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Saunders JF, Nutter S, Waugh R, Hayden KA. Testing body-related components of objectification theory: A meta-analysis of the relations between body shame, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. Body Image 2024; 50:101738. [PMID: 38850716 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Objectification theory has been instrumental in better understanding risk for eating disorders, depression, and sexual dysfunction, with self-objectification and body shame as serial mediators leading to these outcomes. Although originally proposed to explain these mental health outcomes in heterosexual women, researchers have extended objectification theory to individuals of various ages, racial identities, and sexual and gender identities. We conducted a systematic literature review of empirical peer-reviewed published research examining the relationship between the constructs of self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and body shame in adult, youth, and LGBTQ+ samples. Our search yielded 5200 results, of which 318 met inclusion criteria. Of the papers included in this review, 26 reported correlations with sexual and gender diverse samples, 43 reported correlations with youth samples, and 249 reported correlations with samples of general adults (non-sexual or gender minorities). The meta-analyses yielded significant, moderate, positive correlations between body dissatisfaction and self-objectification, and between body shame and self-objectification, for each of the sub-samples. The majority of samples were predominantly White and cisgender female, suggesting the need for additional research examining these constructs among racial and gender minority populations. Overall, the results of this review highlight the unique contributions of body shame and body dissatisfaction to self-objectifying behaviors, and identify the moderating role of race and gender in these interrelations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica F Saunders
- Psychology Convening Group, Ramapo College of New Jersey, 505 Ramapo Valley Rd, Mahwah, NJ 07430, USA.
| | - Sarah Nutter
- Educational Psychology & Leadership Studies, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada.
| | - Rachel Waugh
- Educational Psychology & Leadership Studies, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada.
| | - K Alix Hayden
- Health Sciences Library, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
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2
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Teran M, Stoto I, Ahn LH, Le TP. Skin tone ideologies, body shame, and sexual risk in Latinx young adults: The role of self-esteem. Body Image 2024; 50:101730. [PMID: 38823220 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Latinx young adults in the U.S. experience significant disparities related to body image and sexual health. These challenges partly stem from the intersections of racism, ethnocentrism, and colorism perpetuated through Eurocentric beauty standards and norms surrounding sexuality. Despite the salience of skin tone within the Latinx community, the impact of skin tone ideologies on body shame and sexual risk remains unexplored. Addressing this gap, the present study examined the influence of skin tone ideologies (i.e., colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept) on sexual risk and body shame among a sample of 539 Latinx young adults. The study also explored the potential moderating effect of self-esteem on colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept on body shame and sexual risk. Results revealed that both colorist attraction and skin-tone self-concept were positively associated with body shame. Colorist attraction was positively associated with sexual risk, whereas skin tone self-concept was not associated. Furthermore, self-esteem moderated the positive significant association between skin tone self-concept and body shame, such that the association was only significant among Latinx young adults who reported mean and high levels of self-esteem; self-esteem did not moderate any of the other study's associations. These findings inform the development of tailored mental and sexual health interventions to reduce health disparities among Latinx young adults, considering the influence of skin tone socialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Teran
- Department of Counseling, Higher Education, and Special Education, The University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Isabella Stoto
- Department of Counseling, Higher Education, and Special Education, The University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Lydia HaRim Ahn
- School of Counseling and Counseling Psychology, Arizona State University, USA
| | - Thomas P Le
- Department of Psychology, Bryn Mawr College, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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3
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Felig RN, Goldenberg JL. Selfie-Evaluation: A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Selfie Behaviors and Self-Evaluations. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2024; 50:1227-1250. [PMID: 37021398 DOI: 10.1177/01461672231158252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
The "selfie" phenomenon shaped the past two decades, yet there is inconsistent evidence concerning the relationship between selfie behaviors and self-evaluations. This meta-analysis investigates the relationship between selfie taking, editing, and posting behavior and general and appearance-specific self-evaluations. The results reveal that selfie taking and posting are related to positive appearance-specific self-evaluations. In contrast, selfie editing is related to negative self-evaluations both generally and specific to appearance. Gender and age did not moderate these relationships, but methodological factors did, suggesting these relationships depend on factors, such as how selfie behaviors are measured and study design. We interpret these findings through the lens of prominent social psychological theories and conclude with suggestions to guide future research.
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4
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Haley EN, Dolbier CL, Campbell LC, Carels RA, Braciszewski JM. Brief Self-Compassion Intervention for Women of Higher Weight and Internalized Weight Bias: A Randomized Pilot Study. Int J Behav Med 2024:10.1007/s12529-024-10297-z. [PMID: 38839712 DOI: 10.1007/s12529-024-10297-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Internalized weight bias (IWB) negatively impacts mental and physical health, and disproportionately affects women of higher weight. Although self-compassion training may be advantageous for reducing IWB and associated sequalae, further examination of its clinical significance and cultural acceptability is warranted. METHOD A randomized pilot study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility, including cultural acceptability, and clinical significance of a 3-session self-compassion intervention (SCI) for women with IWB. Women with BMIs of > 25 and IWB (N = 34) were randomly assigned to the SCI or a waitlist control group. Participants completed pre, post, and 1-month follow-up surveys on IWB, self-compassion, body image, eating behaviors, physical activity, and affect. Analyses of covariance were employed and percentages of change were calculated to examine post-intervention between-group differences in outcomes. Cultural acceptability was evaluated through participants' ratings of the perceived inclusivity and relevancy of the SCI. RESULTS There were 59% (n = 10) and 47% (n = 8) completion rates in the SCI and waitlist control groups, respectively. Compared to the waitlist control group, SCI participants reported greater pre-post improvements in self-compassion, IWB, body shame and surveillance, uncontrolled eating, and physical activity with medium to large effect sizes, and emotional eating with small effects. The SCI was perceived to be beneficial overall, and cultural acceptability ratings were mostly favorable despite individual differences. CONCLUSION This brief SCI may be beneficial for women impacted by weight stigma and IWB. Attention to increased diversity and cultural acceptability is warranted in future trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin N Haley
- Center for Health Policy and Health Services Research, Henry Ford Health, One Ford Place, Suite 5E, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA.
| | | | - Lisa C Campbell
- Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Robert A Carels
- Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Jordan M Braciszewski
- Center for Health Policy and Health Services Research, Henry Ford Health, One Ford Place, Suite 5E, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA
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5
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Parker JE, Enders CK, Fitzpatrick SL, Mahasin S M, Laraia BA, Epel ES, Tomiyama AJ. Longitudinal associations between adolescent skin color satisfaction and adult health outcomes in Black women. Health Psychol 2024; 43:289-297. [PMID: 38059930 PMCID: PMC10939857 DOI: 10.1037/hea0001336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although emerging studies examine the inverse relationship between body satisfaction and disordered eating for Black women, it has not been established how racially salient aspects of body satisfaction may have implications for eating behaviors and longitudinal health outcomes. METHOD In a longitudinal sample of 455 Black women, we examined whether skin color satisfaction across ages 10-15 was directly related to adult health outcomes at age 40 (e.g., disordered eating, self-esteem, self-reported health, depressive symptoms, and cardiovascular risk). We also investigated the indirect impact of skin color satisfaction on adult health, mediated by body satisfaction, and binge eating. RESULTS No significant direct or indirect effects of adolescent skin color satisfaction were observed for depressive symptoms or cardiovascular health outcomes. At ages 10 and 12, skin color satisfaction had negative and positive direct effects, respectively, on self-esteem. At age 15, greater skin color satisfaction was directly associated with greater self-reported health. Post hoc analyses revealed that when additionally accounting for adolescent body satisfaction, greater skin color satisfaction was indirectly associated with greater self-esteem and self-reported health, alongside lower cardiovascular risk. CONCLUSIONS Although previous research suggests that in adolescence, Black girls' skin color satisfaction affects both body satisfaction and disordered eating behaviors, this association does not hold into midlife. Rather, post hoc analyses suggest that the lasting effects of adolescent skin color satisfaction are mediated by the longitudinal stability of body satisfaction, which in turn, is associated with adult health outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Craig K. Enders
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology
| | | | - Mujahid Mahasin S
- University of California Berkeley, School of Public Health, Division of Epidemiology
| | - Barbara A. Laraia
- University of California Berkeley School of Public Health, Division of Public Health Nutrition
| | - Elissa S. Epel
- University of California San Francisco, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
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6
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Lăzărescu GM, Vintilă M. The relationship between personality traits and willingness to undergo cosmetic surgery in the non-clinical population - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1241952. [PMID: 37744591 PMCID: PMC10514507 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1241952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesize previously obtained results regarding the relationship between interest in cosmetic surgery and personality traits. Methodology A series of criteria were applied (at the level of design, independent variables, dependent variable, participants) in order to decide which existing studies could be considered eligible for inclusion in the meta-analytic procedure. The identification of research that met the eligibility criteria was carried out with the help of the electronic search function in the following databases: ScienceDirect, PsycInfo, Web of Science, Scopus, Springer, and PubMed. Following this approach left 13 studies that were then subjected to the final analysis and included in the meta-analysis. Results The researchers' expectations were partially supported by the results of the analyses, thus demonstrating the existence of a significant relationship between perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism; perfectionistic self-promotion), appearance-based rejection sensitivity, and interest in pursuing esthetic surgery. Discussions Identifying these relationships will allow cosmetic surgeons to understand both the mechanisms underlying this decision and the need for psychological assessment/counseling before patients undergo such procedures. It will also allow psychologists to develop best practice guidelines for how they relate to the patient before they perform cosmetic surgery. At the same time, psychotherapists will be able to devise targeted and personalized interventions for each personality profile, so that the decision to undergo an esthetic operation is not made based on a dispositional trait (fear of rejection, stress caused by body dissatisfaction).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mona Vintilă
- Faculty of Sociology and Psychology, West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania
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Craddock N, Gentili C, Phoenix A, White P, Diedrichs PC, Barlow FK. Investigating the role of perceived ingroup and outgroup colourism on body image and wellbeing among Black, Asian, and other racialised/ethnic minority groups living in the UK. Body Image 2023; 46:246-255. [PMID: 37356207 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Colourism is a form of prejudice and discrimination based on skin shade, disadvantaging people of colour with darker skin. This study investigates the relationship between perceived colourism, body image, and psychological wellbeing, considering perceived colourism from the ingroup (people of the same racialised group) and the outgroup (white people). A total of 516 Black, Asian, and other racialised/ethnic minority adults living in the UK (56.8 % women) completed an online survey. Using structural equation modelling, we tested a theoretically informed model: ingroup and outgroup colourism were predictors, body image and psychological distress were outcomes, and skin shade satisfaction and surveillance were hypothesised mediators. The model provided a good fit to the data. Ingroup colourism was related to lower skin shade satisfaction and higher skin shade surveillance, which in turn related to worse body image and greater psychological distress. Outgroup colourism was related to higher skin shade surveillance, which in turn was associated with worse body image. Outgroup colourism was directly associated with greater psychological distress. Results showed perceived colourism was associated with worse body image and psychological distress among people of colour in the UK. Therefore, colourism should be considered in the development of societal-, community-, and individual-level body image interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Craddock
- Centre for Appearance Research, University of the West of England, UK.
