles/cow, respectively, and in straw yards, 0.3 m vs. 0.6 m linear feed-face space and 6 m2vs. 12 m2 lying space, respectively. Video observations of feeding behaviour during the 3 h after feed delivery (3 d/week) and agonistic interactions at the feed-face during peak feeding (2 d/week) were made. Daily lying proportion was measured using an accelerometer device throughout the dry period. Concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM) at dry-off, d7 and d35 after dry-off and d21 and d7 before calving and the change in energy metabolites (glucose, NEFA, BHB) from dry-off to d7 before calving were measured. H cows were less likely to start feeding within 5 min of feed delivery and spent less time feeding compared to L cows, but they engaged in displacements more frequently and spent more time standing in the feed alley. Irrespective of the treatment groups, FGCM concentrations significantly increased from dry-off to d7 after dry-off and remained higher during the dry period. Stocking density did not affect daily lying proportion, energy metabolites during the dry period and milk yield during subsequent lactation. This study found that whilst high stocking density during the dry period increased competition at the feed-face and altered feeding behaviour, it did not affect stress responses, energy metabolism or subsequent milk yield.

Are Tail and Ear Movements Indicators of Emotions in Tail-Docked Pigs in Response to Environmental Enrichment?

The inclusion of emotional indicators in farm monitoring methods can improve welfare assessments. Studies in controlled conditions have suggested that increased tail movement is an indicator of positive emotions in pigs, while others have proposed that increased ear movements are linked to negative emotions. This study aimed to investigate these indicators in pig farm conditions to analyze their validity and the effect of enrichment on welfare. Thirty-six pigs received one of the following enrichment materials: straw in a rack, wooden logs, or chains. Behavioral observations were performed by focal sampling. The results showed that tail movement duration was significantly higher when pigs exhibited "high use" (three or more pigs in a pen interacting with the enrichment) than when they exhibited "low use" (fewer than three) of enrichment (p = 0.04). A positive correlation was found between tail movement frequency and duration (r = 0.88; p = 0.02). The increase in tail movement could be considered an indicator of positive emotions in pigs when measured with other categories of indicators. Regarding ear movements, no significant difference was found. Future studies should further investigate these indicators thoroughly, as the results could be useful for improving the assessment of emotions in pigs.

Relationships between housing and management factors and clinical health events in elephants in North American zoos

Elephants experience a number of health issues that can contribute to their well-being and survival. In managed populations, housing conditions and management practices can influence individual health, so potential risk factors associated with morbidity or mortality should be identified to ensure the best possible standards of care. The goal of this study was to determine if the number of clinical events experienced could be a useful welfare indicator in zoo elephants, and to determine factors associated with key pathologies. We used an epidemiological approach to investigate how intrinsic (species, sex, age) and extrinsic (housing, management) factors were associated with both the total number of clinical events, and each of the four most prevalent pathology types (gastrointestinal issues, skin lesions, lameness, foot lesions), over a 12-month period. The study included 220 (127 African; 93 Asian) elephants housed at 61 facilities across North America. More than 1100 clinical events were identified. Species and sex differences were apparent in the types of pathology encountered, and unsurprisingly, the number of clinical events was positively correlated with age. Factors relating to housing (percent time with indoor/outdoor choice, space experience inside, number of unique environments an elephant was housed in, percent time on soft substrate) and management (enrichment diversity, spread of feeding opportunities) were also related to the number of clinical events. However, relationships were often counter to our initial hypotheses, highlighting caution in assuming cause and effect from correlational analyses such as these. Other welfare indicators such as serum and fecal glucocorticoids and serum prolactin were also associated with health status, being higher or more variable in individuals with a greater number of events. This approach provides insight into housing and management factors related to the health of these species in zoos, and in some cases, may reflect management changes that have already been made to mitigate existing or anticipated health concerns.

