Differences between specific and generalized problematic Internet uses according to gender, age, time spent online and psychopathological symptoms

Rates and psychological stress predictors of problematic internet use (PIU) during the COVID-19 pandemic in a racially diverse sample of young adults

BACKGROUND

Problematic internet use (PIU), which includes social media misuse (SMM) and gaming misuse (GM), is uncontrollable and associated with significant psychological impairment. PIU is a coping behavior for COVID-19-related stress. We explored distress-related predictors of PIU in a young adult racially diverse sample during the pandemic.

METHODS

Analyses used cross-sectional survey data (N = 1956). Psychological diagnoses, financial distress, COVID-19-related emotions, psychological distress, distress tolerance, social support, loneliness, SMM and GM were measured. Hierarchical multiple regressions identified predictors of PIU. Race-stratified exploratory analyses sought to understand if predictors held true across racial groups.

RESULTS

Low distress tolerance was associated with SMM and GM, as were depression symptoms, with racial differences observed. SMM was associated with younger age, and GM was associated with male gender. PTSD symptoms predicted more GM. SMM and GM rates varied between racial groups. COVID-19-related adjustment challenges and stress predicted SMM and GM respectively, with racial differences observed.

CONCLUSION

Individual psychological distress and low distress tolerance markedly increased PIU risk. Clinicians should screen for stress-related PIU risk factors and bolster distress tolerance in vulnerable patients. Comparing PIU to different forms of coping in a larger sample would further clarify groups differences in stress coping behaviors.

Similarities and differences in the psychological factors associated with generalised problematic internet use, problematic social media use, and problematic online gaming

Problematic online behaviours are a concern among university students. Although previous research has identified that psychological distress, cognitive distortions, conscientiousness and neuroticism traits, motor impulsivity, and emotion regulation strategies have a significant direct effect on generalised problematic Internet use (GPIU), problematic social media use (PSMU), and problematic online gaming (POG), it is still necessary to determine the extent to which these psychological factors, taken together, are associated with each of the problematic online behaviours. In a sample of 690 Spanish university students, the present study examined the relationship of these psychological factors with GPIU, PSMU, and POG. Correlation and regression analyses were performed. Results reported that (1) high psychological distress, low conscientiousness trait and high motor impulsivity were common associated factors of GPIU and PSMU, but not of POG; (2) high levels of cognitive distortions and cognitive reappraisal were common associated factors of GPIU, PSMU and POG; and (3) expressive suppression and neuroticism trait had no effect on any of the three problematic online behaviours. The findings will help to develop effective prevention and intervention strategies for each problematic online behaviour in the university context.

The comorbidity mechanism of problematic internet use and depression among Chinese college students: A cross-lagged panel network analysis

Problematic internet use (PIU) and depression usually co-occur and are common among college students. According to network theory, it may be attributed to the interplay of symptoms that connect these two mental health problems. However, most studies have failed to examine complex and subtle connections at the symptom level and have not clarified how PIU and depression symptoms are intercorrelated, which symptoms serve as the source of comorbidity (i.e., the central symptoms), and whether such a comorbidity mechanism would change with higher grades. To explore these questions, this study examined four contemporaneous networks and three cross-lagged panel networks, visualizing the symptoms as nodes and the connections between symptoms as edges. A total of 2,420 college students (Mage = 18.35, SD = 0.84; 67.98 % girls) completed four annual surveys. Overall, the results of contemporaneous networks and cross-lagged panel networks indicated that (a) PIU and depression symptoms are intercorrelated; (b) the core symptoms responsible for comorbidity mostly belonged to PIU, and (c) the comorbidity mechanism would change with time. These findings explain the dynamic relation between PIU and depression and identify possible primary symptoms that comorbidity programs can mitigate at different stages of the college years.

Diversity of purposes of use, time spent online, and depression among older Chinese Internet users

Objectives: Previous studies on the associations between Internet use and older people's depression have mostly focused on single types of online activities, especially online social engagement. The current study investigated the diversity of purposes of Internet use and its interaction with the time spent online in shaping older Chinese Internet users' depression.

Method: A sample of 974 Internet users aged 60 and above was adopted from the 2020 China Family Panel Studies wave. We adopted a latent class analysis (LCA) to explore the diverse purposes of internet usage.

Results: The participants were classified into three distinct types: socializers, basic users, and maximizers. Basic users and maximizers use the Internet for various purposes, despite different intensities; socializers use the Internet only to keep connected with families and friends. Compared with basic users and maximizers, a longer time spent online among socializers was significantly associated with a higher level of depression.

Conclusion: This study calls for a closer examination of online profiles among older Internet users; more attention should be paid to the potential harms of excessive Internet use for social reasons only among older adults. Practitioners should enhance older Internet users' digital literacy to maximize the wide-range benefits of Internet use and reduce potential health inequality.

The association between problematic internet use and burnout: A three-level meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Burnout has received considerable attention in recent years because of the adverse consequences for people. Theoretical perspectives propose that problematic internet use is a significant potential risk for burnout. Despite a plethora of studies showing a positive association between problematic internet use and burnout, there remains a contentious debate regarding the extent and direction of this association.

METHODS

This study aims to perform a three-level meta-analysis to evaluate the strength of the relationship between problematic internet use and burnout through a quantitative synthesis of eligible studies published until April 2023.