| | - Caterina Gentili
- Centre for Appearance Research, University of the West of England, UK
| | - Aisha Phoenix
- School of Education, Communication & Society, King's College London, UK
| | - Paul White
- Department of Statistics, University of the West of England, UK
| | | | - Fiona K Barlow
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Australia
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8
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Parker JE, Levinson JA, Hunger JM, Enders CK, Laraia BA, Epel ES, Tomiyama AJ. Longitudinal Stability of Disordered-Eating Symptoms From Age 12 to 40 in Black and White Women. Clin Psychol Sci 2023; 11:879-893. [PMID: 37694231 PMCID: PMC10488908 DOI: 10.1177/21677026221144253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the current study was to test the longitudinal association between disordered eating symptoms (body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness and bulimia) in adolescence (ages 12, 14, 16, 18, 19) and adulthood (age 40) in a sample of 883 white and Black women. We also investigated moderation by race. Adolescent symptoms at each time point significantly predicted adulthood symptoms for the body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness subscales, for both Black and white women. Bulimia symptoms in adolescence predicted symptoms in adulthood; however, the effect was largely driven by white women. Although moderation was non-significant, among white women, bulimia symptoms at all adolescent time points predicted adulthood bulimia, but among Black women, only symptoms at ages 18 and 19 were predictive of adulthood bulimia. Results suggest that both Black and white women are susceptible to disordered eating and that symptoms emerging in adolescence can potentially follow women into midlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan E Parker
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jordan A Levinson
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Hunger
- Miami University, Department of Psychology, 321 Psychology Building, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
| | - Craig K Enders
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Barbara A Laraia
- University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Division of Public Health Nutrition, 207B University Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
| | - Elissa S Epel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, & Center for Health and Community, University of California, 3333 California St, Ste 465, San Francisco, CA, 94122
| | - A Janet Tomiyama
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
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9
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Ward LM, Jerald MC, Grower P, Daniels EA, Rowley S. Primping, performing, and policing: Social media use and self-sexualization among U.S. White, Black, and Asian-American adolescent girls. Body Image 2023; 46:324-335. [PMID: 37451109 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Objectification theorists argue that routine sexual objectification, experienced interpersonally and via the media, encourages women and adolescent girls to value their external appearance and sexiness above other bodily experiences and competencies. Commonly, tests of this theory have linked exposure to sexualizing media content (i.e., TV, music videos, social media) to self-objectification and subsequently to consequences such as disordered eating among predominantly White samples. Do these analyses extend to U.S. girls of color and to broader well-being consequences? Using structural equation modeling, we tested theorized connections among 884 adolescent girls aged 13-18, including 391 White girls, 248 Black girls, and 245 Asian American girls. Participants completed surveys assessing their use of several social media platforms, social media engagement, self-sexualization, mental health symptoms, self-esteem, and body shame. We also examined age, racial identity, and racial composition of peer group as moderators. The model worked as expected for the full sample, with social media use and engagement predicting greater self-sexualization, which in turn was associated with diminished well-being. However, the model fit was worse for the White girls than for girls of color, and some constructs operated differently. Implications for future research with girls and possible media interventions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Petal Grower
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, USA
| | | | - Stephanie Rowley
- School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia, USA
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10
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Huellemann KL, Tremblay PF, Calogero RM. Effects of online self-compassionate writing on stigmatizing and affirming self-perceptions: Potential boundary conditions in undergraduate women. Body Image 2023; 46:406-418. [PMID: 37556910 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of an online self-compassionate writing intervention on stigmatizing and affirming self-views toward the body in a sample of college women (N = 254). Participants were randomly assigned to a self-compassionate writing, attentional-control writing, or wait-list control condition for one week, and completed measures of self-compassion, affirming self-perceptions, and stigmatizing self-perceptions at baseline, one-week post intervention, and one-month post intervention. A series of mixed AN(C)OVAs revealed no significant effects by condition or time on stigmatizing or affirming self-views toward the body when controlling for self-esteem, internalized weight stigma, and eating disorder symptomatology. Follow-up exploratory analyses demonstrated no significant effects by condition on the six facets of self-compassion. Notably, participants were significantly more likely to drop out from the study over time if they were lower in self-compassion and self-esteem, and higher in internalized weight stigma at baseline. These results suggest that online self-compassion writing interventions may need to be longer and more potent, especially for women with more entrenched and stigmatized views about their bodies, as well as potential boundary conditions of cultivating self-compassion in a short-term online intervention.