Structural characterization of piglet producing farms and their sow removal patterns in Finland

Background

The main objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize piglet producing farms in Finland and to investigate how farm profiles are associated with sow culling and mortality.The study was conducted on 43 farms during 2014. A questionnaire survey was administered in-person and supplemented with observations in the housing facilities. Annual removal figures and average monthly sow inventories were retrieved from a centralized animal data recording system (National Swine Registry) administered by the Finnish Food Authority. Multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering were used to explore the complex underlying data-driven patterns.

Results

Sow removal varied markedly between farms with an overall average culling percentage of 38.0% (95% CI 34.1-42.0) and a relatively high average mortality percentage 9.7% (95% CI 7.9-11.5). We identified three farm clusters, which differed both in their typologies and removal patterns. Cluster 1 included farms with features indicative of a semi-intensive or intensive kind of farming, such as larger herd and room sizes, higher stocking density and more sows per caretaker. Most of the cluster 1 farms exceeded the investigated cut-off levels for culling and mortality. Cluster 2 farms were estimated to have the best animal welfare among the sample farms based on a combination of environmental indicators (e.g. amount of bedding, rooting and nesting materials, space allowance, pen cleanliness) and the lowest level of sow mortality as an animal-based indicator. Cluster 3 farms followed a strategy of a rather non-intensified system based on the predominance of smaller herd size, lower stocking density and less sows per caretaker, combined breeding and gestation rooms and rare use of farrowing induction. This cluster showed the lowest culling levels within the sample.

Conclusions

This study captures the diversity among Finnish sow farms and provides a baseline assessment of their practices and facilities. Our results support the notion that farm typologies are associated with sow culling and mortality. In summary, the control of suboptimal sow removal cannot be based on single improvements only, because of other limitations within the individual farm resources.

The Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Physiology, Behaviour, Productivity and Meat Quality of Pigs Raised in a Hot Climate

Simple Summary

European Union (EU) legislation states that the routine tail docking of pigs should not be carried out and that manipulable materials should be made available to all pigs to prevent tail biting and allow them to behave naturally. However, between 90 and 95% of pigs within the EU still have their tails docked to avoid the risk of tail biting. Farmers say they require information tailored to their particular production systems before they abandon this practice. In this study, four types of enrichment materials used in Spanish pig fattening production systems are compared. Most of these systems have fully slatted floors and high external temperatures for considerable periods of the year. The effects of chains (the control group), wood, paper or straw in a rack on the behaviour, health/physiology, performance and meat and carcass quality are evaluated. Straw in a rack was found to be the best material to meet the behavioural needs of pigs, whereas paper met the criteria of being manipulable, but only for a short period. To avoid the risk of blockages in the slurry system, there are some practical issues to consider and improvements to be made to the design of the rack for providing straw used in this study.

Abstract

Some positive effects regarding the use of enrichment material on the stimulation of pig exploration and a reduction in redirected behaviour was reported. This study aims to evaluate the effects of four enrichment materials on the behaviour, physiology/health, performance and carcass and meat quality in pigs kept in Spanish production conditions. Ninety-six male pigs (six pigs/pen) ranging from 70 to 170 days old were used. Chains were used for the control group (CH), and wooden logs (W), straw in a rack (S) or paper (P) were also used. The pigs were subjected to two pre-slaughter treatments: 0 or 12 h of fasting. Their behaviour was observed for 12 weeks using scan and focal sampling. Samples of the Neutrophil: Lymphocyte (N:L) ratio and lactate were obtained from the pigs at 66 and 170 days old. Saliva samples for Chromogranin-A (CgA) were obtained at 67, 128, 164 and 170 days old. The weight, skin lesions and feed intake of the pigs were recorded. S triggered more exploratory behaviour than W and CH (P < 0.001). Skin lesions and redirected behaviour were lower for pigs with S (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively). The pigs offered S presented lower CgA after no fasting than pigs with P or CH (P = 0.055). Lactate was higher in pigs with W and CH treatments, regardless of fasting (P < 0.05). The N:L ratio increased over time (P < 0.05). No other significant effects were found. Overall, straw in a rack was the enrichment material that enhanced pig inherent behaviour.