RESULTS

A total of 42 studies with 54,121 participants and 103 effect sizes were identified. The results indicated a positive, moderate, and significant association between problematic internet use and burnout. Furthermore, the subgroup analysis found that this association was moderated by population, dimension of burnout, and the measure of burnout, however, some study features (i.e., region, type of problematic internet use, gender, and publication year) could not explain the heterogeneity across individual studies.

LIMITATIONS

Studies included in the current meta-analysis mainly used cross-sectional designs, which limited the potential to make inferences on the causal relationship between problematic internet use and burnout.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with problematic internet use have exhibited higher levels of burnout. Overall, these findings develop a deeper understanding of this association between problematic internet use and burnout and have implications for the direction of future research and interventions.

Problematic Use of the Internet and Well-Being among Youth from a Global Perspective: A Mediated-Moderated Model of Socio-Emotional Factors

Problematic Use of the Internet (PUI) is characterized as the inability to control one's internet use or as an excessive use of the internet that may result in social, psychological, and emotional difficulties (Fernandes et al., 2019). It is regarded nowadays as an increasingly worrisome public heath issue, especially among youth. This study explored the contexts in which youth PUI occurs and its associations with socio-emotional functioning that may lead to a decrease in one's sense of well-being. We conducted this exploration among 783 middle school students from the US (425 students; 54.27%) and Israel (358 students; 45.73%). The overall age of both samples ranged between 12 and 16 (M = 13.94, SD = 1.59). In the Israeli sample, 49.1% of the students were girls and 50.9% were boys, whereas in the US sample, 48.8% were girls and 51.2% were boys. The study examined the role of depressive mood, loneliness, resilience, self-control, and school engagement in mediating the relationship between PUI and well-being, and how country of origin might moderate these relationships. Results indicate PUI was related to lower well-being only for the US sample. Yet, for both samples, higher loneliness was related to lower well-being, and higher school engagement was related to higher well-being. A moderated mediation analysis revealed the socio-emotional variables were all mediators in these associations, but differently for each country sample. The study results are discussed according to key factors required for developing intervention programs for coping with youth PUI behaviors.

Problematic social networking sites use and online social anxiety: The role of attachment, emotion dysregulation and motives

Problematic Social Networking Sites Use (PSNSU) and social anxiety are associated. SNSs users may develop online social anxiety that may become a standalone problem. The present study aims to test the mediating role of emotion dysregulation and motives (coping, conformity, social, and enhancement) between attachment (anxiety and avoidance) and two outcomes (PSNSU and online social anxiety) in an integrated theory-driven model. Self-report questionnaires were completed by 756 SNSs users (50.4 % females; mean age = 28.74 years, SD = 8.00). Results of the path analysis supported the partial mediating role of emotion dysregulation in the association between attachment anxiety and both the outcomes and the serial mediating role via four and three motives in the association with PSNSU and online social anxiety, respectively. This study highlighted the role of several relational, emotional, and motivational factors that should be taken into account to tackle PSNSU and online social anxiety through clinical and prevention interventions.

Internet Addiction of Older Women and Its Relationship With Social Influence and Social Networks Use as a Mediator

The aim is to analyse the relationship between social influence for Internet use and Internet addiction (IA) in older women, considering the use of Internet-based social networks as a mediator. The participants were 480 older women Internet users. Social influence, frequency of use of social networks and IA (including loss of control and emotional dysregulation) were evaluated. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was conducted to analyse the proposed model. The use of social networks was a significant mediator in the relationship between social influence for Internet use and the dimension of loss of control of IA. On the contrary, social network use was not a significant mediator. Older women with more social influence reported more frequency of social networking and, in turn, more loss of control in Internet use. Public policy and clinicians should address addictive behaviours about Internet use in older women, preventing the negative consequences.

Nosological Characteristics in Women with Social Media Disorder: The Role of Social Functional Impairment and Agreeableness

Social media disorder (SMD) is a frequently occurring subtype of Internet-related disorders (IRD), which has recently become a focus of research. It is noticeable that women are among those affected, whose nosological characteristics need to be examined. A clinical sample of n = 294 women (14-68 years, M = 36.88 years) was generated. The questionnaire included questions about demography, IRD, SMD, personality traits, psychopathological distress, functional impairment and comorbid mental illnesses. IRD was found in 17.5 percent and SMD in 12.5 percent of women. Compared to women with global IRD Women with SMD reported lower scores on the personality traits neuroticism and agreeableness. They are more frequently functionally impaired in the social dimension, more often reported comorbid substance-dependency and less eating disorders. The results suggest that although have similar characteristics to the comparison group, women with SMD differ in their nosological characteristics from women with global IRD.

Pattern of mobile phone and internet use among 11-15-years-old

OBJECTIVE

To assess the pattern of problematic internet and mobile use in a sample of adolescents.

METHOD

Cross-sectional descriptive study in 8 primary and secondary education centres attached to a semi-rural health centre serving 21,000 inhabitants. Two-stage, cluster and systematic sampling, with a final sample size of 446 participants. Sociodemographic variables and data related to the questionnaire for mobile phone-related experiences (CERM) and questionnaire on internet-related experiences (CERI) were collected.