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Wang W, Ding X. A pilot randomized trial of self-compassion writing for young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying. Int J Eat Disord 2023; 56:1520-1533. [PMID: 37080948 DOI: 10.1002/eat.23967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effectiveness of a 10-min self-compassion writing in alleviating body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and emotional eating in young adult women engaged in emotional eating in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying. METHOD A total of 175 Chinese young adult women (Mage = 20.90, SD = 1.65) were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: self-compassion, distraction, or control group. At baseline, participants completed assessments of trait and state body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, emotional eating, and positive and negative affect. Then they needed to recall an appearance-related cyberbullying victimization experience, after which state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, and positive and negative affect were measured. After the intervention, participants completed measures of state body dissatisfaction, state self-objectification, positive and negative affect, state self-compassion, and a food-choosing task. At 1-month follow-up, participants completed measures of trait body dissatisfaction, trait self-objectification, trait self-compassion, and emotional eating. RESULTS At post-intervention, state body dissatisfaction and negative affect were significantly lower, and positive affect was significantly higher in both the self-compassion and distraction groups compared to control. State self-objectification was significantly lower in the self-compassion group than in the other two groups. At 1-month follow-up, the self-compassion group showed significantly lower levels of body dissatisfaction than the control group. DISCUSSION The findings provide initial evidence for the potential of self-compassion writing in reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in the context of appearance-related cyberbullying. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE Appearance-related cyberbullying, a common phenomenon in social networking sites, has been documented to associate with appearance-related concerns and disordered eating in young adult women. However, effective interventions that can reduce these negative associations are scarce. This study preliminarily found that a brief self-compassion writing could be a potential intervention for reducing state self-objectification and state body dissatisfaction in young adult women who had suffered appearance-related cyberbullying.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenying Wang
- Department of Medical Psychology, School of Medical Humanities, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinfang Ding
- Department of Medical Psychology, School of Medical Humanities, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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12
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Pecini C, Di Bernardo GA, Crapolicchio E, Vezzali L, Andrighetto L. Body Shame in 7-12-Year-Old Girls and Boys: The Role of Parental Attention to Children's Appearance. SEX ROLES 2023; 89:1-14. [PMID: 37360900 PMCID: PMC10245339 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-023-01385-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Guided by the Tripartite Influence Model and Objectification Theory, we examined whether parents' attention to their children's appearance was related to higher body shame in girls and boys. In Study 1 (N = 195) and 2 (N = 163), we investigated 7-12-year-old children's metaperceptions about parents' attention to their appearance and its association with children's body shame. In Study 3, we examined the link between parents' self-reported attention to their children's appearance and children's body shame among parent-child triads (N = 70). Results demonstrated that both children's metaperceptions and fathers' self-reported attention to children's appearance were associated with body shame in children. Furthermore, when mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward their children were analyzed simultaneously, only fathers' attention to their children's appearance was associated with greater body shame in girls and boys. Notably, no gender differences emerged, suggesting that parents' attention to their children's appearance was not differentially related to body shame in girls and boys. These results remained significant when controlling for other sources of influence, namely peer and media influence, both of which were found to have a strong association with body shame in children. Theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Pecini
- Department of Education, University of Genoa, Genova, 16128 Italy
| | - Gian Antonio Di Bernardo
- Department of Education and Human Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Eleonora Crapolicchio
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Loris Vezzali
- Medical and Dental Department of Morphological Sciences related to Transplant, Oncology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Education, University of Genoa, Genova, 16128 Italy
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13
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Shepherd L, Mouter O, Elsey V, Lovell B. Do I Say or Let it Go? Emotions Predict How People Respond to Receiving Sexual Objectification at Work. SEX ROLES 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-023-01358-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
AbstractMany people are reluctant to report sexual objectification at work. We tested whether emotions determine how people respond to sexual objectification at work. In Study 1 (N = 159) women recalled a time that they had experienced sexual objectification at work. Participants then rated their emotions in this situation and how they responded. Anger positively and a shame-based emotion (rejection) negatively predicted taking action against the perpetrator (active response). In contrast, shame positively predicted women blaming themselves (self-blame). Moreover, pride positively and anger negatively predicted women viewing the action positively (e.g., as flattering, benign response). In Study 2 (N = 135) women imagined themselves receiving either a highly objectifying or ambiguous comment at work. Being objectified increased negative emotions and decreased pride. Moral outrage (i.e., anger and disgust) positively whilst shame-based emotions negatively predicted active responding. Shame-based emotions positively predicted self-blame, whilst pride positively and anger negatively predicted benign responding. Therefore, emotions determine how people respond to sexual objectification at work. Promoting moral outrage and reducing other emotions (e.g., shame, fear, and pride) may make women (a) more willing to report sexual objectification at work and (b) less likely to blame themselves or view such actions positively (i.e., benign responses).
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14
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Wright PJ, Tokunaga RS, Herbenick D, Paul B. Pornography, Sexual Insecurity, and Orgasm Difficulty. HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2023; 38:552-561. [PMID: 34323637 DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2021.1958985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
While recent meta-analyses have provided answers to a number of historically contentious debates about correlates of pornography use, several questions remain unanswered. Whether pornography is associated with sexual functioning is one such question. Informed by theorizing on sexual scripting, social comparisons, and sexual objectification, the present study examined the possibility that pornography is related to orgasm difficulty through sexual insecurity (i.e., insecurity about one's sexual performance and sexual attractiveness). Data were from the National Survey of Porn Use, Relationships, and Sexual Socialization (NSPRSS), a U.S. population-based probability study. There was an indirect effect of pornography consumption frequency on orgasm difficulty through sexual insecurity. Participants who used pornography more frequently reported higher levels of sexual insecurity, and higher levels of sexual insecurity predicted orgasm difficulty. There was also an indirect effect of partner pressure to view pornography on orgasm difficulty. Higher levels of partner pressure to view pornography were associated with higher levels of sexual insecurity, which in turn predicted orgasm difficulty. Results were indistinguishable by gender and maintained after controlling for a number of potential confounds. These findings suggest that some men and women's personal and (pressured) partnered pornography consumption have the potential to increase orgasm difficulty through bodily and performance insecurity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Debby Herbenick
- The Center for Sexual Health Promotion, the School of Public Health, Indiana University
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15
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Modica CA, DiLillo V. A structural invariance analysis of the acceptance model of intuitive eating across black, hispanic, and white young-adult women. Body Image 2023; 44:157-169. [PMID: 36638751 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In this cross-sectional study, structural invariance of the acceptance model of intuitive eating was examined between a sample of Black (n = 420), Hispanic (n = 420), and White (n = 435) cisgender women between the ages of 18-30 years old residing in the United States. Mean age for the total sample (n = 1275) was 24.17 years old (SD = 3.65). Women were recruited via Qualtrics Sampling, and self-report measures were administered online. Multigroup analyses were employed within a structural equation modeling framework, and measurement invariance at the configural, metric, scalar, and strict/residual levels was investigated first. After uncovering and accounting for several error variances that were non-invariant, multigroup structural invariance analyses indicated that paths within the model were invariant across the three ethnicities of women. BMI was also incorporated into the model, which, likewise, showed invariance in its associations with specific constructs. With due cautions related to the impact of cultural ideals regarding appearance and the interplay of ethnicity and body-related experiences among women, these results provide preliminary evidence that the model may apply to Black, White, and Hispanic women in the U.S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Modica
- Department of Psychology, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH, United States.
| | - Vicki DiLillo
- Department of Psychology, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH, United States
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16
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Razmus M, Czubak-Paluch K, Brytek-Matera A. The relationship between body mass index and food preoccupation in women: A moderated mediation of body-related self-conscious emotions and self-esteem. EUROPEAN EATING DISORDERS REVIEW 2023; 31:188-196. [PMID: 36352323 DOI: 10.1002/erv.2955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Individuals who are preoccupied with food are more likely to develop maladaptive eating behaviours and eating disorders. Thus, it is advisable to investigate the factors that increase vulnerability to food preoccupation (FP) to prevent its harmful impact on physical and mental health. Our objective in this study was to investigate the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and FP in Polish women (N = 407) and examine a possible pathway through body-related shame and body-related guilt and self-esteem. METHOD Participants completed an abbreviated version of the Eating Attitudes Test-26, the Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. RESULTS The findings demonstrated a positive indirect effect of BMI on FP through body-related shame and body-related guilt. However, this effect was moderated by self-esteem only for body-related shame; namely, in women with a low or average level of self-esteem, higher BMI was related to higher body-related shame, which, in turn, was associated with higher levels of FP. These associations were not observed in women with a high level of self-esteem. DISCUSSION Body-related shame may help explain the relationship between BMI and FP. Moreover, self-esteem serves as a protective factor against body-related shame related to higher BMI and, as a result, against FP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Razmus
- Institute of Psychology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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17
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Ladd BA, Maheux AJ, Roberts SR, Choukas-Bradley S. Black adolescents' appearance concerns, depressive symptoms, and self-objectification: Exploring the roles of gender and ethnic-racial identity commitment. Body Image 2022; 43:314-325. [PMID: 36242995 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
There is a dearth of research examining Black adolescents' body image, with even less work examining gender differences or the influence of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment. It is critical to understand how culturally relevant aspects of appearance-beyond commonly measured ideals such as thinness and muscularity-are particularly relevant to Black adolescents. The present study of Black youth (n = 252; 55% girls, 45% boys, ages 13-18, Mage = 15.5) explored the roles of gender and ERI commitment in the associations between skin tone, hair, and facial satisfaction and appearance esteem, depressive symptomatology, and self-objectification. With a few exceptions, satisfaction with skin tone, hair, and face were significantly associated with higher appearance esteem and lower self-objectification and depressive symptoms, even when controlling for weight and muscle tone satisfaction. Findings were similar across genders, with some associations stronger among Black girls relative to boys. Among youth with higher ERI commitment, associations were stronger between skin tone, hair, and facial satisfaction and some indicators of wellbeing. Findings elucidate the role of culturally relevant appearance concerns of Black adolescents and the potential benefits of ERI commitment. This work can inform culturally sensitive research practices and therapeutic interventions related to Black youth's body image experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna A Ladd
- University of Maryland, Department of Counseling, Higher Education, and Special Education, 3119 Benjamin Building, College Park, MD 20742, the United States of America.
| | - Anne J Maheux
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychology, 210 South Bouquet Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, the United States of America
| | - Savannah R Roberts
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychology, 210 South Bouquet Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, the United States of America
| | - Sophia Choukas-Bradley
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Psychology, 210 South Bouquet Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, the United States of America
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18
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Zhou Z, Liew J, Luo W. Acculturation and Disordered Eating among Asian American College Students: The Role of Objectification through a Sociocultural Lens. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph192113967. [PMID: 36360846 PMCID: PMC9658873 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192113967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Disordered eating is a public health problem because it's highly prevalent, dangerous, and costly. More research about its risk factors and mechanisms is needed to address this problem and prevent disordered eating among high-risk populations, particularly understudied ethnic minorities. The present study contributes to the limited existing research on acculturation and disordered eating among Asian American college students who represent an understudied and high-risk group. The sample consisted of 245 Asian American (primarily East and Southeast Asian American) college students who provided data on their acculturation status, internalization of thin and muscular body ideals, body surveillance, body shame, and disordered eating. Results show that after controlling for gender, both cultures are positively associated with internalization of the muscular body ideal, but only the Asian culture of origin is associated with disordered eating. Additionally, path analysis results show that Asian culture of origin has a significant total effect on disordered eating as well as a significant indirect effect on disordered eating, mediated by thin body ideal internalization. While American culture does not have a significant contribution to body ideal internalization or disordered eating, it interacts with Asian culture of origin and put participants with high levels of both cultures at a greater risk for muscular body ideal internalization. Findings highlight the importance of cultural context in the understanding of body experiences and disordered eating among Asian American college students and have implications for the prevention and intervention of these problems in this high-risk population.
