Accumulation and leaching potential of some pharmaceuticals and potential endocrine disruptors in soils irrigated with wastewater in the Tula Valley, Mexico

Priority list of pharmaceutical active compounds in aquatic environments of Mexico considering their occurrence, environmental and human health risks

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) are detected pollutants in aquatic environments worldwide at concentrations ranging from ng L-1 to µg L-1. Currently, PhAC monitoring is poorly realized in Mexico. This study proposes a priority list of PhACs in Mexican aquatic environments, considering their occurrence and environmental and human health risks. Ecological risks were assessed as Risk Quotients (RQ) values using the PhAC concentrations detected in surface water, obtaining high risks (RQ > 1) against aquatic organisms, especially of naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, acetaminophen, 17β-estradiol, carbamazepine, ketoprofen, caffeine. In contrast, potential human health risks (RQH) were assessed on the Mexican population using the concentrations quantified in groundwater, demonstrating potential risks (RQH > 0.2) on the population, particularly of DCF and CBZ. Thus, a priority list of PhACs can be used as a reference for environmental monitoring in Mexican water supplies as well as PhACs monitoring in countries of the Caribbean region and Central America.

Green sonochemical synthesis of ZnCo2O4 decorated with carbon nanofibers for enhanced electrochemical detection of bisphenol A in food products

The facile sonochemical synthesis is reported of zinc cobalt oxide (ZnCo2O4) composited with carbon nanofiber (CNF). Structural, chemical, and morphological were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoluminescent spectroscopy (XPS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmittance electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. ZnCo2O4/CNF-modified GCE was applied to the detection of bisphenol A (BPA). The modified GCE shows enhanced sensing performance towards BPA, which includes a linear range (0.2 to 120 μM L-1) alongside a low limit of detection (38.2 nM L-1), low interference, and good stability. Detection of lower concentrations of BPA enables real sample analysis in the food industries (milk, orange juice, yogurt, tap water, and baby feeding bottles). Surprisingly, the BPA was detected in milk 510 nM L-1, orange juice 340 nM L-1, yogurt 1050 nM L-1, and tap water 140 nM L-1. Moreover, an interaction mechanism between the BPA analyte and ZnCo2O4 was discussed.

Health risks of Bisphenol-A exposure: From Wnt signaling perspective

Human beings are routinely exposed to chronic and low dose of Bisphenols (BPs) due to their widely pervasiveness in the environment. BPs hold similar chemical structures to 17β-estradiol (E2) and thyroid hormone, thus posing threats to human health by rendering the endocrine system dysfunctional. Among BPs, Bisphenol-A (BPA) is the best-known and extensively studied endocrine disrupting compound (EDC). BPA possesses multisystem toxicity, including reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Particularly, the central nervous system (CNS), especially the developing one, is vulnerable to BPA exposure. This review describes our current knowledge of BPA toxicity and the related molecular mechanisms, with an emphasis on the role of Wnt signaling in the related processes. We also discuss the role of oxidative stress, endocrine signaling and epigenetics in the regulation of Wnt signaling by BPA exposure. In summary, dysfunction of Wnt signaling plays a key role in BPA toxicity and thus can be a potential target to alleviate EDCs induced damage to organisms.

Exploring additives beyond phthalates: Release from plastic mulching films, biodegradation and occurrence in agricultural soils

It is widely recognized that applications of plastic films result in plastic pollution in agroecosystems. However, there is limited knowledge on the release and occurrence of additives beyond phthalates in agricultural soil. In this study, the rates of release and biodegradation of various additives, including phthalates, bisphenols, organophosphate esters, phenolic antioxidants, and ultraviolet absorbents from mulching films in soil were quantified by laboratory incubation. The rates of release and biodegradation ranged from 0.069 d-1 to 5.893 d-1 and from 1.43 × 10-3 d-1 to 0.600 d-1, respectively. Both of these rates were affected by temperature, flooding, and the properties of additives, films, and soils. An estimated 4000 metric tons of these additives were released into soil annually in China exclusively. The total concentrations of these additives in 80 agricultural soils varied between 228 and 3455 μg kg-1, with phenolic antioxidants, phthalates, and bisphenols accounting for 54.1%, 25.2%, and 17.9% of the total concentrations, respectively. A preliminary risk assessment suggested that the current levels of these additives could potentially present moderate hazards to the soil ecosystem.

Emerging organic contaminants in the soil-plant-receptor continuum: transport, fate, health risks, and removal mechanisms

There is a lack of comprehensive reviews tracking emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) within the soil-plant continuum using the source-pathway-receptor-impact-mitigation (SPRIM) framework. Therefore, this review examines existing literature to gain insights into the occurrence, behaviour, fate, health hazards, and strategies for mitigating EOCs within the soil-plant system. EOCs identified in the soil-plant system encompass endocrine-disrupting chemicals, surfactants, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, plasticizers, gasoline additives, flame retardants, and per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Sources of EOCs in the soil-plant system include the land application of biosolids, wastewater, and solid wastes rich in EOCs. However, less-studied sources encompass plastics and atmospheric deposition. EOCs are transported from their sources to the soil-plant system and other receptors through human activities, wind-driven processes, and hydrological pathways. The behaviour, persistence, and fate of EOCs within the soil-plant system are discussed, including sorption, degradation, phase partitioning, (bio)transformation, biouptake, translocation, and bioaccumulation in plants. Factors governing the behaviour, persistence, and fate of EOCs in the soil-plant system include pH, redox potential, texture, temperature, and soil organic matter content. The review also discusses the environmental receptors of EOCs, including their exchange with other environmental compartments (aquatic and atmospheric), and interactions with soil organisms. The ecological health risks, human exposure via inhalation of particulate matter and consumption of contaminated food, and hazards associated with various EOCs in the soil-plant system are discussed. Various mitigation measures including removal technologies of EOCs in the soil are discussed. Finally, future research directions are presented.

Nonylphenol and its derivatives: Environmental distribution, treatment strategy, management and future perspectives

In recent years, emerging pollutants, including nonylphenol (NP) and nonylphenol ethoxylate (NPE), have become a prominent topic. These substances are also classified as persistent organic pollutants. NP significantly affects the hormone secretion of organisms and exhibits neurotoxicity, which can affect the human hippocampus. Therefore, various countries are paying increased attention to NP regulation. NPEs are precursors of NPs and are widely used in the manufacture of various detergents and lubricants. NPEs can easily decompose into NPs, which possess strong biological and environmental toxicity. This review primarily addresses the distribution, toxicity mechanisms and performance, degradation technologies, management policies, and green alternative reagents of NPs and NPEs. Traditional treatment measures have been unable to completely remove NP from wastewater. With the progressively tightening management and regulatory policies, identifying proficient and convenient treatment methods and a sustainable substitute reagent with comparable product effectiveness is crucial.

Ethylene and ROS mediate root growth inhibition induced by the endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA)

Bisphenol A (BPA) functions as a detrimental substance that disrupts the endocrine system in animals while also impeding the growth and development of plants. In our previous study, we demonstrated that BPA hinders the growth of roots in Arabidopsis by diminishing cell division and elongation, which is ascribed to the increased accumulation and redistribution of auxin. Here, we examined the mediation of ROS and ethylene in BPA-induced auxin accumulation and root growth inhibition. BPA enhanced ROS levels, and ROS increased auxin contents but reduced cell division activity and the expression of EXPA8 involved in root elongation. ROS scavenger treatment reversed BPA-triggered root growth retardation, auxin accumulation, and cell division inhibition. In addition, BPA induced ethylene, and ethylene synthesis inhibitor treatment reversed BPA-triggered root growth retardation and auxin accumulation. Taken together, ROS and ethylene are involved in BPA-inhibited cell elongation and cell division by mediating auxin accumulation and redistribution.