RESULTS

446 valid surveys were obtained, 228 boys (51.1%) and 218 girls (48.9%) 11-15 years old. A total of 418 (93.7%) had their own mobile. Median mobile usage was 12h on weekdays and 10 at weekends. The most used platforms were WhatsApp (53.6%) and social media (31.4%). Criteria for problematic internet use (CERI>26) were observed in 15.7%, more in 2nd and 3rd ESO. Girls had higher CERI -interpersonal conflict scores (p=.04). Regarding mobile use, girls had higher scores in total CERM (p=.001) and CERM-communicative and emotional use (p=.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate early onset of problems with internet and mobile use, probably related to the accessibility of the new technologies. No parental control was observed. More problematic use of mobile and internet in second and third compulsory secondary education and higher scores in the group of girls related to communication, emotional use and interpersonal conflicts were observed. The findings can help to raise awareness of this problem, detect it early and prevent the effects of addiction to technologies in adolescents.

Nomophobia and smartphone addiction: do the variables age and sex explain this relationship?

Abstract This study aimed to identify the extent nomophobia explains smartphone addiction, controlling for age and gender effects. Participants were 316 people from the 22 Brazilian states (Mage = 28.1 years), most from Paraíba (38.9%) and Piauí (16.5%), equally distributed between genders. They answered the Nomophobia Questionnaire, the Smartphone Addition Scale and demographic questions. The results demonstrate that the factors of the nomophobia measure explained smartphone addiction, indicating that more nomophobic behavior equates to increased smartphone addiction, especially in the younger participants, there was no difference regarding gender. These findings are discussed according to the literature on adherence to new technologies, revealing the current problem of smartphone addiction in young people.

The Relationships between Gender, Life Satisfaction, Loneliness and Problematic Internet Use during COVID-19: Does the Lockdown Matter?

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments have attempted to reduce virus transmission by implementing lockdown procedures, leading to increased social isolation and a new reliance on technology and the internet for work and social communication. We examined people’s experiences working from home in the UK to identify risk factors of problematic internet use during the first lockdown period, specifically looking at life satisfaction, loneliness, and gender. A total of 299 adults completed the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire-Short-Form-6, UCLA-3 Item Loneliness Scale, and Satisfaction with Life Scale online. Through structural equation modelling, we found that loneliness positively predicted problematic internet use while gender had no effect. Life satisfaction and age positively predicted loneliness but had no direct effect on problematic internet use, suggesting loneliness fully mediated their relationship with problematic internet use. Our study serves as a benchmark study of problematic internet use among those working from home during lockdown conditions, which may be utilized by future researchers exploring longitudinal patterns post-pandemic.

Perceptions Underlying Addictive Technology Use Patterns: Insights for Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is considered the 'gold standard' in the treatment of addictive disorders related to excessive technology use. However, the cognitive components of problematic internet use are not yet well-known. The aim of the present study was to explore the cognitive components, that according to problematic users, can lead to potential internet addiction. A total of 854 European adults completed an online survey using a mixed-methods design. Internet problems and attachment styles were assessed, prevalence rates estimated, correlations, chi-squared automatic interaction detection, and content analysis were performed. Self-reported addictions to social networking, internet, and gaming had a prevalence between 1.2% (gaming) to 2.7% (social networking). Self-perception of the addiction problem and preoccupied attachment style were discriminative factors for internet addiction. In an analysis of qualitative responses from self-identified compulsive internet users, a sense of not belonging and feeling of disconnection during life events were perceived as causes for internet addiction. The development depended on a cycle of mixed feelings associated with negative thoughts, compensated by a positive online identity. The severity of this behaviour pattern produced significant impairment in various areas of the participants' functioning, suggesting a possible addiction problem. It is suggested that health professionals administering CBT should target unhealthy preoccupations and monitor mixed feelings and thoughts related to internet use to support coping with cognitive distortions.

Managing Problematic Usage of the Internet and Related Disorders in an Era of Diagnostic Transition: An Updated Review

INTRODUCTION

Problematic Usage of the Internet (PUI) refers to a broad and likely heterogeneous group of Internet-related conditions associated with behavioural disturbances and functional impairment.

METHODS

Within PUI several conditions have been reported, including Gaming Disorder, Shopping Addiction, Cyberchondria, Gambling Disorder, Cyberpornography Addiction and Cyberbullying. While increasing reports in the field try to define the epidemiologic and clinical boundaries of these conditions, the rapid and continuous evolution of Internet related behaviours as well as their problematic/pathological expressions are often difficult to diagnose, assess, approach with treatment interventions and follow-up.

RESULTS

In addition, some of the PUI-related conditions show characteristics of addiction to the Internet as a preferential tool to engage in specific behaviours, while some others exclusively manifest on the Internet, making it necessary to find distinct assessment and treatment pathways.

CONCLUSION

The inclusion of Internet Gaming Disorder in Section III by the DSM-5 and the recognition of Gaming Disorder by the ICD-11 opened the way for a systematic clinical investigation of this and other PUI-related conditions, particularly in terms of preventive and therapeutic strategies. The present article is aimed at offering an updated clinical overview on the main expressions of PUI, focussing on the latest acquisitions in this evolving field.

Smartphone addiction and the relationship with head and neck pain and electromiographic activity of masticatory muscles

BACKGROUND

Excessive use of smartphones may be associated with behavioral and physical health changes and might cause musculoskeletal alterations in the head and neck region.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence of smartphone addiction in college students and its correlation with symptoms of head and neck pain and masticatory and trapezius muscle activity while resting, before and after smartphone use.

METHODS

Twenty university students participated in the study. They answered the Smartphone Addiction Scale and the Fonseca Anamnestic Index. Next, the participants were seated and prepared for electromyography through the placement of surface electrodes on the masseter, temporal, and trapezius muscles. Rest condition data were collected for 10 seconds before and after 30 minutes of smartphone use.