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19
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Cardelli A, Matera C, Policardo GR, Di Gesto C, Nerini A. Not All That Glitters Is Gold: Attractive Partners Provide Joys and Sorrows. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13526. [PMID: 36294106 PMCID: PMC9602849 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Through a 2 × 2 experimental vignette design, we tested if partner perceived attractiveness in interaction with appearance-related comments from one's partner might affect women and men's body dissatisfaction, body shame, acceptance of cosmetic surgery, and perceived relationship quality. Participants were 154 women and 157 men living in Italy (mean age = 30.97; all of them were in a couple relationship), who read a vignette describing the purchase of a swimsuit, through which partner attractiveness (poor versus high) and partner commentary (negative versus positive) were manipulated. Some ANCOVAs were performed on women and men separately. For men, partner commentary affected body dissatisfaction with low body fat. Moreover, the main effect of partner attractiveness was found in their consideration of undergoing cosmetic procedures. Among women, a significant partner attractiveness X partner commentary interaction effect emerged on acceptance of cosmetic surgery for social reasons. As regards relationship quality, for women, there was a main effect of partner attractiveness on relational communication, while a marginally significant interaction effect between partner attractiveness and partner commentary emerged for men's self-disclosure. Our findings suggest that partner attractiveness is generally beneficial, but when combined with negative feedback concerning the appearance, it might lose its advantages. These findings should be considered for planning interventions aimed at both preventing body dissatisfaction and acceptance of cosmetic surgical procedures for not medical reasons and promoting relationship satisfaction among women and men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Cardelli
- School of Psychology, University of Florence, 50137 Florence, Italy
| | - Camilla Matera
- Department of Education, Languages, Intercultures, Literatures and Psychology, University of Florence, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | | | - Cristian Di Gesto
- Department of Education, Languages, Intercultures, Literatures and Psychology, University of Florence, 50135 Florence, Italy
| | - Amanda Nerini
- Department of Education, Languages, Intercultures, Literatures and Psychology, University of Florence, 50135 Florence, Italy
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20
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Liberman TJ, Burke NL. The development and validation of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire. Int J Eat Disord 2022; 55:1162-1168. [PMID: 35723870 DOI: 10.1002/eat.23759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Self-objectification is linked to disordered eating (DE) behaviors in women. However, the awareness of objectification by the self and others, not just the objectifying experiences themselves, may be differentially related to DE. The proposed study examines the development and validity of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ), which seeks to evaluate awareness of objectification by others and intentional self-objectification. METHOD In Study 1, 24 participants who identify as women (≥18 years) will provide qualitative feedback on COQ items, and survey items will be updated based on participant feedback. In Study 2, separate participants will complete the COQ and questionnaires assessing DE, self-objectification, and mental health correlates. Exploratory factor analyses will be conducted on the COQ, and reliability and convergent and divergent validity will be assessed. RESULTS Results will clarify whether the COQ is a reliable and valid instrument that measures the distinct construct of awareness of objectification. DISCUSSION If proven psychometrically sound, the COQ may be useful for future research on the link between awareness of objectification and disordered eating. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE The novel Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ) assesses the degree to which women recognize and act upon being objectified. The COQ will be reviewed by self-objectification experts and pilot participants before being psychometrically evaluated with data from a larger sample. The COQ is expected to differentially relate to disordered eating above and beyond existing self-objectification measures and accurately represent the distinct construct of conscious awareness of societal and self-objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar J Liberman
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Natasha L Burke
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
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21
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Jiao J, Terán L, Aubrey JS. Buffering an Objectifying Culture: Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Attachment Anxiety. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/03616843221115335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we report two studies that examined the dynamics between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and individuals’ attachment in romantic relationships. Study 1 was based on data from 392 college students ( Mage = 21.42 years, 66.8% women). Results showed positive associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance among women. For men, significant and positive associations were only observed between interpersonal sexual objectification and self-objectification and between self-objectification and attachment anxiety. Study 2 was a 6-month longitudinal study where we recruited participants through CloudResearch ( n = 638, Mage = 24.26 years, 55.8% women at Time 1; n = 283, Mage = 24.43 years, 56.9% women at Time 2; return rate = 44.36%). Results from longitudinal analyses showed that women reported stronger stability in self-objectification than men, and for both women and men, their attachment anxiety predicted increased self-objectification. Additionally, in both studies, women reported higher levels of interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and attachment anxiety than men. Overall, the findings suggest that high-quality relationships may help buffer the negative effects engendered by an objectifying culture. Based on our results, we recommend that clinicians and parents work to foster secure and healthy relationships as a means of reducing the extensive negative repercussions of objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Jiao
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Larissa Terán
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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22
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Pecini C, Di Bernardo GA, Crapolicchio E, Stathi S, Vezzali L, Andrighetto L. Stop looking at me! associations between men's partner‐objectification and women's self‐objectification, body shame and life satisfaction in romantic relationships. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY & APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/casp.2627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Pecini
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
| | | | - Eleonora Crapolicchio
- Department of Psychology Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of Milan Milan Italy
| | - Sofia Stathi
- Department of Psychology & Counselling University of Greenwich London UK
| | - Loris Vezzali
- Medical and Dental Department of Morphological Sciences related to Transplant, Oncology and Regenerative Medicine University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena Italy
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
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23
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Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among women: The U.S. Body Project I. Body Image 2022; 41:195-208. [PMID: 35299008 PMCID: PMC9764838 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Objectification theory proposes that widespread sexualization causes women to engage in surveillance of their appearance. We integrated this concept into a model with constructs from the tripartite influence model, which proposes that body dissatisfaction is a result of internalizing cultural notions of thin ideal beauty that stem from family, peer, and media appearance-related pressures. We tested this model with an online sample of 6327 adult women. Specifically, we tested whether these pressures predicted increased thin-ideal and muscular-ideal internalization, leading to greater body surveillance, and in turn lower appearance evaluation and body image quality of life. Structural equation modeling supported many aspects of the model. Family, peer, and media pressures related to higher thin-ideal internalization, which related to higher body surveillance and lower appearance evaluation. Peer and media pressures related to higher muscular-ideal internalization, which related to lower appearance evaluation. However, muscular-ideal internalization was not related to body image quality of life. An indirect relationship emerged between thin-ideal internalization and body image outcomes via body surveillance. Body mass index (BMI) moderated several of these model paths. Findings highlight the value of this integrated sociocultural model, and of BMI as an important moderating factor when examining objectification and tripartite influence models.