Bisphenol A contamination in aquatic environments: a review of sources, environmental concerns, and microbial remediation

The production of polycarbonate, a high-performance transparent plastic, employs bisphenol A, which is a prominent endocrine-disrupting compound. Polycarbonates are frequently used in the manufacturing of food, bottles, storage containers for newborns, and beverage packaging materials. Global production of BPA in 2022 was estimated to be in the region of 10 million tonnes. About 65-70% of all bisphenol A is used to make polycarbonate plastics. Bisphenol A leaches from improperly disposed plastic items and enters the environment through wastewater from plastic-producing industries, contaminating, sediments, surface water, and ground water. The concentration BPA in industrial and domestic wastewater ranges from 16 to 1465 ng/L while in surface water it has been detected 170-3113 ng/L. Wastewater treatment can be highly effective at removing BPA, giving reductions of 91-98%. Regardless, the remaining 2-9% of BPA will continue through to the environment, with low levels of BPA commonly observed in surface water and sediment in the USA and Europe. The health effects of BPA have been the subject of prolonged public and scientific debate, with PubMed listing more than 17,000 scientific papers as of 2023. Bisphenol A poses environmental and health hazards in aquatic systems, affecting ecosystems and human health. While several studies have revealed its presence in aqueous streams, environmentally sound technologies should be explored for its removal from the contaminated environment. Concern is mostly related to its estrogen-like activity, although it can interact with other receptor systems as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. Present review article encompasses the updated information on sources, environmental concerns, and sustainable remediation techniques for bisphenol A removal from aquatic ecosystems, discussing gaps, constraints, and future research requirements.

Delivering on sustainable development goals in wastewater reuse for agriculture: Initial prioritization of emerging pollutants in the Tula Valley, Mexico

Wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation is a widespread beneficial practice, in line with the sustainable development goals. However, contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) present in wastewater, such as pharmaceuticals, pose an environmental risk. The Tula Valley in Mexico is one of the world's largest agricultural areas reusing wastewater for agriculture. However, no untargeted CEC monitoring has been undertaken there, limiting the information available to prioritise local environmental risk assessment. Furthermore, CEC environmental presence in the Global South remains understudied, compared to the Global North. There is a risk that current research efforts focus on CECs predominantly found in the Global North, leading to strategies that may not be appropriate for the Global South where the pollution profile may be different. To address these knowledge gaps, a sampling campaign at five key sites in the Tula Valley was undertaken and samples analysed using multi-residue targeted and untargeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methods. Using the targeted data, ten CECs were found to be of environmental risk for at least one sampling site: 4‑tert-octylphenol, acetaminophen, bezafibrate, diclofenac, erythromycin, levonorgestrel, simvastatin, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim and tramadol as well as total estrogenicity (combination of three steroid hormones). Six of these have not been previously quantified in the Tula Valley. Over one hundred pollutants never previously measured in the area were identified through untargeted analysis supported by library spectrum match. Examples include diclofenac and carbamazepine metabolites and area-specific pollutants such as the herbicide fomesafen. This research contributes to characterising the presence of CECs in the Global South, as well as providing site-specific data for the Tula Valley.

Dissemination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and metabolites from wastewater treatment plant to soils and agricultural crops via real-scale different agronomic practices

One of the most consumed pharmaceutical subgroups across the world is nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). However, the dissemination of these compounds to the natural environments through agronomic practices is a serious global problem. The hypothesis of this study is to reveal the transition of selected NSAIDs, paracetamol (PAR), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU), and naproxen (NAP) together with six main metabolites, detected in raw/treated wastewater (RWW/TWW) and sewage sludge generated in an urban wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to soils and agricultural crops (corn, barley, sunflower, and sugar beet) through two widely applied agronomic practices, irrigation with TWW and application of sewage sludge as soil amendment. In other words, the cycles of 10 NSAIDs have been evaluated by simultaneously monitoring their concentrations in RWW/TWW, sewage sludge, soils, and crops. It was determined that the parent compounds and detected metabolites were treated at quite higher removal efficiencies (93.4 - >99.9%) in the studied WWTP, while DCF was eliminated poorly (7.9-52.2%). However, although it changes seasonally for some compounds, it was determined that the concentrations of almost all investigated NSAIDs increased at the determined irrigation points in the discharge channel (DC) where agricultural irrigations were performed. Apart from that, DCF, NAP, and 2-hydroxyibuprofen (2-OH-IBU) were always detected in sewage sludge seasonally up to about 20.5, 11.3, and 3.7 ng/g, respectively. While 2-OH-IBU was determined as the dominant metabolite in RWW, TWW, and sewage sludge, the metabolite of 1-hydroxyibuprofen (1-OH-IBU) was determined as the dominant compound in soils. Although 1-OH-IBU was not detected in TWW and sewage sludge in any season, detecting this metabolite as a common compound in all investigated soils (up to 60.1 ng/kg) reveals that this compound is the primary transformation product of IBU in soils. It was observed that at least one of the metabolites of IBU (1-OH-IBU and/or 2-OH-IBU) was detected in all plants grown (up to 0.75 ng/g), especially during the periods when both agricultural practices were applied. In addition, the detection of 1-OH-IBU with increasing concentrations from root to shoots in corn grown as a result of both agronomic practices shows that this compound has a high translocation potential in the corn plant. Apart from this, it was determined that PAR was detected in corn (up to 43.3 ng/kg) and barley (up to 16.8 ng/kg) within the scope of irrigation with TWW, and NAP was detected in sugar beet (up to 11.2 ng/kg) through sewage sludge application.

Toxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) and its derivatives in divers biological models with the assessment of molecular mechanisms of toxicity

The aim of the study was to determine totoxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) and its derivatives (bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)) due to its high accumulation in environment. The performed analysis revealed the toxicity of the BPA, BPF, and BPS against Kurthia gibsoni, Microbacterium sp., and Brevundimonas diminuta as the most sensitive, reaching microbial toxic concentrations in the range of 0.018-0.031 mg ∙ L^-1. Moreover, the genotoxicity assay shows the ability of all tested compounds to increase in the β-galactosidase level at the concentration range 7.81-500 µM (in Escherichia coli, PQ37). In turn, the matbolic activation of tested bishpenols has caused the enhacement of the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity effect. Interestingely, the highest phytotoxicity effect was pointed for BPA and TBBPA at the concentrations of 10 mg ∙ L^-1 and 50 mg ∙ L^-1, which cause the inhibition of root growth by 58% and 45%, respectively (especially for S. alba and S. saccharatum). Furthermore, the cytotoxicity analyses show the ability of BPA, BPS, and TBBPA to significantly decrease the metabolic activity of human keratynoctes in vitro after 24 h of treatment at the micromolar concentrations. Simialry, the impact of the certain bisphenols on proliferation-, apoptosis-, and inflammation-related mRNA expression was shown in tested cell line. Summarizing, the presented results have proved that BPA and its derrivatives are able to show high negative effect on certain living orgnisms such as bacteria, plants, and human cells, which is strict related to pro-apoptotic and genotoxic mechanism of action.