RESULTS

The results showed that 35% of the evaluated individuals were classified as smartphone addicted and 35% reported no head or neck pain in the previous 30 days. There was no association between smartphone use and head and neck pain. In the electromyography, there was an increase in RMS values after smartphone use in the right and left masseter muscles and the left trapezius.

CONCLUSION

College students presented a high prevalence of smartphone addiction and head and neck pain, but these were not statistically associated. There was a change in muscle activity only in the right trapezius muscles before and after 30 minutes of smartphone use. These findings are contrary to the current belief that the use of smartphones correlates with pain in the neck region and changes in the electrical muscle activity, leading to fatigue in the cervical muscles.

Game Transfer Phenomena and Problematic Interactive Media Use: Dispositional and Media Habit Factors

The study of the effects of interactive media has mainly focused on dysregulated behaviors, the conceptualization of which is supported by the paradigms of addiction. Research into Game Transfer Phenomena (GTP) examines the interplay between video game features, events while playing, and the manipulation of hardware, which can lead to sensory-perceptual and cognitive intrusions (e.g., hallucinations and recurrent thoughts) and self-agency transient changes (e.g., automatic behaviors) related to video games. GTP can influence the interpretation of stimuli and everyday interactions and, in contrast to gaming disorder, are relatively common and not necessarily negative. However, some players have reported feeling distress due to their GTP. This study focuses on how dispositional and interactive media habit factors are related to GTP and two forms of problematic interactive media [problematic video game playing (PVG) and problematic social media use (PSMU)]. A sample of 343 university students who played video games completed an online survey (58.7% male, 19–25 years old). Not all who had experienced GTP were identified as exhibiting PVG or PSMU, but all of those in the PVG group had experienced GTP. Overall, the profiles of the groups, including GTP (91.4%), PVG (28.5%), and PSMU (24.8%), were in accordance with previous findings. Those in the GTP and the PVG groups were characterized by being male, being highly engaged in the game (either while playing or via game-related activities), and showed preferences for game-related activities. However, while those in the GTP group were significantly more likely to be fantasy-prone, those with PVG were the ones who played most per day. Those in the PSMU group were characterized by being female and/or extroverted, frequently using social/sharing platforms, and seldom playing video games. A hierarchical binary logistic regression revealed that males were more likely to experience GTP. Increases in PVG, fantasy proneness, and neuroticism increased the odds of GTP. Future work can benefit from considering the role of GTP in gaming disorder, since intrusive thoughts, cognitive biases, and poor impulse control are pivotal in the initiation and maintenance of dysfunctional playing behaviors.

Should Internet gaming disorder be considered a subtype of generalized problematic internet use? Findings from a study among medical college students

PURPOSE

The current study aimed to explore whether Internet gaming disorder (IGD) should be considered a subtype of generalised problematic Internet use (PIU) by assessing the degree of overlap between them and comparing their correlates. The sociodemographic profile and presence of depressive symptoms were studied as correlates for IGD and generalised PIU.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This was a self-report survey administered online among medical students (n = 306).

FINDING

Less than half of the participants with IGD (45.45%; 5 out of 11) also met the criteria for generalised PIU. Only 6.67% (5 out of 75) of subjects with generalised PIU were also classified as having IGD. Male gender and time spent on digital gaming per day were associated with greater risk of IGD; whereas the time spent on Internet per day and more frequent use of the Internet for social networking rather than academic purposes were associated with greater risk of generalised PIU. The regression models built for IGD and generalised PIU were statistically significant (F = 64.10; P < .01 and F = 80.97; P < .01, respectively). The two models explained 66.1% and 57.4% of the variance in IGDS-SF and GPIUS2 scores, respectively.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

The IGD and generalised PIU appear to be conceptually distinct entities. The IGD should not be assumed as a subtype of generalised PIU. Thus, health care providers need to focus on IGD beyond and besides generalised PIU. There is a need to specifically enquire about IGD while screening for behavioural addictions involving use of Internet.

Work addiction and personality: A meta-analytic study

BACKGROUND

During the past three decades, research interest in work addiction has increased significantly. Most definitions concerning work addiction have specifically contained personality-related elements. However, the results of empirical studies concerning personality and work addiction are both few and mixed. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of personality in the background of work addiction.

METHODS

The present study systematically reviewed and empirically carried out a meta-analysis on all the published studies examining the association between personality variables and work addiction (n = 28).

RESULTS

The results of the meta-analysis indicated that perfectionism, global and performance-based self-esteem, and negative affect had the strongest and most robust associations as personality risk factors of work addiction. Among the Big Five traits, extraversion, conscientiousness, and intellect/imaginations showed positive relationships with work addiction. However, these associations were weak.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the meta-analysis, personality appears to explain only a small amount of the variance of work addiction and further studies are needed to assess the interaction between individual and environmental factors.

Problematic internet use among young and adult population in Bangladesh: Correlates with lifestyle and online activities during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Although internet use can boost individuals' quality of life in various aspects, activities on the internet (e.g., gambling, video gaming, social media use, pornography use, etc.) can be used as coping strategy to deal with psychological stressors and mood states (e.g., fear, anxiety, depression) particularly during the global COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES

The present study assessed problematic internet use (PIU) among Bangladeshi youth and adults in Bangladesh and examined its correlation with lifestyle and online activities during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

An online cross-sectional survey was utilized between May and June 2020 comprising 13,525 Bangladeshi individuals (61.3% male; age range 18-50 years; mean age 23.7 years) recruited from various online platforms. The self-report survey included questions concerning socio-demographics, lifestyle, and online activities during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as psychometric scales such as the nine-item Internet Disorder Scale-Short Form (IDS9-SF).