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24
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Hazzard VM, Schaefer LM, Thompson JK, Murray SB, Frederick DA. Measurement invariance of body image measures by age, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status, and age: The U.S. Body Project I. Body Image 2022; 41:97-108. [PMID: 35247868 PMCID: PMC9167237 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Despite growing interest in comparing body image experiences across diverse groups, limited work has examined whether body image measures operate similarly across different populations, raising important questions about the appropriateness of comparing scale means across demographic groups. This study employed measurement invariance testing to evaluate whether such comparisons are appropriate with existing body image measures. Specifically, multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using a community sample of 11,620 men and women to test increasing levels of invariance (configural, metric, scalar) across five key demographic variables (age group, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status) for five commonly used body image measures (the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4, the Body Surveillance subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Appearance Evaluation and Overweight Preoccupation subscales of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, and the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory). Results provided evidence of scalar (i.e., strong) invariance for all five measures across age, gender, sexual orientation, race, and weight status groups, indicating that the latent factors captured by these measures have the same meaning across demographic groups. Findings therefore support the comparison of scale/subscale means across multiple demographic groups for these body image measures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stuart B. Murray
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - David A. Frederick
- Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA
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25
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Parker JE, Enders CK, Mujahid MS, Laraia BA, Epel ES, Tomiyama AJ. Prospective relationships between skin color satisfaction, body satisfaction, and binge eating in Black girls. Body Image 2022; 41:342-353. [PMID: 35551032 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Although it has been demonstrated that (a) body dissatisfaction and internalization of societal appearance standards contribute to disordered eating and (b) that internalization of societal appearance standards leads to decreased skin color satisfaction among Black women, it has not been established whether skin color dissatisfaction contributes to disordered eating among Black women or girls. The objective of the present study is to determine the influence of skin color satisfaction as a potential predictor for binge eating, and its effect through body image in Black girls during the vulnerable developmental period of adolescence. Using data from ten annual measurements in 1213 Black girls across ages 10-19, we sought to determine whether skin color satisfaction predicts Binge Eating Disorder (BED) risk and symptoms using pre-registered logistic and multilevel models. We found that lower skin color satisfaction at ages 13 and 14 significantly predicted greater odds of BED and lower skin color satisfaction at all ages predicted greater BED symptoms. Body satisfaction mediated the relationship between skin color satisfaction and BED symptoms. Our results suggest that skin color dissatisfaction is a novel component of body image for Black girls that is also related to binge eating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan E Parker
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Craig K Enders
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Mahasin S Mujahid
- University of California Berkeley, School of Public Health, Division of Epidemiology, Haviland Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-7358, United States
| | - Barbara A Laraia
- University of California, Berkeley School of Public Health, Division of Public Health Nutrition, 207B University Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
| | - Elissa S Epel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, & Center for Health and Community, University of California, 3333 California St, Ste 465, San Francisco, CA 94122, United States
| | - A Janet Tomiyama
- University of California Los Angeles, Department of Psychology, 502 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
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26
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Frederick DA, Schaefer LM, Hazzard VM, Rodgers RF, Tylka TL, Ong LQ, Pennesi JL, Convertino L, Parent MC, Brown TA, Compte EJ, Cook-Cottone CP, Crerand CE, Malcarne VL, Nagata JM, Perez M, Pila E, Thompson JK, Murray SB. Racial identity differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I. Body Image 2022; 41:140-155. [PMID: 35255272 PMCID: PMC9812654 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Racial minority men and women face a wide variety of appearance-related pressures, including ones connected to their cultural backgrounds and phenotypic features associated with their identity. These body image concerns exist within a larger context, wherein racial minorities face pressures from multiple cultures or subcultures simultaneously to achieve unrealistic appearance ideals. However, limited research has investigated racial differences in the relationships between theorized sociocultural risk factors and body image in large samples. This study tests pathways from an integrated sociocultural model drawing on objectification theory and the tripartite influence model to three key body image outcomes: appearance evaluation, body image quality of life, and face image satisfaction. These pathways were tested using multigroup structural equation modeling in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian men and women (ns = 205-4797 per group). Although many hypothesized associations were similar in strength across groups, race moderated some of the pathways between sociocultural pressures (media, peer, family), internalization of appearance ideals (thin-ideal, muscular/athletic), appearance surveillance, and body image outcomes. Findings support the likely role of both shared and specific risk factors for body image outcomes, suggesting avenues for tailoring adapted interventions in order to target culturally-salient risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Frederick
- Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA,Corresponding authors. (D.A. Frederick), (V.M. Hazzard)
| | | | - Vivienne M. Hazzard
- Sanford Center for Bio-behavioral Research, Fargo, ND, USA,Corresponding authors. (D.A. Frederick), (V.M. Hazzard)
| | - Rachel F. Rodgers
- APPEAR, Department of Applied Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tracy L. Tylka
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Lydia Q. Ong
- Department of Psychology, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Jamie-Lee Pennesi
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Lexie Convertino
- San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Michael C. Parent
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Tiffany A. Brown
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Emilio J. Compte
- School of Psychology, Adolfo Ibáñez University, Santiago, Chile,Research Department, Comenzar de Nuevo Treatment Center, Monterrey, Mexico
| | - Catherine P. Cook-Cottone
- Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Canice E. Crerand
- Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Jason M. Nagata
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Marisol Perez
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Eva Pila
- School of Kinesiology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | | | - Stuart B. Murray
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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27
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Black women's experiences of gendered racial sexual objectification, body image, and depressive symptoms. Body Image 2022; 41:443-452. [PMID: 35567996 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Black women navigate unique sexual objectification experiences and concerns about their bodies as a consequence of the race- and gender-based marginalization that they face. However, less is known about the influence of gendered racial sexual objectification experiences on Black women's mental health (i.e., depressive symptoms) or the contributions of key body image indicators (i.e., body surveillance and current-ideal body image discrepancy) that reflect Black women's engagement in monitoring and managing their bodies. We surveyed 1595 Black women to test our hypotheses that experiences of gendered racial sexual objectification (i.e., frequency and stress appraisal) would be positively associated with depressive symptoms and that body surveillance and current-ideal body image discrepancy would moderate this association. Analyses showed that more frequent experiences of gendered racial sexual objectification and higher stress appraisal of these experiences were significantly associated with more depressive symptoms. Furthermore, body surveillance and current-ideal body image discrepancy moderated the relation between gendered racial sexual objectification and depressive symptoms. Findings highlight how Black women's objectification and increased engagement in body monitoring and management practices are associated with their experiences of depressive symptoms, and thus, may negatively influence their mental health.
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28
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Vidal TM, Williams CA, Ramoutar UD, Haffizulla F. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Latinx Populations in the United States: A Culturally Relevant Literature Review. Cureus 2022; 14:e23173. [PMID: 35444916 PMCID: PMC9009996 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.23173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) affects a large number of the American population. When compared to their representation in the general American population, a disproportionate number of Latinx individuals are affected. Within the Latinx American population, T2DM prevalence rates vary among individuals based on their country of origin. Deaths from T2DM among Latinx American population are also more compared to other ethnicities. This disparity underlines the importance of understanding the cultural considerations of T2DM disease presentation and management in Latinx communities, including risk factors, socioeconomic variables, and other social determinants of health such as access to care. There are various modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for the development of T2DM, regardless of race. Staple foods in the diet of Latinx American communities, such as tortillas, rice, and beans, can cause spikes in blood sugar levels and can lead to obesity, which predisposes patients to develop T2DM. Latinx American populations suffer from lower access to healthcare than the general population due to many reasons, including language proficiency, immigration status, socioeconomic status, and level of acculturation. This study utilized the format of a commentary, while incorporating elements of a scoping review for data collection, to further explore these disparities and their impact on these populations. Understanding the cultural beliefs of Latinx individuals and how these beliefs contribute to the perceived development of T2DM is essential to properly treat these unique populations. Despite high rates of T2DM affecting Latinx individuals, non-adherence to prescribed diabetes medications is high among these populations. Interventions in the form of culturally tailored preventative education, in addition to active T2DM management, are necessary to combat the toll of this disease on Latinx Americans. Generic interventional techniques and methods should be replaced entirely by those that acknowledge, highlight, and utilize the sociocultural characteristics of Latinx Americans.
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Davies AE, Burnette CB, Ravyts SG, Mazzeo SE. A randomized control trial of Expand Your Horizon: An intervention for women with weight bias internalization. Body Image 2022; 40:138-145. [PMID: 34954448 PMCID: PMC8891047 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Weight bias internalization (WBI) is associated with a myriad of negative health outcomes, but there are few effective treatments that address this concern. This randomized controlled trial examined the preliminary effectiveness of a previously developed body gratitude journaling intervention (i.e., Expand Your Horizon) compared with an active control writing condition (i.e., expressive writing) in emerging adult women with WBI. Participants (N = 135) completed baseline measures and were then randomized to either Expand Your Horizon (n = 72) or the active control condition (n = 63). Participants in both conditions completed three writing tasks over one week. Assessments occurred at baseline, post-test, and follow-up (one-week). Participants in both conditions experienced improvements in WBI, functionality appreciation, and self-compassion at follow-up, though improvements were greater in the Expand Your Horizon condition. Further, participants in the Expand Your Horizon had greater improvement in healthcare stress at follow-up. In sum, Expand Your Horizon appeared accessible and demonstrated preliminary effectiveness in a sample of emerging adult women with WBI. Avenues for future research include evaluating this intervention in more diverse populations with a longer follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria E Davies
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 842018, Richmond, VA 23284-2018, USA.
| | - C Blair Burnette
- Department of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55454, USA
| | - Scott G Ravyts
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 842018, Richmond, VA 23284-2018, USA
| | - Suzanne E Mazzeo
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 842018, Richmond, VA 23284-2018, USA
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Davis AC, Arnocky S. An Evolutionary Perspective on Appearance Enhancement Behavior. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2022; 51:3-37. [PMID: 33025291 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01745-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Researchers have highlighted numerous sociocultural factors that have been shown to underpin human appearance enhancement practices, including the influence of peers, family, the media, and sexual objectification. Fewer scholars have approached appearance enhancement from an evolutionary perspective or considered how sociocultural factors interact with evolved psychology to produce appearance enhancement behavior. Following others, we argue that evidence from the field of evolutionary psychology can complement existing sociocultural models by yielding unique insight into the historical and cross-cultural ubiquity of competition over aspects of physical appearance to embody what is desired by potential mates. An evolutionary lens can help to make sense of reliable sex and individual differences that impact appearance enhancement, as well as the context-dependent nature of putative adaptations that function to increase physical attractiveness. In the current review, appearance enhancement is described as a self-promotion strategy used to enhance reproductive success by rendering oneself more attractive than rivals to mates, thereby increasing one's mate value. The varied ways in which humans enhance their appearance are described, as well as the divergent tactics used by women and men to augment their appearance, which correspond to the preferences of opposite-sex mates in a heterosexual context. Evolutionarily relevant individual differences and contextual factors that vary predictably with appearance enhancement behavior are also discussed. The complementarity of sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives is emphasized and recommended avenues for future interdisciplinary research are provided for scholars interested in studying appearance enhancement behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Davis
- Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Steven Arnocky
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, North Bay, ON, P1B 8L7, Canada.