Medical Household Waste as a Potential Environmental Hazard: An Ecological and Epidemiological Approach

Nowadays, the contamination caused by emerging pollutants is a global concern due to the lack of scientific evidence to demonstrate the risk or toxicity to humans due to the presence of pharmaceutical residues in the environment. This study aimed to identify and describe the disposal practices of unused and unwanted medications, as well as to analyze and identify the most frequent drugs determined on water bodies adjacent to the biggest urban population in Mexico. A two-phase study with an epidemiological and an ecological assessment was performed. The epidemiological phase was carried out with a descriptive cross-sectional study among citizens from Mexico City and the metropolitan area using an electronic survey applied to 719 subjects aimed to assess practices in which pharmaceutical products are disposed. The ecological phase included a review of scientific reports. The results show that nearly 83.5% of those surveyed use inappropriate practices for disposal medicines, the main ones are through the municipal dump or directly in the drain. The ecological approach was carried out by a systematic literature review of original reports published between 2013 to 2023; information about the class of drugs, active substance, environmental compartments, location, and concentration was extracted and presented. Fifty-one different types of pharmaceutical residues were detected in wastewater in Mexico City in the last decade. The results of this study can contribute to the application of public policies for waste management authorities to mitigate the socio-environmental risks due to the inappropriate disposal of medicines.

The pollution effect on the denitrifying capacity of methanogenic sludges

The denitrification process has been studied for biodegradation of some emerging contaminants (ECs). For this, anaerobic sludges from different Wastewater Treatment Plants (WTP) have been used; however, the biodegradation capacity can differ due to the contact they have had with various pollutants, given their origin. This work aims to evaluate the kinetic and metabolic capacity of two denitrifying sludges from different WTPs to biodegrade CH₃COO^--C and NO₃^--N. Denitrifying tests were carried out in batches with CH₃COO^--C (30 mg L^-1) in a CN^-1 relationship of 1.8 with sludge from a WTP of an educational center (WTP-A) and CH₃COO^--C (50 mg L^-1) to a CN^-1 of 1.4 with another from the WTP of Atotonilco de Tula, Hidalgo, México (WTP-B). The results showed that the biodegradation rate of CH₃COO^--C and NO₃^--N with the WTP-B sludge was 35 and 75% greater, respectively, compared to the WTP-A sludge. Therefore, we suggest that the consumption difference of substrate is attributable to the sludges of WTP, which have been exposed to a high concentration of a great variety of pollutants.

Groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and bisphenol A: origin, characteristics, transport, and fate - A review

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) or phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) that may harm biota and human health. Humans can be exposed to these contaminants by drinking water consumption from water sources such as groundwater. Before their presence in aquifer systems, phthalates and BPA can be found in many matrices due to anthropogenic activities, which result in long-term transport to groundwater reservoirs by different mechanisms and reaction processes. The worldwide occurrence of phthalates and BPA concentrations in groundwater have ranged from 0.1 × 10^-3 to 3 203.33 µg L^-1 and from 0.09 × 10^-3 to 228.04 µg L^-1, respectively. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and BPA from the main environmental sources to groundwater. Overall, this article provides an overview that integrates phthalate and BPA environmental cycling, from their origin to human reception via groundwater consumption. Additionally, in this review, the readers can use the information provided as a principal basis for existing policy ratification and for governments to develop legislation that may incorporate these endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) as priority contaminants. Indeed, this may trigger the enactment of regulatory guidelines and public policies that help to reduce the exposure of these EDCs in humans by drinking water consumption.

Phytoremediation potential, antioxidant response, photosynthetic behavior and rhizosphere bacterial community adaptation of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) in a bisphenol A-contaminated soil

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an emerging organic pollutant, widely distributed and frequently detected in soil in recent years. BPA toxicity is a problem that needs to be solved in terms of both human health and agricultural production. Up to now, the toxic effect of BPA and its mechanism of action on plants, as well as the possibility of using plants to remediate BPA-contaminated soil, remain to be explored. In this study, six treatment groups were set up to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of BPA on the germination and growth of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) by medium experiments. Furthermore, the representative indexes of photosynthetic and antioxidant system were determined. Meanwhile, tobacco seedlings were cultivated in soil to further explore the effects of BPA on rhizosphere soil enzyme activity and bacterial community structure with or without 100 mg/kg BPA exposure. The enhancement of BPA removal efficiency from soil by phytoremediation using tobacco plants would also be estimated. Our results showed that high doses of BPA in solid medium remarkably inhibited tobacco seedling growth, and its toxicology effect was positively correlated with BPA concentration, while lower BPA exposure (< 20 mg/L) had little limitation on tobacco growth and induced hormesis effect, which was reflected mainly in the increase of root length. In pot experiments, the reducing of chlorophyll content (36.4%) and net photosynthetic rate (41.2%) meant the inhibition of tobacco photosynthetic process due to high concentration of BPA exposure (100 mg/kg) in soil. The increase of H2O2 and O2- content suggested that BPA could destroy the balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants. However, tobacco plants still presented a high removal efficiency of BPA at the concentration of 100 mg/kg in soil, which could reach to 80% within 30 days. Furthermore, it was indicated that tobacco cultivation changed the structure of rhizosphere soil bacterial communities and the relative abundance of some valuable strains, including Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria and other strains, which might be participated in the BPA removal process. In addition, the tobacco-soil microbial system had the potential to reverse the negative effects caused by BPA through stimulating microorganism associated with soil nutrient cycling. In summary, tobacco is a competitive plant in phytoremediation of BPA-contaminated soil, though the growth of tobacco could be inhibited at high concentration of BPA. Moreover, tobacco might promote the removal efficiency of BPA by regulating the rhizosphere bacteria communities.

Occurrence of emerging organic contaminants and endocrine disruptors in different water compartments in Mexico - A review

This review compiles the studies (2007-2021) regarding the occurrence of emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) and endocrine disruptors (EDs) in wastewater, surface water and groundwater in Mexico. A total of 174 compounds were detected, including pharmaceuticals, hormones, plasticizers, personal care products, sweeteners, drugs, and pesticides considered as EDs. The levels of EOCs and EDs varied from ng/L to 140 mg/L, depending on the compound, location, and compartment. Raw wastewater was the most studied matrix, showing a greater abundance and number of detected compounds. Nevertheless, surface waters showed high concentrations of bisphenol-A, butylbenzil-phthalate, triclosan, pentachlorophenol, and the hormones estrone, 17 α-ethinylestradiol, and 17 β-estradiol, which exceeded the thresholds set by international guidelines. Concentrations of 17 α-ethinylestradiol and triclosan exceeding the above-mentioned limits were reported in groundwater. Cropland irrigation with raw wastewater was the principal activity introducing EOCs and EDs into groundwater. The groundwater abundance of EOCs was considerably lesser than that of wastewater, highlighting the attenuation capacity of soils/aquifers during wastewater infiltration. However, carbamazepine and N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide showed higher concentrations in groundwater than those in wastewater, suggesting their accumulation/concentration in soils/pore-waters. Although the contamination of water resources represents one of the most environmental concerns in Mexico, this review brings to light the lack of studies on the occurrence of EOCs in Mexican waters, which is important for public health policies and for developing legislations that incorporates EOCs as priority contaminants in national water quality guidelines. Consequently, the development of legislations will support regulatory compliance for wastewater and drinking water, reducing the human exposure.