RESULTS

Utilizing hierarchical regression analysis, problematic internet use was significantly and positively associated with those who were younger, having a higher level of education, living with a nuclear family, engaging in less physical exercise, avoiding household chores, playing online videogames, social media use, and engaging in recreational online activities.

CONCLUSIONS

Excessive internet use appears to have been commonplace during the COVID-19 pandemic period and young adults were most vulnerable to problematic internet use.

Classification of probable online social networking addiction: A latent profile analysis from a large-scale survey among Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Problematic online social networking use is prevalent among adolescents, but consensus about the instruments and their optimal cut-off points is lacking. This study derived an optimal cut-off point for the validated Online Social Networking Addiction (OSNA) scale to identify probable OSNA cases among Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

A survey recruited 4,951 adolescent online social networking users. Latent profile analysis (LPA) and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analyses were applied to the validated 8-item OSNA scale to determine its optimal cut-off point.

RESULTS

The 3-class model was selected by multiple criteria, and validated in a randomly split-half subsample. Accordingly, participants were categorized into the low risk (36.4%), average risk (50.4%), and high risk (13.2%) groups. The highest risk group was regarded as "cases" and the rest as "non-cases", serving as the reference standard in ROC analysis, which identified an optimal cut-off point of 23 (sensitivity: 97.2%, specificity: 95.2%). The cut-off point was used to classify participants into positive (probable case: 17:0%) and negative groups according to their OSNA scores. The positive group (probable cases) reported significantly longer duration and higher intensity of online social networking use, and higher prevalence of Internet addiction than the negative group.

CONCLUSIONS

The classification strategy and results are potentially useful for future research that measure problematic online social networking use and its impact on health among adolescents. The approach can facilitate research that requires cut-off points of screening tools but gold standards are unavailable.

Maladaptive Rumination Mediates the Relationship between Self-Esteem, Perfectionism, and Work Addiction: A Largescale Survey Study

Background: Empirical evidence suggests that low self-esteem and high perfectionism are significant personality correlates of work addiction, but the mechanisms underlying these relationships are still unclear. Consequently, exploring cognitive mechanisms will help to better understand work addiction. For instance, rumination is one of the under-researched topics in work addiction, although it may explain specific thinking processes of work-addicted individuals. The purpose of the study was to test the mediating role of maladaptive rumination (i.e., brooding) in the relationship between personality and addiction. Methods: In a largescale cross-sectional, unrepresentative, online study, 4340 adults with a current job participated. The following psychometric instruments were used: Work Addiction Risk Test Revised, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and Ruminative Response Scale. Results: It was found that self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and self-esteem had both direct and indirect relationships with work addiction via the mediating effect of maladaptive rumination. The two paths involving brooding explained 44% of the direct relationship. Conclusions: The study demonstrated that brooding type of rumination as a putatively maladaptive strategy explains why individuals characterized by low self-esteem and high perfectionism may have a higher risk of work addiction. The results suggest that cognitive-affective mechanisms in work addiction are similar to those found in other addictive disorders.

Classification of probable online social networking addiction: A latent profile analysis from a large-scale survey among Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Problematic online social networking use is prevalent among adolescents, but consensus about the instruments and their optimal cut-off points is lacking. This study derived an optimal cut-off point for the validated Online Social Networking Addiction (OSNA) scale to identify probable OSNA cases among Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

A survey recruited 4,951 adolescent online social networking users. Latent profile analysis (LPA) and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analyses were applied to the validated 8-item OSNA scale to determine its optimal cut-off point.

RESULTS

The 3-class model was selected by multiple criteria, and validated in a randomly split-half subsample. Accordingly, participants were categorized into the low risk (36.4%), average risk (50.4%), and high risk (13.2%) groups. The highest risk group was regarded as "cases" and the rest as "non-cases", serving as the reference standard in ROC analysis, which identified an optimal cut-off point of 23 (sensitivity: 97.2%, specificity: 95.2%). The cut-off point was used to classify participants into positive (probable case: 17:0%) and negative groups according to their OSNA scores. The positive group (probable cases) reported significantly longer duration and higher intensity of online social networking use, and higher prevalence of Internet addiction than the negative group.

CONCLUSIONS

The classification strategy and results are potentially useful for future research that measure problematic online social networking use and its impact on health among adolescents. The approach can facilitate research that requires cut-off points of screening tools but gold standards are unavailable.

Problematic Internet Use and Perceived Quality of Life: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study Investigating Work-Time and Leisure-Time Internet Use

Avoiding the potential negative impact brought by problematic internet use is becoming more important. To better understand public health and addiction, this study investigated to what extent work-time and leisure-time internet use relate to problematic internet use and perceived quality of life among college students and highly educated adults. An online cross-sectional survey with 446 individuals was assessed in Germany. Linear regression analyses were used to predict problematic internet use. Ordinal regression analyses were applied to predict perceived quality of life. Results showed that leisure-time internet use, but not work-time internet use, was positively associated with problematic internet use. Participants whose work-time internet use could be considered balanced (5–28 h/week in this study) indicated a higher perceived quality of life compared to individuals with little or large amount of internet use for work. The findings still emerged when taking negative feelings, perceived stress, smoking status and alcohol consumption into account. As both work-time and leisure-time internet use can be risk factors for mental health in terms of problematic internet use and perceived quality of life, well-controlled internet use rather than excessive use is recommended. This should be kept in mind when dealing with the Coronavirus pandemic and its aftermath.