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The Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences, Body Shame, and Revision Request Rate in 218 Plastic Surgery Patients: What Drives Postoperative Dissatisfaction? Plast Reconstr Surg 2021; 148:1233-1246. [PMID: 34644275 DOI: 10.1097/prs.0000000000008567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND What drives patients who are unhappy despite good results? Adverse childhood experiences are common, can impair adult health, and can cause body shame. Neither adverse childhood experiences nor body shame has been studied in surgical patients. The authors report adverse childhood experience prevalences in a plastic surgical population and investigate associations from adverse childhood experiences to body shame and to postoperative dissatisfaction. METHODS Two hundred eighteen consecutive patients (86 percent aesthetic and 14 percent reconstructive) completed the Adverse Childhood Experiences Survey and the Experience of Shame Scale. A one-sample test of proportions, logistic regression, and mediation analysis assessed outcomes. RESULTS Compared to the Kaiser/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention medical population, our patients had higher overall adverse childhood experience prevalences (79.8 percent versus 64 percent), emotional abuse (41 percent versus 11 percent), emotional neglect (38 percent versus 15 percent), family substance abuse (36 percent versus 27 percent), and family mental illness (29 percent versus 19 percent, all p < 0.001). Fifty-two percent of our patients had body shame. Adverse Childhood Experiences score predicted body shame (OR, 1.22; p = 0.003). Compared to unshamed patients, body shame was associated with more adverse childhood experiences (85 percent versus 72 percent), higher median Adverse Childhood Experiences score (3.5 versus 2), more cosmetic operations (three versus zero), more health problems (three versus two), higher antidepressant use (39 percent versus 19 percent), substance abuse history (16 percent versus 5 percent), and demands for additional pain medication (18 percent versus 5 percent). Body shame predicted requests for surgical revision (49 percent versus 17 percent; OR, 4.61; all p ≤ 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Adverse childhood experience were common in our patients. Adverse Childhood Experiences score predicted body shame, which predicted revision requests. If body shame preceded and drove surgery, revision requests were likely. Patients desiring revisions had recognizable characteristics. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Risk, III.
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Nechita DM, Bud S, David D. Shame and eating disorders symptoms: A meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord 2021; 54:1899-1945. [PMID: 34302369 DOI: 10.1002/eat.23583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Numerous empirical studies and theoretical models posit that shame is a common experience among individuals across the eating disorder spectrum. In this study we aim to investigate the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms using a meta-analytical approach. METHOD In this meta-analysis, we synthesized findings from 195 studies to examine the proposed association between shame and eating disorders symptoms. We looked at the associations with both general eating disorders symptoms and with specific eating disorders symptoms (i.e., anorexic, bulimic, and binge-eating symptoms). Moderation analyses testing for the effect of type of shame, type of eating symptoms, clinical status, quality of the study, age, and gender were conducted. RESULTS Shame was significantly associated with a medium to large effect size with all types of eating disorders symptoms (rs between .40 and .52). Body shame (r = .55) and shame around eating (r = .59) were more strongly related with eating disorders pathology. Type of eating disorders symptoms did not moderate the relationship between shame and disturbed eating. DISCUSSION Overall, the magnitude of the effect size of the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms is a medium to large one. Body shame and shame around eating seem to be the types of shame most closely tied with eating disorders symptoms, suggesting that directly targeting them in interventions might be highly beneficial. Findings highlight current gaps in the literature (e.g., mostly correlational studies, low quality studies) with implications for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana-Mirela Nechita
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,International Institute for the Advanced Studies of Psychotherapy and Applied Mental Health, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Samuel Bud
- International Institute for the Advanced Studies of Psychotherapy and Applied Mental Health, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,Evidence-Based Assessment and Psychological Interventions Doctoral School, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Daniel David
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,International Institute for the Advanced Studies of Psychotherapy and Applied Mental Health, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Lang M, Ye Y. Validation of the Chinese Version of the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale. Front Psychol 2021; 12:724187. [PMID: 34630235 PMCID: PMC8497738 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the limitations of the existing tools used for measuring self-objectification in China, this study aims to validate the Chinese version of the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors scale (C-SOBBS). In this study, we first translated and culturally adopted SOBBS to the Chinese context. We conducted two wave surveys. In the first-wave survey, we recruited 331 female college students whose age ranged from 18 to 35 (Mage=20.28, SD=2.99) to complete an online survey that included demographic questions, C-SOBBS, and four other scales to assess the validity of C-SOBBS. In the second-wave survey, 76 participants who took part in the first-wave survey completed the C-SOBBS at a two-week interval for the assessment of test-retest stability. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to validate the factor structure of the C-SOBBS. The relationship between the C-SOBBS, its factors, and four other measures demonstrated that the C-SOBBS has a convergent and discriminant validity. Furthermore, the results of hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated the C-SOBBS’s incremental validity related to the Female Questionnaire of Trait Self-Objectification and Objectified Body Consciousness-Surveillance subscale. Additionally, the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the C-SOBBS were also verified. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of the C-SOBBS in assessing the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors of young Chinese women within the context of Chinese culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Lang
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yiduo Ye
- School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
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34
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These Boots Weren't Made for Walking: Gendered Discrepancies in Wearing Painful, Restricting, or Distracting Clothing. SEX ROLES 2021; 85:463-480. [PMID: 34426714 PMCID: PMC8373606 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-021-01230-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Using the framework of objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts in Psychology of Women Quarterly 21(2): 173–206, 1997), the current studies explored how often women (vs. men) reported wearing clothing that is painful, distracting, and/or restricting (PDR clothing). Additionally, we examined differences in body surveillance (i.e., chronically monitoring the appearance of one’s body) and body appreciation between those who reported wearing various types of PDR clothing and those who did not. In both a sample of U.S. college students (n = 545) and a broader sample of U.S. adults (n = 252), results indicated that women were substantially more likely to wear PDR clothing than men. Across both samples, the largest differences between men and women were in wearing uncomfortable or painful shoes and in wearing clothing that is distracting because it requires ongoing monitoring or adjusting. Women and men with higher body surveillance were more likely to report wearing PDR clothing. Though some findings pointed toward a negative association between body appreciation and wearing PDR clothing, these results were inconsistent. Overall, results were consistent with the notion that the gendered nature of clothing might reflect and provoke chronic vigilance of the body’s appearance. Gendered differences in the extent to which clothing promotes comfort and movement vs. discomfort and distraction has clear implications for women’s quality of life.
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35
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Stukenborg MJ, Deschamps BA, Jayne JM, Karl JP, McGraw SM, DiChiara AJ, Cole RE. Exceeding body composition standards is associated with a more negative body image and increased weight cycling in active duty U.S. soldiers. Eat Behav 2021; 42:101532. [PMID: 34120036 DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Negative body image is more often identified in individuals with overweight or obesity. More than 65% of U.S. soldiers have a body mass index (BMI) that classifies them with overweight or obesity. Additionally, all soldiers must meet body composition and physical fitness standards which may increase the risk of negative body image. This cross-sectional study aimed to identify associations between compliance with body composition standards, body image, and weight cycling through surveying 969 active-duty soldiers (86% male, 24.0 ± 5.5 years of age, BMI 26.0 ± 3.6 kg/m2). Compliance with body composition standards was measured by whether a soldier had ever taken and failed the circumference-based body fat assessment. Weight cycling was self-reported as ≥3 weight fluctuations of ≥5% of body weight during their military career. Multivariate linear and logistic regression models were used to examine the relationship between compliance with body composition standards, body image, weight cycling, and sociodemographic characteristics while controlling for BMI. Failing the circumference-based body fat assessment was associated with increased concern with conforming to military image. Negative body image was associated with higher odds of weight cycling. Further examination is warranted to understand the effects of body composition standards on soldiers' body image and weight cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Stukenborg
- 1-2 Stryker Brigade Combat Team, Bldg. P3741 Railroad Ave, Tacoma, WA 98433, USA; Madigan Army Medical Center, Nutrition Care Division, 9040 Jackson Ave, Tacoma, WA 98431, USA.
| | - Bethany A Deschamps
- Madigan Army Medical Center, Nutrition Care Division, 9040 Jackson Ave, Tacoma, WA 98431, USA.
| | - Julianna M Jayne
- US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Military Nutrition Division, 10 General Greene Ave, Building 42, Natick, MA 01760, USA.
| | - J Philip Karl
- US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Military Nutrition Division, 10 General Greene Ave, Building 42, Natick, MA 01760, USA.
| | - Susan M McGraw
- US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Military Nutrition Division, 10 General Greene Ave, Building 42, Natick, MA 01760, USA.
| | - Adam J DiChiara
- Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center, Natick, MA 01760, USA.
| | - Renee E Cole
- Medical Center of Excellence, U.S. Military-Baylor University Graduate Program in Nutrition, 3599 Winfield-Scott Rd, Building 2841, Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234, USA.