Bisphenol A in the environment and recent advances in biodegradation by fungi

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a compound used in the manufacture of a wide variety of everyday materials that, when released into the environment, causes multiple detrimental effects on humans and other organisms. The reason for this review is to provide an overview of the presence, distribution, and concentration of BPA in water, soil, sediment, and air, as well as the process of release and migration, biomagnification, and exposure mechanisms that cause various toxic effects in humans. Therefore, it is important to seek efficient and economic strategies that allow its removal from the environment and prevent it from reaching humans through food chains. Likewise, the main removal techniques are analyzed, focusing on biological treatments, particularly the most recent advances in the degradation of BPA in different environmental matrices through the use of ligninolytic fungi, non-ligninolytic fungi and yeasts, as well as the possible routes of metabolic processes that allow their biotransformation or biodegradation due to their efficient extracellular enzyme systems. This review supports the importance of the application of new biotechnological tools for the degradation of BPA.

Meta-analysis and machine learning to explore soil-water partitioning of common pharmaceuticals

The first meta-analysis and modelling from batch-sorption literature studies of the soil/water partitioning of pharmaceuticals is presented. Analysis of the experimental conditions reported in the literature demonstrated that though batch-sorption studies have value, they are limited in evaluating partitioning under environmentally-relevant conditions. Recommendations are made to utilise environmental relevant pharmaceutical concentrations, perform batch-sorption studies at temperatures other than 4, 20 and 25 °C to better reflect climate diversity, and utilise the Guideline 106 methodology as a benchmark to enable comparison between future studies (and support modelling and prediction). The meta-dataset comprised 82 data points, which were modelled using multivariate analysis; where K_d (soil/water partitioning coefficient) was the independent variable. The dependent variables fit into three categories: 1) pharmaceutical studied (including physical-chemical properties), 2) soil characteristics and 3) experimental conditions. The pharmaceutical solubility, the soil/liquid equilibration time (prior to adding the pharmaceutical), the soil organic carbon, the soil sterilisation method and the liquid phase were found to be significantly important variables for predicting K_d.

Natural Products in Mitigation of Bisphenol A Toxicity: Future Therapeutic Use

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental toxin with deleterious endocrine-disrupting effects. It is widely used in producing epoxy resins, polycarbonate plastics, and polyvinyl chloride plastics. Human beings are regularly exposed to BPA through inhalation, ingestion, and topical absorption routes. The prevalence of BPA exposure has considerably increased over the past decades. Previous research studies have found a plethora of evidence of BPA’s harmful effects. Interestingly, even at a lower concentration, this industrial product was found to be harmful at cellular and tissue levels, affecting various body functions. A noble and possible treatment could be made plausible by using natural products (NPs). In this review, we highlight existing experimental evidence of NPs against BPA exposure-induced adverse effects, which involve the body’s reproductive, neurological, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems. The review also focuses on the targeted signaling pathways of NPs involved in BPA-induced toxicity. Although potential molecular mechanisms underlying BPA-induced toxicity have been investigated, there is currently no specific targeted treatment for BPA-induced toxicity. Hence, natural products could be considered for future therapeutic use against adverse and harmful effects of BPA exposure.

Assessment of leachable and persistent dissolved organic carbon in sludges and biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment plants

Environmental regulation of organic pollutants has not kept pace with the growth in the number and diversity of legacy and emerging organic substances now in use. Simpler and cheaper tools and methodologies are needed to quickly assess the organic pollutant risks in waste materials applied to land such as municipal wastewater treatment sludges and biosolids. This study attempts to provide these, using an approach that consists of chemical leaching and analysis of dissolved organic carbon and determination of its biodegradability by measuring persistent dissolved organic carbon. Primary and secondary sludges, dewatered sludge cake, and anaerobically and thermally treated biosolids obtained from various types of municipal wastewater treatment plants were used in the study. The study found little variability in the levels of dissolved organic carbon leached from primary sludges obtained from different municipal wastewater treatment plants but found significant differences for secondary sludges based on levels of nitrification at the municipal wastewater treatment plants. As predicted treated biosolids leached less dissolved organic carbon than untreated dry sludges but had relatively higher proportions of persistent or poorly biodegradable dissolved organic carbon. Across all tested sludges and biosolids persistent dissolved organic carbon ranged from 14 to 39%, with biosolids that have undergone anaerobic digestion and thermal treatment more likely to contain greater relative proportion of persistent dissolved organic carbon than untreated sludges. The approach presented in this study will be useful in assessing the effectiveness of current and widely employed sludge treatment methods in reducing persistent organic pollutants in biosolids disposed on land.

Exposure of preschool-aged children to highly-concerned bisphenol analogues in Nanjing, East China

Bisphenol analogues (BPs) have already attracted wide concern owing to the environmental and health risks they pose. The exposure pathways and health risk of preschool-aged children to BPs, however, are still poorly understood. In this study, we choose population survey with 184 preschool-age children from a suburb of Nanjing, eastern China, further reveal the internal and external exposures concentrations, distribution profiles, potential sources and eventually assess health risk of preschool-age children to eight kinds of BPs. The results verify that the 95th percentile (P95) concentrations of Ʃ8BPs ranged from 0.27 to 41.6 ng/mL, with a median concentration of 7.83 ng/mL in the urine samples. BPA, and BPF were the predominant BPs in urine, accounting for 67.3%, and 18.0% of Ʃ8BPs. The urine-based estimated daily intake (EDI) of Ʃ8BPs was 187 ng/kg body weight/day. Similarly, BPA, and BPF were the main BPs in the environmental exposure sources, accounting for 80.8%, and 11.7% of the total BPs. Moreover, the total external exposure dose of Ʃ8BPs via the environmental sources was 68.1 ng/kg body weight/day, including BPA (56 ng/kg body weight/day), BPF (7.68 ng/kg body weight/day) and BPB (2.62 ng/kg body weight/day). The oral intake of drinking water and food (vegetables and rice) was the main exposure pathways of BPs in preschool-age children. Furthermore, the hazard quotient (HQ) of BPs have been evaluated and the results show no occurrence of high risk. Additionally, the urine-based EDI was significantly higher than the total external exposure dose, suggesting the existence of other pathways of BP exposure to be further explored. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to conduct both an internal and external exposure assessment of BPs.

Structural Adaptive, Self-Separating Material for Removing Ibuprofen from Waters and Sewage

β-Cyclodextrin nanosponge (β-CD-M) was used for the adsorption of ibuprofen (IBU) from water and sewage. The obtained material was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH), Harkins and Jura t-Plot, zeta potential, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and elementary analysis (EA). Batch adsorption experiments were employed to investigate the effects of the adsorbent dose, initial IBU concentration, contact time, electrolyte ions and humic acids, and sewage over adsorption efficiency. The experimental isotherms were show off using Langmuir, Freundlich, Hill, Halsey and Sips isotherm models and thermodynamic analysis. The fits of the results were estimated according to the Sips isotherm, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 86.21 mg g-1. The experimental kinetics were studied by pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich, modified Freundlich, Weber Morris, Bangham's pore diffusion, and liquid film diffusion models. The performed experiments revealed that the adsorption process fits perfectly to the pseudo-second-order model. The Elovich and Freundlich models indicate chemisorption, and the kinetic adsorption model itself is complex. The data obtained throughout the study prove that this nanosponge (NS) is extremely stable, self-separating, and adjusting to the guest structure. It also represents a potential biodegradable adsorbent for the removal IBU from wastewaters.