Problematic Internet Use, Psychopathology, Defense Mechanisms, and Coping Strategies: a Cross-Sectional Study from the United Arab Emirates

A number of studies point to a demonstrated relationship between problematic Internet use (PIU) and psychopathological variables. However, explorations of PIU in relation to defense mechanisms and coping strategies remain rare. The present study sought to determine the extent of PIU among a sample of college-aged young adults resident in the United Arab Emirates. The relationship of PIU to two psychopathological variables (depression and low self-esteem) and two psychological variables (defense mechanisms and coping strategies) were examined. A sample of 697 Emirati participants aged between 18 and 33 years of age completed assessments of PIU, socio-demographic, psychopathological, and psychological variables. A total of 67.3% exhibited PIU. Problematic users produced higher scores for maladaptive coping strategies and for the use of immature, neurotic, and autistic fantasy defenses. Regression analyses revealed that PIU was predicted by the mature, immature, and autistic fantasy defenses as well as, negatively by adaptive coping, and positively by maladaptive coping. These differed when the analyses were repeated on gender-stratified samples. Given that this initial prevalence estimation suggests that PIU may be a substantial issue in this region of the world, future research should examine the mental health risk factors related to PIU, particularly their causal relationships.

Pathological Traits Associated to Facebook and Twitter among French Users

Background: With a growing number of users, social networking sites have been the subject of numerous recent studies, but little investigation has been given to their problematic use. Objectives: Our main objective was to study the relationship between psychopathological variables (i.e., personality traits, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and stress) and problematic Facebook and Twitter use. Participants and method: A sample of 1068 Internet users (Mage = 26.64; SD = 9.5) has been recruited online. Participants completed scales exploring problematic Facebook and Twitter use, and psychopathological variables. Results: Problematic Facebook and Twitter use were predicted by different pathological personality traits, regrouped in clusters in our study. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were also predictive of problematic Facebook and Twitter use but only stress explained problematic Facebook use. Gender differences have been observed. Discussion: This study highlights the relationship between depression, anxiety, stress, pathological personality traits, and problematic Facebook and Twitter use. Significant differences have been retrieved between these two uses and their relationship to psychopathology. Future research should also explore the causal relationship between social networking sites use and psychopathology and consider gender.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Nine-Item Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire (PIUQ-9) in Nine European Samples of Internet Users

Objectives: The nine-item Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire (PIUQ-9) is a brief self-report screening instrument for problematic internet use. The main objective of the present study was to explore the psychometric properties of the PIUQ-9 among nine different language-based samples of European internet users (Italian, German, French, Polish, Turkish, Hungarian, English, and Greek). Methods: The total sample comprised 5,593 internet users (38.1% men), aged between 18 and 87 years (M = 25.81; SD = 8.61). Via online recruitment, participants completed the PIUQ-9, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) and items about time spent online. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the bifactor model with one general factor (i.e., general problem) and two-specific factors (i.e., obsession and neglect + control disorder) yielded acceptable or good fit indices in all subsamples except for one. The common variance index in the bifactor model indicated that the general problem factor explained from 57.0 to 76.5% of common variance, which supports the presence of a strong global factor. According to the multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) model, psychiatric symptoms had a moderate-to-strong direct effect on the general problem factor in all subsamples, ranging from β = 0.28 to β = 0.52 supporting the construct validity of the scale. Furthermore, in a majority of the subsamples, time spent online during the weekend had considerably higher effect sizes on the general problem factor than time spent online during weekdays. Conclusion: The present study highlights the appropriate psychometric properties of the PIUQ-9 across a number of European languages and cultures.

Generalised Versus Specific Internet Use-Related Addiction Problems: A Mixed Methods Study on Internet, Gaming, and Social Networking Behaviours

The field of technological behavioural addictions is moving towards specific problems (i.e., gaming disorder). However, more evidence of generalised versus specific Internet use-related addiction problems (generalised pathological Internet use (GPIU) vs. specific pathological Internet use (SPIU)) is still needed. This mixed methods study aimed to disentangle GPIU from SPIU. A partially mixed sequential equal status study design (QUAN→QUAL) was undertaken. First, through an online survey, which adapted the compulsive Internet use scale (CIUS) for three types of problems (i.e., generalised Internet use, and specific online gaming and social networking). Second, potential problem users’ perceptions of the evolution of these problems (aetiology, development, consequences, and factors) were ascertained, through semi-structured interviews, together with their opinion on present Internet gaming disorder (IGD) criteria adapted to each problem studied. Findings showed the CIUS remains valid and reliable for GPIU and SPIUs examined; a prevalence between 10.8% and 37.4% was estimated for potential at-risk problem gamers and Internet users, respectively, who reported their preference for maintaining their virtual lives. Half of the sample had a risk of a unique or mixed profile of these problems. Moreover, device patterns, gender, and age issues emerged, such as problem gamers being proportionally equal male and female young or middle-aged adults. GPIU was highly associated with problem social networking use, and weakly with problematic gaming, but both SPIUs were independent. Concerning addictive symptoms, salience, deception, and tolerance required redefinition, especially for SPIUs, while better-valued IGD criteria applied to GPIU and SPIUs were: Risk relationships or opportunities, give up other activities, withdrawal, and continue despite problems. Thus, although problems studied are present as risk behaviours, SPIUs seem to cover the addictive symptomatology in those categorised as potential problem users, online gaming being the most severe behavioural addiction problem.