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36
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Burke NL, Schaefer LM, Karvay YG, Bardone-Cone AM, Frederick DA, Schaumberg K, Klump KL, Anderson DA, Thompson JK. Does the tripartite influence model of body image and eating pathology function similarly across racial/ethnic groups of White, Black, Latina, and Asian women? Eat Behav 2021; 42:101519. [PMID: 34022625 DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The tripartite influence model suggests that appearance pressures from family, peers, and the media contribute to thin-ideal internalization, which leads to increased body dissatisfaction and subsequent eating disorder pathology. The tripartite influence model was initially developed and tested among primarily White samples, and emerging research suggests racial/ethnic differences in mean levels of particular model constructs. Consequently, the model's appropriateness for understanding eating disorder risk in racial/ethnic minorities warrants investigation to determine its usefulness in explicating eating disorder risk in diverse populations. Participants in the current study were White (n = 1167), Black (n = 212), Latina (n = 203), and Asian (n = 176) women from five geographically disparate college campuses in the United States. Participants completed the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4, the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire - Appearance Evaluation Subscale, and the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. Analysis of variance was used to compare mean levels of each construct across racial/ethnic groups. Multigroup structural equation modeling was used to assess the appropriateness of the tripartite influence model for each racial/ethnic group, and to examine differences in the strength of the model pathways across groups. There were significant mean level differences across groups for most model constructs. However, results indicated similar model fit across racial/ethnic groups, with few differences in the strength of model pathways. Findings suggest that although some groups report lower levels of proposed risk factors, the sociocultural risk processes for eating pathology identified through the tripartite influence model are similar across racial/ethnic groups of young adult women. Such information can be used to inform culturally-sensitive interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha L Burke
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Dealy Hall, Bronx, NY 10458, USA.
| | - Lauren M Schaefer
- Sanford Center for Bio-behavioral Research, 120 Eighth Street South, Fargo, ND 58103, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 1919 Elm Street N, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - Yvette G Karvay
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Dealy Hall, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Anna M Bardone-Cone
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, CB 3270, Davie Hall, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - David A Frederick
- Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, 1 University Dr, Orange, CA 92866, USA
| | - Katherine Schaumberg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, 6001 Research Park Boulevard, Madison, WI 53719, USA
| | - Kelly L Klump
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 316 Physics Road, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Drew A Anderson
- Department of Psychology, SUNY University at Albany, 1400 Washington Ave, Albany, NY 12222, USA
| | - J Kevin Thompson
- Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
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Chen S, van Tilburg WAP, Leman PJ. Self-objectification in women predicts approval motivation in online self-presentation. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 61:366-388. [PMID: 34287958 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have examined self-objectification - viewing oneself as an object rather than a subject - in terms of its impact on intrapersonal factors, such as mental health and cognitive performance. However, few have examined how self-objectification relates to interpersonal factors. The present research addressed this gap by testing the impact of self-objectification on social approval motivation among women. Study 1 (n = 103) found that individual differences in self-objectification correlated positively with approval motivation. Study 2 (n = 94) replicated these results and found that women who reported higher self-objectification were more willing to modify their social media profile pictures unrealistically. In Study 3 (n = 100), higher self-objectifying women were more willing to unrealistically modify their profile pictures even if this exceeded normative levels, which was replicated in Study 4 (n = 199). These results suggest that women's self-objectification is associated with a desire for approval from others and this desire manifests in a willingness to modify self-presentation.
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38
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Grower P, Ward LM, Rowley S. Beyond Objectification: Understanding the Correlates and Consequences of Sexualization for Black and White Adolescent Girls. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2021; 31:273-281. [PMID: 33305489 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Although objectification theory posits negative consequences of self-objectification for adolescent girls, few studies have tested how objectification and sexualization contribute to mental health for youth of color. Accordingly, the current study explores the relations among body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and mental health for a sample of 473 Black and White adolescent girls (Mage = 15.21, SD = 1.43). As expected, body surveillance and enjoyment of sexualization were associated with various forms of diminished well-being. Race moderated two of these links, with Black girls who reported higher levels of body surveillance also reporting higher levels of depression and hostility compared with their White peers. Future work should examine the implications of enjoyment of sexualization for youth of color.
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Regan H, Jama A, Mantzios M, Keyte R, Egan H. Exploring the Experiences of Gay Men with Regards to Eating, Exercise, and Mindfulness-Based Concepts. Am J Mens Health 2021; 15:15579883211016341. [PMID: 34041991 PMCID: PMC8165848 DOI: 10.1177/15579883211016341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing research investigating gay men’s eating behavior has focused on stereotypes and body image, rather than to understand why disordered eating is prevalent in gay men. The current study adopted a qualitative approach and employed interview methodology to explore gay men’s attitudes, feelings and experiences of their eating behavior, and the potential link to mindfulness and self-compassion. Twenty gay men aged from 21 to 51 years were interviewed using an interview schedule with open-ended questions. Three main themes emerged from the transcript data sets: “Lean to be Seen,” “Sod it ‘I’ll Have a Pizza,” and “You Can’t Sit with Us.” The first theme was developed following responses that participant’s eating behavior and exercise engagement were influenced by their perceived attractiveness by the gay community. All participants spoke of achieving or maintaining a slim or muscular body type and adopted their eating behavior or exercise regime to reach corresponding goals. The second theme relates to the lack of acceptance felt from the gay community upon not conforming to the bodily expectations set out by the community. The third theme relates to the conflicts in participants’ attitudes around how exercising and eating healthily would improve their mental well-being; but that they also would give preference to calorie dense foods to reduce stress. These reflections are observed through a context of self-kindness and self-compassion and are seen to be related to increased feelings of self-criticism and body dissatisfaction. The limitations and implication for this research and suggestions for future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harvey Regan
- Department of Psychology, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Adrian Jama
- Department of Psychology, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Michael Mantzios
- Department of Psychology, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Rebecca Keyte
- Department of Psychology, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Helen Egan
- Department of Psychology, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
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Constantian MB. Commentary on: Using Nasal Self-Esteem to Predict Revision in Cosmetic Rhinoplasty. Aesthet Surg J 2021; 41:657-660. [PMID: 33231626 DOI: 10.1093/asj/sjaa268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mark B Constantian
- Department of Surgery (Plastic Surgery), St Joseph Hospital, Nashua, NH, USA
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Pila E, Gilchrist JD, Huellemann KL, Adam MEK, Sabiston CM. Body surveillance prospectively linked with physical activity via body shame in adolescent girls. Body Image 2021; 36:276-282. [PMID: 33545529 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The socialization of girls to habitually monitor their bodies, via the process of body surveillance, contributes to an increased risk of negative physical and psychological experiences. The present study examined if body surveillance may also contribute to the decrease in physical activity that is observed in girls during adolescence, and if this association is mediated by body shame (operationalized as both experienced and anticipated shame when imagining changes to one's body in the future). Physically active adolescent girls (n = 206) reported body surveillance at baseline, and measures of experienced and anticpated body shame, and physical activity two years later. Body surveillance was indirectly associated with physical activity via the experience and anticipation of body shame. Specifically, the experience of body shame was associated with lower reported engagement in physical activity (b = -0.13, 95 % CI [-0.23, -0.03]), whereas the anticipation of body shame was associated with higher physical activity (b = 0.07, 95 % CI [0.01, 0.15]), possibly for the purpose of appearance management. Due to the opposing directional effects of experienced versus anticipated body shame, it is important to consider both facets of this emotional experience in understanding how vigilant bodily monitoring impacts physical activity engagement in adolescent girls.