Assessing the risk from trace organic contaminants released via greywater irrigation to the aquatic environment

Onsite non-potable reuse of greywater reduces the energy costs associated with the transport of wastewater and the stress on traditional source waters. However, greywater contains trace organic contaminants (TOrCs) that can be harmful to the aquatic environment when released via irrigation. In this work, the risk associated with TOrCs was evaluated for two potential irrigation scenarios, the use of untreated greywater and the use of greywater treated via conventional activated sludge. Risk quotient (RQ) ratios were calculated using the maximum concentration of each compound in the untreated or treated greywater divided by the relevant aquatic predicted no effect concentration. The TOrCs with RQs > 0.1 or 1 were classified as moderate and high priority, respectively. A review of greywater literature showed that a total of 350 compounds have been detected, with 132 classified as moderate or high priority in untreated greywater. Post-treatment 44 TOrCs remained as high priority due to high concentrations in greywater and/or poor removal during treatment, but only 14 of them were detected in multiple geographic locations. The final list of 14 TOrCs includes plasticizers/flame retardants (di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, bisphenol A, and triphenyl phosphate), surfactants/preservatives/fragrances (4-nonylphenol, benzyldimethyl dodecylammonium chloride, tonalide, methylparaben, and 2-6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), UV-filters (benzophenone-3 and octocrylene), and pharmaceuticals/antibiotics (acetaminophen, trimethoprim, caffeine, and triclosan). This subset of TOrCs would be useful surrogates to monitor during greywater treatment for irrigation as potential hazards for nearby aquatic environments.

Electrocoagulation Process: An Approach to Continuous Processes, Reactors Design, Pharmaceuticals Removal, and Hybrid Systems—A Review

The electrocoagulation (EC) process has been widely studied in recent years to remove a wide range of contaminants present in different types of water: fluorides, arsenic, heavy metals, organic matter, colorants, oils, and recently, pharmaceutical compounds. However, most of the studies have been aimed at understanding the process factors that have the most significant effect on efficiency, and these studies have been mainly on a batch process. Therefore, this review is focused on elucidating the current state of development of this process and the challenges it involves transferring to continuous processes and the recent exploration of its potential use in the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants and its implementation with other technologies.

Ecotoxicological risk assessment of wastewater irrigation on soil microorganisms: Fate and impact of wastewater-borne micropollutants in lettuce-soil system

The implementation of the new Water Reuse regulation in the European Union brings to the forefront the need to evaluate the risks of using wastewater for crop irrigation. Here, a two-tier ecotoxicological risk assessment was performed to evaluate the fate of wastewater-borne micropollutants in soil and their ecotoxicological impact on plants and soil microorganisms. To this end, two successive cultivation campaigns of lettuces were irrigated with wastewater (at agronomical dose (not spiked) and spiked with a mixture of 14 pharmaceuticals at 10 and 100 µg/L each) in a controlled greenhouse experiment. Over the two cultivation campaigns, an accumulation of PPCPs was observed in soil microcosms irrigated with wastewater spiked with 100 μg/L of PPCPs with the highest concentrations detected for clarithromycin, hydrochlorothiazide, citalopram, climbazole and carbamazepine. The abundance of bacterial and fungal communities remained stable over the two cultivation campaigns and was not affected by any of the irrigation regimes applied. Similarly, no changes were observed in the abundance of ammonium oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB), nor in clade A of commamox no matter the cultivation campaign or the irrigation regime considered. Only a slight increase was detected in clade B of commamox bacteria after the second cultivation campaign. Sulfamethoxazole-resistant and -degrading bacteria were not impacted either. The irrigation regimes had only a limited effect on the bacterial evenness. However, in response to wastewater irrigation the structure of soil bacterial community significantly changed the relative abundance of Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, Verrucomicrobia, Beta-, Gamma- and Deltaprotebacteria. Twenty-eight operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified as responsible for the changes observed within the bacterial communities of soils irrigated with wastewater or with water. Interestingly, the relative abundance of these OTUs was similar in soils irrigated with either spiked or non-spiked irrigation solutions. This indicates that under both agronomical and worst-case scenario the mixture of fourteen PPCPs had no effect on soil bacterial community.

Determination and occurrence of bisphenol A and thirteen structural analogs in soil

Bisphenol A is a phenolic plasticizer used in the production of various plastic products. Its endocrine-disrupting effects on ecological and human health lead to replacement with its structural analogs. The occurrence of these analogs in the soil environment, which is an important sink for bisphenols, has been rarely reported. In this study, a robust method was developed to determine bisphenol A and 13 analogs in soil using accelerated solvent extraction combined with in-line purification for fast and efficient extraction and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for simultaneous and accurate quantification. The method detection limits of 14 bisphenols were between 0.01 and 0.39 ng g^-1, and the recoveries were in the range of 80%-120%. The developed method was applied to 29 agricultural and urban soil samples from 21 provinces in China, and 12 bisphenols were detected. Among them, the contents of bisphenol A, F, and P were up to 166.0, 212.9, and 78.2 ng g^-1 dry weight, respectively. The maximum concentration of bisphenol P was at least ten times higher than literature values in food and other environmental matrices. The results of this study showed that "hot spots" existed for bisphenol pollution in soil and that further investigations were necessary to avoid regrettable substitutions.

Treated Wastewater Irrigation—A Review

As the most important resource for life, water has been a central issue on the international agenda for several decades. Yet, the world’s supply of clean freshwater is steadily decreasing due to extensive agricultural demand for irrigated lands. Therefore, water resources should be used with greater efficiency, and the use of non-traditional water resources, such as Treated Wastewater (TW), should be increased. Reusing TW could be an alternative option to increase water resources. Thus, many countries have decided to turn wastewater into an irrigation resource to help meet urban demand and address water shortages. However, because of the nature of that water, there are potential problems associated with its use in irrigation. Some of the major concerns are health hazards, salinity build-up, and toxicity hazards. The objectives of this comprehensive literature review are to illuminate the importance of using TW in irrigation as an alternative freshwater source and to assess the effects of its use on soil fertility and other soil properties, plants, and public health. The literature review reveals that TW reuse has become part of the extension program for boosting water resource utilization. However, the uncontrolled application of such waters has many unfavorable effects on both soils and plants, especially in the long-term. To reduce these unfavorable effects when using TW in irrigation, proper guidelines for wastewater reuse and management should be followed to limit negative effects significantly.

A review of antiepileptic drugs: Part 1 occurrence, fate in aquatic environments and removal during different treatment technologies

Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are the main treatment for people with epilepsy. However, in recent years, more and more people are using them for other indications such as: migraine, chronic neuropathic pain, and mood disorders. Consequently, the prescriptions and consumption of these drugs are increasing worldwide. In WWTPs, AEDs can resist degradation processes, such as photodegradation, chemical degradation and/or biodegradation. Until now, only constructed wetlands and photocatalysis have shown good removal rates of AEDs from wastewater. However, their effectiveness depends on the specific conditions used during the treatment. Since the consumption of AEDs has increased in the last decade and their degradation in WWTPs is poor, these drugs have been largely introduced into the environment through the discharge of municipal and/or hospital effluents. Once in the environment, AEDs are distributed in the water phase, as suspended particles or in the sediments, suggesting that these drugs have a high potential for groundwater contamination. In this first part of the AEDs review is designed to fill out the current knowledge gap about the occurrence, fate and removal of these drugs in the aquatic environment. This is a review that emphasizes the characteristics of AEDs as emerging contaminants.