The Moderating Effect of Geographic Area on the Relationship Between Age, Gender, and Information and Communication Technology Literacy and Problematic Internet Use

This study investigated the relationship between adolescents' problematic Internet use (PIU) and demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and information and communication technology (ICT) literacy and the moderating effect of geographic area on this relationship using a cross-sectional research design. The study sample comprised 2160 adolescents from the Chongqing area of China and consisted of 47.3 percent boys (N = 1022) and 52.7 percent girls (N = 1138). Participants anonymously completed a 38-item questionnaire that examined their Internet use, behaviors, and attitudes, ICT literacy, parents' education level, and other demographic information. The results showed that the geographic area in which respondents lived (urban vs. rural), gender, age, father's education, mother's education, and ICT literacy had significant relationships with PIU. Moreover, hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that geographic area was found to be a significant moderator for both age and gender in their relationship with PIU. These findings suggest that it is essential to address differences between urban and rural areas when seeking to mitigate PIU among adolescents.

Translation of the short version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale into Brazilian Portuguese: cross-cultural adaptation and testing of measurement properties

BACKGROUND

Smartphone use has been constantly increasing. Smartphone addiction can lead to changes in the emotional state and musculoskeletal system of users. To identify smartphone addicts, the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version was developed; however, this scale has not been translated into Brazilian Portuguese and tested for its measurement properties.

OBJECTIVE

To translate and cross-culturally adapt the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version into Brazilian Portuguese; to assess the internal consistency, reliability and construct validity of the scale among university students.

METHODS

The cross-cultural adaptation was performed following the guidelines for cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures, and data were collected via online surveys administered to 59 university students over 18 years of age for test-retest. To test the measurement properties of the final version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version, a convenience sample including 130 university students was used.

RESULTS

The Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version showed good reliability for test-retest scores (ICC_3,1=0.82; 95% CI=0.70-0.89) and good internal consistency considering all 10 items (Cronbach's alpha=0.95). The construct validity was calculated comparing the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version score to data from a questionnaire prepared by the authors of this study, including frequency per day (r=0.35; p<0.001), leisure time on the smartphone (r=0.33; p<0.001), and time working on the smartphone (r=0.18; p=0.04) that were significantly positively associated with higher Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version scores. The results show a high prevalence of smartphone addiction among university students (33.1%).

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that the Brazilian Portuguese version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version is a reliable and valid tool for screening smartphone addiction in university students.

Classification of problematic Internet usage types by motives and contexts with elementary and secondary school-aged counseling clients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Past research on the classification of problematic Internet use (PIU) has focused on symptom-based severity and usage motive in order to understand its mechanism. Recently, usage context, such as family or social relationships, has been identified as a key influencing factor of PIU. Therefore, we extended the classification of PIU to include usage context in addition to symptom-based severity and usage motive.

METHODS

To classify PIU types, we conducted two studies. First, we performed a clustering analysis, where 265 counseling cases were clustered into usage types in terms of motive and context. After characterizing each usage type, we examined their hierarchical relationships by considering symptoms. Second, we performed a focus group interview with six counselors to increase the transferability of usage types. This transferability was established by matching counselors' quotations to the usage types. When usage types showed consistency between quotations and the clustering analysis, we identified the progression patterns between hierarchical relationships.

RESULTS

The clustering analysis of motive and context yielded six usage types with three hierarchical relationships. The focus group interview results verified the transferability of these six types and identified two progression patterns between the hierarchical relationships.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Although usage motive and context were given equal weight before the clustering analysis, the resulting types revealed that usage context played a greater role in the classification process.

Online social networking addiction and depression: The results from a large-scale prospective cohort study in Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The aim of this study is to estimate the longitudinal associations between online social networking addiction (OSNA) and depression, whether OSNA predicts development of depression, and reversely, whether depression predicts development of OSNA.

METHODS

A total of 5,365 students from nine secondary schools in Guangzhou, Southern China were surveyed at baseline in March 2014, and followed up 9 months later. Level of OSNA and depression were measured using the validated OSNA scale and CES-D, respectively. Multilevel logistic regression models were applied to estimate the longitudinal associations between OSNA and depression.

RESULTS

Adolescents who were depressed but free of OSNA at baseline had 1.48 times more likely to develop OSNA at follow-up compared with those non-depressed at baseline [adjusted OR (AOR): 1.48, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14-1.93]. In addition, compared with those who were not depressed during the follow-up period, adolescents who were persistently depressed or emerging depressed during the follow-up period had increased risk of developing OSNA at follow-up (AOR: 3.45, 95% CI: 2.51-4.75 for persistent depression; AOR: 4.47, 95% CI: 3.33-5.99 for emerging depression). Reversely, among those without depression at baseline, adolescents who were classified as persistent OSNA or emerging OSNA had higher risk of developing depression compared with those who were no OSNA (AOR: 1.65, 95% CI: 1.01-2.69 for persistent OSNA; AOR: 4.29; 95% CI: 3.17-5.81 for emerging OSNA).

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate a bidirectional association between OSNA and depression, meaning that addictive online social networking use is accompanied by increased level of depressive symptoms.