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Milan S, Perez SD. Body surveillance as a prospective risk factor for depressive symptoms in low-income adolescent girls from the United States. Body Image 2021; 36:214-217. [PMID: 33360478 PMCID: PMC7987769 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Adolescent girls who engage in frequent self-objectification often report a greater number of depressive symptoms. Although concurrent associations between self-objectification and depression are well-documented, it is less clear if objectification contributes to the course of symptoms. The current study examined: (a) whether body surveillance is prospectively related to depressive symptoms over a 1-month period in a sample of 150 low-income adolescent girls in the United States, and; (b) whether receiving certain types of weight-relevant information (i.e., learning one's weight is much higher than estimated) moderates this association. Heightened body surveillance at baseline predicted greater symptom severity one month later, but the strength of this relationship depended on what type of weight information girls received. Among girls high in body surveillance, those who found out their actual weight was much higher than they estimated subsequently reported more severe depressive symptoms; those who learned their actual weight was consistent or lower than they estimated reported fewer depressive symptoms. For girls low in body surveillance, weight-relevant information was not significantly related to the subsequent severity of depressive symptoms. Findings highlight the potential utility of assessing and addressing heightened body surveillance in depression interventions for adolescent girls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Milan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road U1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, United States.
| | - Sophia Dominguez Perez
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road U1020, Storrs CT 06269, United States
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Mantey DS, Yockey A, Barroso CS. Role of Sex on the Relationship Between Sexual Minority Status and Misperceptions of Body Weight Among High School Students. J Adolesc Health 2021; 68:342-349. [PMID: 32684436 PMCID: PMC8122588 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.05.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Misperception of body weight during adolescence is a risk factor for negative self-image, harmful eating/dietary habits (e.g., binge eating and purging), and body dysmorphia. Sexual minority youth, particularly males, may be at increased risk for misperceptions of body weight, relative to youth who do not identify as a sexual minority. This study examines the risk for misperception of body weight among sexual minority youth and explores biological sex as an effect modifier in this relationship. METHODS We pooled data from the 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Surveys. Participants were 18,634 high school students who were not overweight/obese. Multivariable logistic regression examined the association between sexual minority status (i.e., gay, lesbian, bisexual, and unsure) and misperceptions of body weight (i.e., self-perceived as overweight/severely overweight). Weighted multivariable logistic regression analyses, stratified by biological sex, were used to compare this relationship across males and females. Covariates included race/ethnicity, grade, bullying victimization, television/electronic screen time, and tobacco use. RESULTS Overall, 16.6% of the sample self-reported misperceptions of body weight. Sexual minority youth had 1.49 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.28-1.73) greater odds of misperception of body weight, adjusting for covariates; this relationship was found across biological sex, but that the main effect was significantly greater among sexual minority males (adjusted odds ratio: 2.24, 95% CI: 1.65-3.03) relative to sexual minority females (adjusted odds ratio: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.11-1.59). CONCLUSIONS Sexual minority youth had greater odds of overestimating their weight status. Biological sex appears to modify this relationship with sexual minority males being at particularly high risk for overestimating their weight status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale S. Mantey
- Michael & Susan Dell Center for Healthy Living, University of Tennessee School of Public Health, Austin, Texas
| | - Andrew Yockey
- Health Promotion and Education, School of Human Services, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Cristina S. Barroso
- Department of Public Health, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee,Address correspondence to: Cristina S. Barroso, Dr.P.H., Department of Public Health, University of Tennesse, 1914 Andy Holt Ave, Suite 390, Knoxville, TN 37996. (C.S. Barroso)
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The Sexual Objectification and Alcohol Use Link: The Mediating Roles of Self-Objectification, Enjoyment of Sexualization, Body Shame, and Drinking Motives. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01213-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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45
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Jiménez-Ortiz D, Sánchez-Cardona I, Pérez-Pedrogo C. Psychometric Properties of the OBCS Body Shame Scale in a Sample of Female Residents in Puerto Rico. EVALUAR 2020; 20:20-35. [PMID: 35264908 PMCID: PMC8902631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to analyze the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Body Shame scale within the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS) in a sample of women living in Puerto Rico. The sample consisted of 117 heterosexual women. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to evaluate the structure of the scale and internal consistency was examined. Findings revealed that the 6-item Spanish version of the Body Shame scale shows better model-data fit than the original 8-item version. The results of the study support the use of the final 6-item version of the Body Shame scale in research and practice, given that it demonstrated appropriate structure and internal consistency. In conclusion, the findings support the use of the 6-item version of the Body Shame scale.
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46
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Orthorexic eating in women who are physically active in sport: A test of an objectification theory model. Body Image 2020; 35:154-160. [PMID: 33022482 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The present study tested an objectification model of orthorexic eating (i.e., pattern of disordered eating characterized by a preoccupation with food quality and purity, ritualistic styles of eating, avoidance of foods considered unhealthy, and compulsive evaluation of the source and nutritional content of foods) in women who are physically active in sport. A community sample of women physically active in sport (N = 228) completed an online survey with measures of orthorexic eating, phenomenological and appearance-based self-objectification, phenomenological body shame, sport-based perfectionism, and athletic identity. Parallel mediation analysis (PROCESS; Model 4) demonstrated a significant indirect effect (ab) of phenomenological self-objectification on orthorexic eating through phenomenological body shame (b = -0.10, 95 % percentile bootstrap confidence interval (PB CI): -0.15, -0.06), adjusting for three covariate measures. The direct effect (c') of phenomenological self-objectification on orthorexic eating was not significant (b = 0.02, 95 % PB CI: -0.07, 0.10). The findings support an objectification theory model of orthorexic eating in community women who participate in sport.
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47
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Cary KM, Maas MK, Nuttall AK. Self-objectification, sexual subjectivity, and identity exploration among emerging adult women. SELF AND IDENTITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2020.1772358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyla M. Cary
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Megan K. Maas
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Amy K. Nuttall
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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48
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Testing a Moderated Mediation Model of Objectification Theory among Black Women in the United States: The Role of Protective Factors. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01151-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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49
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Comiskey A, Parent MC, Tebbe EA. An Inhospitable World: Exploring a Model of Objectification Theory With Trans Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2020; 44:105-116. [PMID: 38283398 PMCID: PMC10817723 DOI: 10.1177/0361684319889595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated key tenets of objectification theory, a prominent model of body image disturbance, as it relates to trans women's disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections-a specific health risk for this population. We also incorporated appearance congruence, or the degree to which an individual personally feels that their gender expression matches their gender identity, into the objectification theory model. Results of a structural equation model using data from a sample of 173 trans women from the United States indicated that the basic objectification theory model held among this sample and that appearance congruence was associated negatively with body surveillance. However, appearance congruence did not have significant direct or indirect links (via body surveillance and body shame) with disordered eating or intention to obtain silicone injections. Thus, disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections are potential negative outcomes of the process of objectification among trans women, and appearance congruence does not appear to be uniquely linked to health risks associated with internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame. Our findings support the application of the tenets of objectification theory with trans women as they apply to disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections and also indicate the need to identify other positive influences on trans women's body image to counteract internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Comiskey
- Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Mike C. Parent
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA
| | - Elliot A. Tebbe
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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50
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Frederick DA, Garcia JR, Gesselman AN, Mark KP, Hatfield E, Bohrnstedt G. The Happy American Body 2.0: Predictors of affective body satisfaction in two U.S. national internet panel surveys. Body Image 2020; 32:70-84. [PMID: 31830668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The first national study of body image was reported four decades ago in the article The Happy American Body (Berscheid et al., 1973). To provide a modern follow-up to this study, we used two Internet panel surveys of U.S. adults to examine feelings about appearance (Survey 1: Married N = 1095; Single N = 5481) and weight, appearance, body, and muscle size/tone (Survey 2: N = 1601). Mean ages across samples for men and women ranged from 42-53. On the positive side, many men and women were somewhat-to-very satisfied with their appearance (67 %; 57 %), overall body (61 %; 46 %), weight (54 %; 42 %), and muscle tone/size (56 %; 41 %). Mean gender differences were small (Cohen's ds = 0.18-0.32), as were sexual orientation differences within each gender (ds = |0.00-0.25|). Looking at negative body image, fewer men than women were somewhat-to-very unhappy with their appearance among married (19 %; 29 %) and single participants (29 %; 35 %), and fewer men were somewhat-to-extremely dissatisfied with their appearance (18 %; 24 %), body (27 %; 39 %), weight (36 %; 49 %), muscle tone/size (27 %; 41 %). Nearly one-fifth of men (18 %) and one-fourth of women (27 %) were very-to-extremely dissatisfied with at least one of these traits, highlighting the importance of body image interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Frederick
- Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, United States.
| | - Justin R Garcia
- The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction and, Department of Gender Studies, Indiana University, Bloomington, United States
| | - Amanda N Gesselman
- The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Indiana University, Bloomington, United States
| | - Kristen P Mark
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, United States
| | - Elaine Hatfield
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, United States
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