Phenols in soils and agricultural products irrigated with reclaimed water

The presence of phenols, such as nonylphenol (NP), bisphenol (BPA), and octylphenol (OP), in the environment have been receiving increased attention due to their potential risks to human health and environment. The use of reclaimed water for irrigation may be one of the sources of these phenols in the agricultural system. A field experiment was conducted to assess the effects of reclaimed water irrigation on phenol contamination of agricultural topsoil and products in the North China Plain between 2015 and 2016. Three irrigation treatments were applied to all crops: reclaimed water irrigation, groundwater irrigation and alternative irrigation with reclaimed water and groundwater (1:1, v/v). The results showed that the concentrations of NP, BPA, and OP in the topsoil were 0.02-0.54, 0.004-0.06, and ND-9.9 × 10^-3 mg/kg, respectively; the corresponding values in agricultural products were 0.007-0.70, 0.004-0.24, and ND-1.08 mg/kg, respectively. The concentration of NP in the topsoil and agricultural products and that of BPA in the agricultural products were all less than the recommended limits. The yields of wheat, maize, vegetables were 4.35-7.08, 1.03-6.46, and 10.9-67.0 t/ha, respectively. The bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) of OP, NP, and BPA for cereals were 0.7-4.77, 0.16-4.59, and 1.3-23.9, respectively; the corresponding values in vegetables were 0.0-4.53 (except cucumber and eggplant), 0.38-12.6, and 0.57-24.3, respectively. No significant differences in phenol concentrations, BCFs, or yields of wheat and vegetables were observed among the three irrigation treatments. In conclusion, compared with groundwater irrigation, reclaimed water irrigation in this experiment did not significantly affect phenol concentrations in the topsoil and agricultural products as well as BCFs and yields of wheat and vegetables. However, because the quality of reclaimed water may vary across collected areas, additional experiments are warranted to analyze the effects of reclaimed water irrigation on the risk of phenol contamination.

Biodegradation kinetics of individual and mixture non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in an agricultural soil receiving alkaline treated biosolids

Land application of biosolids is one potential source of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) into agricultural soils. Degradation is an important natural attenuation pathway that affects the fate and transport of PPCPs in the soil system and biosolids application could alter the process. The present study assessed the effect of individual and mixture compound environments on the biodegradation rate and half-life of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), naproxen (NPX), ibuprofen (IBF), and ketoprofen (KTF), in a loamy sand textured agricultural soil receiving an alkaline treated biosolid (ATB) amendment. A prolonged half-life of the target NSAIDs was determined for sterile soils and shorter half-lives in unsterile soils, indicating the loss of target compounds in all treatments was mainly attributed to biodegradation and followed first-order kinetics. IBF and NPX showed low to moderate persistence in soil and ATB amended soil, with half-lives ranging from 4.9 to 14.8 days, while KTF appeared to be highly persistent with an average half-life of 33 days. The order in which the target NSAIDs disappeared in both soil and ATB amended soil was: IBF > NPX > KTF, for both individual and mixture compound treatments. Soils that received the ATB amendment demonstrated inhibited degradation of NPX in all treatments, as well as IBF and KTF in individual compound treatment over the 14-day incubation study. We also observed an inhibition effect from the ATB amendment in sterile soil treatments. In mixture compound treatments, IBF degradation was inhibited in both soil and ATB amended soil. The degradation rate of KTF in mixture compound environment in soil was lower, while the opposite effects were observed in ATB amended soils. For NPX, the degradation was enhanced in mixture compound environment in ATB amended soil, while the same degradation rate of NPX was calculated in soil.

Pharmaceuticals as emerging contaminants in the aquatic environment of Latin America: a review

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) are environmentally ubiquitous around the world, and the countries of Latin America (LATAM) are not the exception; however there is still little knowledge of the magnitude and conditions of their occurrence in LATAM and of the environmental consequences of their presence. The present work reviews 79 documents published from 2007 to 2019 on the occurrence, concentrations, and sources of PhACs and hormones in surface water (SW), wastewater (WW), and treated wastewater (TWW) in LATAM and on the circumstances of their release to the environment. Research efforts are reported in only ten countries and confirm the presence of 159 PhACs, mainly analgesics and anti-inflammatories, although extraordinarily high concentrations of carbamazepine (830 μg/L) and ethinylestradiol (6.8 μg/L) were found in Ecuador and Brazil, respectively. The analysis of maximum concentrations and the ecotoxicological risk assessment corroborate that (1) these values exceed the environmental concentrations found in other parts of the world, (2) the environmental risk posed by these concentrations is remarkably high, and (3) there is no statistically significant difference between the maximum concentrations found in WW and those found in TWW. The main source of PhACs in LATAM's aquatic environment is WW; hence, these countries should direct substantial efforts to develop efficient and cost-effective treatment technologies and plan and apply WW management strategies and regulations. This analysis presents the current states of occurrence, concentrations, and sources of PhACs in the aquatic environment of LATAM and outlines the magnitude of the environmental problem in that part of the world.

Trace organic contaminants in field-scale cultivated alfalfa, soil, and pore water after 10 years of irrigation with reclaimed wastewater

Several studies have assessed the presence of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) in reclaimed wastewater and their uptake into crops but there are limited data from field-scale studies. In this research, we studied the fate of 12 TrOCs in wastewater samples, 11 in plants and in soil pore water, and 10 in soil at an agricultural research farm, which was irrigated with reclaimed wastewater for more than 10 years. First, we examined the presence of the compounds in the primary, secondary, and treated effluent of a regional water reclamation facility which provides the irrigation water. The agricultural field produced alfalfa, and we measured the contaminants in the alfalfa, soil, and pore water. Reclaimed wastewater contained 11 of 12 TrOCs, with concentrations ranging from 26 ± 9 ng/L (DEET) to 1539 ± 1899 ng/L (trimethoprim). Atrazine was not detected. Pore water collected during non-irrigating periods contained all analyzed TrOCs, from 3 ± 0.1 ng/L (diphenhydramine) to 343 ± 360 ng/L (primidone). TrOCs measured in pore water samples indicated that they may leach to shallow groundwater even when fields are not being irrigated. Soils from 0 to 60 cm contained nine TrOCs from below the reporting limit (fluoxetine) to 329 ng/g (carbamazepine). Atrazine was not detected. TrOC concentrations decreased with increasing soil depth, except carbamazepine, which was more recalcitrant. Nine TrOCs were present in the shoots and leaves of alfalfa grown in the reclaimed wastewater irrigated plots, at concentrations ranging from <1 ng/g (diphenhydramine and fluoxetine) to 49 ng/g dry weight (carbamazepine). Atrazine and caffeine were not detected. We estimated that a maximum of 14% of DEET from the reclaimed wastewater was accumulated in alfalfa. Overall, despite some accumulation of TrOCs in the soil, alfalfa uptake was limited, which results in low exposure to foraging animals.

High-throughput multi-residue quantification of contaminants of emerging concern in wastewaters enabled using direct injection liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid quantitative method for 135 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in untreated wastewater enabled with direct injection liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry is presented. All compounds were analysed within 5 min on a short biphenyl cartridge using only 10 μL of filtered sample per injection. Up to 76 compounds were monitored simultaneously during the gradient (including mostly two transitions per compound and stable isotope-labelled analogues) while yielding >10 data points per peak. Evaluation of seven solid phase extraction sorbents showed no advantage for wastewater matrix removal. Excellent linearity, range, accuracy and precision was achieved for most compounds. Matrix effects were <11 % and detection limits were <30 ng L^-1 on average. Application to untreated wastewater samples from three wastewater treatment works in the UK, USA and Mexico, enabled quantification of 56 compounds. Banned and EU 'watch-list' substances are critically discussed, including pesticides, macrolide antibiotics, diclofenac, illicit drugs as well as multiple pharmaceuticals and biocides. This high-throughput method sets a new standard for the speedy and confident determination of over a hundred CECs in wastewater at the part-per-trillion level, as demonstrated by performing over 260 injections per day.