Effects of Ground Floor Type on Selected Health-Parameters and Weight of Rabbits Reared in Group Pens

Simple Summary

Cage housing of growing rabbits is associated with welfare concerns. An alternative system that has already been introduced involves pens with non-wire floors. An important aspect of group pens, for which the best solution has not yet been clearly demonstrated, is the choice of floor material. We investigated effects of two ground floor types—slatted plastic floor versus concrete floor with straw litter—on health-related parameters and weight of rabbits reared in large group pens on a commercial rabbit farm, i.e., with preventive coccidiostatic, and if required, additional therapeutic medical treatment. Pens were identical in dimensions, equipment (including platforms), and initial group size (60 animals/pen). Four pens were studied per ground floor type in three consecutive rearing periods, i.e., 12 pens/ground floor type. A higher percentage of rabbits per pen had clean fur if reared on straw. No significant differences were found in parasitic burden, mortality, pathological alterations, or causes of loss. Thus, often-expressed concerns that parasitic load and mortality would be higher in groups kept on straw were not confirmed when rabbits were housed under otherwise equal conditions. Average slaughter weight was higher in rabbits reared on a slatted plastic floor, confirming previous findings of a negative impact of straw litter on weight gain.

Abstract

Cage housing of growing rabbits is associated with welfare concerns. An alternative system that has already been introduced involves pens with non-wire floors. An important aspect of group pens, for which the best solution has not yet been clearly demonstrated, is the choice of floor material. The study investigated effects of two ground floor types—slatted plastic floor versus concrete floor with straw litter—on health-related parameters and weight of rabbits reared in large group pens on a commercial rabbit farm, i.e., with preventive coccidiostatic, and if required, additional therapeutic medical treatment. Pens were identical in dimensions, equipment (including platforms), and initial group size (60 animals/pen). Four pens were studied per ground floor type in three consecutive rearing periods (in total, 12 pens per floor type). A higher percentage of rabbits per pen had clean fur if reared on straw (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in the load of coccidial oocysts in collective faecal samples, mortality, pathological alterations, or causes of loss (p > 0.05). Thus, often-expressed concerns that parasitic load and mortality would be higher in groups kept on straw were not confirmed when rabbits were housed under otherwise equal conditions. Average slaughter weight was higher in rabbits reared on a slatted plastic floor (p < 0.05), confirming previous findings of a negative impact of straw litter on weight gain.

Efforts to Ban the Routine Tail Docking of Pigs and to Give Pigs Enrichment Materials via EU Law: Where do We Stand a Quarter of a Century on?

Simple Summary

Enforcing legislation on the welfare of pigs is currently one of the European Commission’s priorities in the area of animal welfare. This article focuses on the legal ban on the routine docking of tails and the provision of enrichment to pigs within the European Union. It provides a chronological overview of the steps that have been taken by European policy makers to promote the correct implementation and enforcement of the law. In addition, it analyses the current state of play, and presents a reflection on possible future scenarios.

Abstract

In its role as guardian of the Treaties, the European Commission must ensure that Member States enforce EU law within their territories. If adequate enforcement is found to be wanting, the Commission also has the power to take infringement procedures as a corrective measure. The case of Directive 120/2008/EC on the protection of pigs is problematic, as only a few Member States are respecting the ban on routine tail docking, whilst not all pigs are given (adequate) enrichment materials. Twenty-five years after the first EU-wide legal ban on routine tail docking came into force, we are faced with an unprecedented situation that may lead to infringement procedures against more than 20 Member States. This paper describes the various steps that led to the development of the EU law designed specifically to safeguard the welfare of pigs. It lists the numerous efforts (research studies, study visits, recommendations, audits, reports, factsheets, action plans, etc.), undertaken by European decision makers to assist Member States in their efforts to better implement and enforce the relevant rules. Finally, the paper further analyses the current state of play and presents a reflection on possible future scenarios.