Problematic Online Betting Among Turkish Adolescents

Problematic online betting among adolescents has attracted considerable public attention internationally for the last two decades. Although the online betting prevalence rate in Turkey is unclear, some reports indicate that it could be more pervasive than is currently estimated. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of problematic online betting, common behaviors of youth related to betting, and to identify the effect of family on online betting among Turkish adolescents. We surveyed 6116 adolescents aged between 12 and 18 in Istanbul to determine if they are problematic Internet users for betting. Although 756 (12.4%) adolescents reported that they play online betting, only 176 adolescents (2.9%) were classified as problematic Internet users. Thus, we collected further data from those 176 adolescents, 14.8% of which were female. A significant positive correlation was found between Internet Addiction (IA) and duration of betting. Almost 61% of participants expressed that they prefer to be online because they do not have better things to do. Almost a quarter of the participants started online betting between 10 and 12 years of age. All participants know someone who bets online. In terms of frequency, these are friends, relatives, siblings, and parents, respectively. Although there is no relationship between family structure and IA among adolescents who are problematic users, participants who live in an unstable family have higher IA scores than participants who live in a stable family.

Uso Problemático da Internet em Adultos: Que relação com sintomas clínicos?

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a relação entre o uso problemático da internet, sintomas de depressão, ansiedade e stress, e autoconceito. Participaram 265 adultos, que responderam a um questionário sociodemográfico, à Escala de Uso Generalizado Problemático da Internet, Escala de Ansiedade, Depressão e Stress-21 de Lovibond & Lovibond e ao Inventário de Autoconceito. Quanto maior revela ser a preferência de interação social online, a utilização da Internet para regular o humor, a autorregulação deficiente e as consequências negativas do uso da Internet, maior é a intensidade dos sintomas de ansiedade, depressão, e stress e menor o autoconceito total.

Insomnia partially mediated the association between problematic Internet use and depression among secondary school students in China

Background and aims This study aims to examine the mediating effects of insomnia on the associations between problematic Internet use, including Internet addiction (IA) and online social networking addiction (OSNA), and depression among adolescents. Methods A total of 1,015 secondary school students from Guangzhou in China participated in a cross-sectional survey. Levels of depression, insomnia, IA, and OSNA were assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Young's Diagnostic Questionnaire, and Online Social Networking Addiction Scale, respectively. Logistic regression models were fit to test the associations between IA, OSNA, insomnia, and depression. The mediation effects of insomnia were tested using Baron and Kenny's strategy. Results The prevalence of depression at moderate level or above (CES-D ≥ 21), insomnia, IA, and OSNA were 23.5%, 37.2%, 8.1%, and 25.5%, respectively. IA and OSNA were significantly associated with depression (IA: AOR = 2.79, 95% CI: 1.71, 4.55; OSNA: AOR = 3.27, 95% CI: 2.33, 4.59) and insomnia (IA: AOR = 2.83, 95% CI: 1.72, 4.65; OSNA: AOR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.61, 2.96), after adjusting for significant background factors. Furthermore, insomnia partially mediated 60.6% of the effect of IA on depression (Sobel Z = 3.562, p < .002) and 44.8% of the effect of OSNA on depression (Sobel Z = 3.919, p < .001), respectively. Discussion The high prevalence of IA and OSNA may be associated with increased risk of developing depression among adolescents, both through direct and indirect effects (via insomnia). Findings from this study indicated that it may be effective to develop and implement interventions that jointly consider the problematic Internet use, insomnia, and depression.

The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 in a French sample: Psychometric evaluation of the theoretical model

OBJECTIVES

The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 (GPIUS-2) is a short self-report questionnaire assessing Internet addiction based on a cognitive behavioral model. Our main goal was to evaluate the psychometric properties of its French version among a sample of students and to appraise the relevance of the generalized problematic Internet use model.

METHODS

A sample of 563 university students aged between 18 and 35 years (M=20.8; SD=2.7) completed several online self-report questionnaires including the GPIUS-2, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and the Center for Epidemiologic Study-Depression scale (CES-D).

RESULTS

Confirmatory Factorial Analyses revealed a poor but acceptable overall fit for the original five-factor model and the original four-factor model. Path analyses, testing Structural Equation Modeling provided showed a poor fit to the data, suggesting insufficient construct validity. Convergent and concurrent validities analyzed through correlational analyses revealed significant relationships between the GPIUS-2, its factors, the IAT, time spent online and the CES-D.

CONCLUSIONS

This research highlights the insufficient psychometric properties of the GPIUS-2 in a French sample, similar to previous results. However, this French version appears to be a useful multidimensional tool for assessing problematic Internet use among students, and reveals promise for future research and clinical applications of the measure, given its solid theoretical basis and despite the results of this psychometric study.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Internet Addiction Among Employed Adults in Japan

Background

The prevalence of Internet addiction (IA) among employed adults has not been reported using a large sample. To clarify the actual status of addictive Internet use among employed adults, this study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and the risk factors of IA and at-risk IA among employed adults in Japan.

Methods

This cross-sectional study surveyed all junior and senior high school personnel in Shimane Prefecture, a rural area in Japan. Eligible participants included 3,211 junior and senior high school personnel (1,259 men and 1,952 women). Participants completed a questionnaire on their activities and factors related to Internet use.

Results

The prevalence of IA and at-risk IA was 0.03% and 4.82%, respectively. Furthermore, game playing was shown to be the Internet activity most closely associated with at-risk IA.

Conclusions

This study showed that around 5% of school personnel in a rural area in Japan are at risk for developing addiction to the Internet and that using the Internet for game playing is related to at-risk IA. Our results suggest that employed adults should be instructed to use the Internet properly.