Ibuprofen as an emerging organic contaminant in environment, distribution and remediation

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are the one of sub-class under emerging organic contaminants (EOCs). Ibuprofen is the world's third most consumable drug. This drug enters into our water system through human pharmaceutical use. It attracts the attention of environmentalist on the basis of risk associated, presence and transformation in the environment. The detection and removal are the two key area where we need to focus. The concentration of such compounds in waterbodies detected through conventional and also by the advanced methods. This review we described the available technologies including chemical, physical and biological methods, etc used the for removal of Ibuprofen. The pure culture based method, mixed culture approach and activated sludge culture approach focused and pathway of degradation of ibuprofen was deciphered by using the various methods of structure determination. The various degradation methods used for Ibuprofen are discussed. The advanced methods coupled with physical, chemical, biological, chemical methods like ozonolysis, oxidation and adsorption, nanotechnology based methods, nanocatalysis and use of nonosensors to detect the presence of small amount in waterbodies can enhance the future degradation of this drug. It is necessary to develop the new detection methods to enhance the detection of such pollutants. With the developments in new detection methods based on GC-MS//MS, HPLC, LC/MS and nanotechnology based sensors makes easier detection of these compounds which can detect even very minute amount with great sensitivity and in less time. Also, the isolation and characterization of more potent microbial strains and nano-photocatalysis will significantly increase the future degradation of such harmful compounds from the environment.

Responsible Water Reuse Needs an Interdisciplinary Approach to Balance Risks and Benefits

Freshwater is a precious resource, and shortages can lead to water stress, impacting agriculture, industry, and other sectors. Wastewater reuse is increasingly considered as an opportunity to meet the freshwater demand. Legislative frameworks are under development to support the responsible reuse of wastewater, i.e., to balance benefits and risks. In an evaluation of the proposed European regulation for water reuse, we concluded that the proposed regulation is not practically feasible, as the water provider alone is responsible for the risk assessment and management, even beyond their span of control. The required knowledge and resources are extensive. Therefore, without clear guidance for implementation, the regulation would hinder implementation of reuse programs. As a consequence, the current practice of uncontrolled, unintentional, and indirect reuse continues, including related risks and inefficiency. Therefore, we provide an outline of the interdisciplinary approach required to design and achieve safe, responsible water reuse. Responsible water reuse requires knowledge of water demand and availability, quality and health, technology, and governance for the various types of application. Through this paper we want to provide a starting point for an interdisciplinary agenda to compile and generate knowledge (databases), approaches, guidelines, case examples, codes of practice, and legislation to help bring responsible water reuse into practice.

Ultrasonic Followed by Solid Phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography-Photodiode Array for Determination of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Sediment and Soil

This work reports on the method optimization and application for quantitative analysis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and anti-epileptic drug in soil and sediment samples. The analytes were extracted by ultrasonic extraction followed by solid phase extraction and quantified using liquid chromatographic coupled with photodiode array. The sensitivity of the method was determined based on the limit of detection and the limit of quantification which ranged between (0.010-0.027 µg/kg) and (0.025-0.049 µg/kg), respectively. The %recoveries of the method ranged between 74% and 112%. The concentrations obtained in real samples ranged from 0.055 to 0.426 µg/kg in sediment and 0.044-0.567 µg/kg in soil samples. The highest concentration was found for diclofenac in soil samples.

Comparison of the regulatory outline of ecopharmacovigilance of pharmaceuticals in Europe, USA, Japan and Australia

Pharmaceuticals are known to improve the quality of life by curing and preventing diseases. However, these pharmaceutical products, when it diffuses through the environment by various routes, can cause severe harmful effects to the living organisms. During the last several years, the coping with the impact of pharmaceuticals on the environment was one of the challenging tasks for the pharmaceutical industries. These concerns about the environmental health and safety risks paved the way in developing a proper regulatory framework for environmental risk assessment of pharmaceutical products. In the US, EU, and Canada, most improvements have been made in the regulation of Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) for pharmaceuticals. Many countries and organizations like the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), had adapted these ERA procedures to fulfil the purpose. At present, there are no specific guidelines for ERA of pharmaceuticals in Japan, Australia and many other countries. Nevertheless, it is expected that they will have strict regulations and legal requirements in the future. The purpose of this study is to understand and compare the ERA regulation in Europe, USA, Japan and Australia. In this review, we have summarized the knowledge on ERA of pharmaceuticals and its consequences on the environment. It is therefore necessary to establish an eco-pharmacovigilance system for monitoring and collection of data, which would eradicate the risk of pharmaceuticals entering into the surroundings.

Risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in the context of wastewater reuse for irrigation: An integrated modelling approach

Direct reuse of reclaimed wastewater (RWW) in agriculture has recently received increasing attention as a possible solution to water scarcity. The presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in RWW can be critical, as these chemicals can be uptaken in irrigated crops and eventually ingested during food consumption. In the present study, an integrated model was developed to predict the fate of CECs in water reuse systems where RWW is used for edible crops irrigation. The model was applied to a case study where RWW (originating from a municipal wastewater treatment plant) is discharged into a water channel, with subsequent irrigation of silage maize, rice, wheat and ryegrass. Environmental and human health risks were assessed for 13 CECs, selected based on their chemical and hazard characteristics. Predicted CEC concentrations in the channel showed good agreement with available measurements, indicating potential ecotoxicity of some CECs (estrogens and biocides) due to their limited attenuation. Plant uptake predictions were in good agreement with existing literature data, indicating higher uptake in leaves and roots than fruits. Notably, high uncertainties were shown for weakly acidic CECs, possibly due to degradation in soil and pH variations inside plants. The human health risk due to the ingestion of wheat and rice was assessed using the threshold of toxicological concern and the hazard quotient. Both approaches predicted negligible risk for most CECs, while sulfamethoxazole and 17α-ethinylestradiol exhibited the highest risk for consumers. Alternative scenarios were evaluated to identify possible risk minimization strategies (e.g., adoption of a more efficient irrigation system).

Survival and malformation rate in oocytes and larvae of Cyprinus carpio by exposure to an industrial effluent

Pharmaceuticals are used for the prevention or treatment of diseases, and due to their manufacturing process they are continuously released to water bodies. One of the pharmacological groups detected in aquatic environments is non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) at trace concentrations. This study evaluated the survival and malformation rate in oocytes and larvae of Cyprinus carpio (C. carpio) after exposure to different proportions of an industrial effluent. Initially, the industrial effluent was sampled from an NSAID manufacturing plant located in the city of Toluca, State of Mexico, subsequently the physicochemical characterization and determination of the concentration of chemical compounds present were carried out. On the other hand, the lethal concentration 50 (LC50) and the effective concentration 50 (EC50) were calculated to determine the teratogenic index (TI), as well as the alterations to the embryonic development and the teratogenic effects on oocytes and larvae of C. carpio at the following proportions of the industrial effluent: 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9 and 1.1%, following the Test Guideline 236, which describes a Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity test, the exposure times were 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h post-fertilization. The contaminants detected were NaClO (2.6 mg L^-1) and NSAIDs such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen and paracetamol in the range of 1.09-2.68 mg L^-1. In this study the LC50 was 0.275%, the EC50 0.133% and the TI 2.068. Several malformations were observed in all proportions of the industrial effluent evaluated, however the most severe such as spina bifida and paravertebral hemorrhage were observed at the highest effluent proportion. The industrial effluent evaluated in this study represents a risk for organisms that are in contact with it, since it contains chemical compounds that induce embryotoxic and teratogenic effects as observed in oocytes and larvae of C. carpio.

Emerging contaminants and antibiotic resistance in the different environmental matrices of Latin America

This review aims to gather and summarize information about the occurrence of emerging contaminants and antibiotic resistance genes in environmental matrices in Latin America. We aim to contribute to future research by compiling a list of priority pollutants adjusted to the needs and characteristics of Latin America, according to the data presented in this study. In order to perform a comprehensive research and secure a representative and unbiased amount of quality data concerning emerging contaminants in Latin America, the research was performed within the Scopus® database in a time frame from 2000 to July 2019. The countries with higher numbers of published articles were Brazil and México, while most studies were performed in the surroundings of Mexico City and in Southern and Southeastern Brazil. The main investigated environmental matrices were drinking water and surface water. The presence of antibiotic resistance was frequently reported, mainly in Brazil. Monitoring efforts should be performed in other countries in Latin America, as well as in other regions of Brazil and México. The suggested priority list for monitoring of emerging contaminants in Latin America covers: di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), bisphenol-A (BP-A), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), triclosan (TCS), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), ethinylestradiol (EE2), tetracycline (TC), amoxicillin (AMOX), norfloxacin (NOR), ampicillin (AMP) and imipenem (IMP). We hope this list serves as a basis for the orientation of the future research and monitoring projects to better understand the distribution and concentration of the listed emerging substances.

Adsorption of 17β-estradiol onto humic-mineral complexes and effects of temperature, pH, and bisphenol A on the adsorption process

The long-term use of animal manure in agriculture has resulted in estrogen pollution, which poses risks to facility vegetable soils. Owing to the complex soil composition, estrogen may exhibit a variety of behaviors at the water/soil interface. This study demonstrated the role of humic acid (HA) on the 17β-estradiol (E2) adsorption by clay minerals (montmorillonite, kaolinite, and hematite). The interfacial behaviors were investigated using adsorption kinetics and isotherms data. Then, the effects of temperature, pH, and bisphenol A (BPA) on the interactions between humic-mineral complexes and E2 were explored. The adsorption of E2 is an exothermic and spontaneous process, and the addition of HA to minerals significantly promoted their E2 adsorption capacities. Higher pH levels (>10) and the presence of BPA decreased the adsorption capacities of minerals and mineral complexes for E2. Moreover, intercalation, hydrophobic partitioning, π-π interactions and hydrogen bonding could dominate the E2 adsorption onto complexes. These results provided insight into the interfacial behaviors of E2 on the surfaces of humic-mineral complexes and promoted the understanding of the migration and transport of estrogens in soils.

Physiological response of crop plants to the endocrine-disrupting chemical nonylphenol in the soil environment

Nonylphenols are endocrine-disrupting chemicals that are used in various industries and are constantly discharged into the terrestrial environment. However, there have been few studies on the phytotoxicity of this chemical in the soil environment. In this study, mung bean (Vigna radiata) and rice (Oryza sativa) were grown in soil containing nonylphenol for 14 and 21 days (reflecting acute and chronic exposure, respectively), and we evaluated physiological responses (chlorophyll content, photosynthetic activity, and stomatal opening size) as well as changes in plant growth (shoot growth and root development) in crop plants grown in soil containing nonylphenol. In mung bean, chlorophyll content and stomata size decreased by exposure to nonylphenol. The decrease in chlorophyll content was attributed to electrolyte leakage due to damage of membrane barrier with increase of cell permeability caused by nonylphenol. Moreover, necrosis of the leaves of mung bean was observed at 2000 mg/kg soil. In rice, shoot growth, chlorophyll content and root development were reduced by chronic exposure to nonylphenol at 2000 mg/kg. Although the exposure concentrations were higher and nonylphenols are non-persistent, their constant release into soil poses a risk to terrestrial ecosystems. Our findings provide information that can be useful for soil ecological risk assessment for nonylphenol in agricultural practices.

Individual and mixture toxicity evaluation of three pharmaceuticals to the germination and growth of Lactuca sativa seeds

This work aims to assess, individually and in mixtures, possible phytotoxic effects of three pharmaceuticals (paracetamol, ibuprofen and amoxicillin) on germination and early growth of Lactuca sativa seeds. Pharmaceuticals are an important group of emerging contaminants, whose presence has been described in several environmental compartments, including soils. However, knowledge on their possible impact in terrestrial organisms is still sparse and even more when mixtures are considered. Germination tests are important to evaluate the quality of soil and the toxic effects that contaminants can pose to plants. The acute effects of individual pharmaceuticals as well as binary and ternary mixtures were assessed using different endpoints, namely: percentage of seed germination, root elongation, shoot and leaf length, after an exposure time of five days. Overall, in the exposure of L. sativa seeds to individual pharmaceuticals there are indications of acute toxicity in the early plant growth. However, this inhibitory effect tends to be cancelled in the acute exposure to mixtures. This study shows the importance of evaluating the toxicity of mixtures of pharmaceuticals, since they might have distinct toxic effects when compared to the single compounds, and also because, probably, it is the closest scenario to the reality that can be found in the environment.

Prioritization Approaches for Substances of Emerging Concern in Groundwater: A Critical Review

Risks from emerging contaminants (ECs) in groundwater to human health and aquatic ecology remain difficult to quantify. The number of ECs potentially found in groundwater presents challenges for regulators and water managers regarding selection for monitoring. This study is the first systematic review of prioritization approaches for selecting ECs that may pose a risk in groundwater. Online databases were searched for prioritization approaches relating to ECs in the aquatic environment using standardized key word search combinations. From a total of 672, 33 studies met the eligibility criteria based primarily on the relevance to prioritizing ECs in groundwater. The review revealed the lack of a groundwater specific contaminant prioritization methodology in spite of widely recognized differences between groundwater and surface water environments with regard to pathways to receptors. The findings highlight a lack of adequate evaluation of methodologies for predicting the likelihood of an EC entering groundwater and knowledge gaps regarding the occurrence and fate of ECs in this environment. The review concludes with a proposal for a prioritization framework for ECs in groundwater monitoring that enables priority lists to be updated as new information becomes available for substances with regard to their usage, physicochemical properties, and hazards.

Algal-based removal strategies for hazardous contaminants from the environment - A review

Owing to the controlled or uncontrolled industrial wastewater disposal, pharmaceutical-based hazardous emerging contaminants (ECs) can be found in the environment all over the world. With ever-increasing socioeconomic aspects and environmental awareness, people are now more concerns about the widespread occurrences of hazardous and persistent contaminants, around the globe. In this context, several studies have already shown that various types of emerging and/or re-emerging contaminants, regardless the source, type and concentration, are of supreme threat to the living system of flora and fauna. Recently, algae-based bioreactors have gained special research interest as a promising way to remove pharmaceuticals-based ECs from the wastewater either partially or completely. This paper covers the progress on the removal of selected pharmaceuticals using bioreactors. In laboratory scale studies, high removal percentages have been reached for most selected pharmaceuticals, but data on full-scale bioreactors is limited. In this paper, two types of bioreactors are discussed, i.e., (1) open pond and (2) bubble column photobioreactor, which are considered sustainable and an effective alternative to remove ECs. In these bioreactors, high removal percentages (>90%) have been found for metoprolol, triclosan, and salicylic acid, moderate (50-90%) for carbamazepine and tramadol and very low (<10%) for trimethoprim and ciprofloxacin by inoculating different microalgae. This technique may open new opportunities for the treatment of wastewater and reduce the environmental pollution that can have adverse effects on the ecosystem and human health. In summary, the present review focuses on the microalgae for wastewater remediation. An effort has also been made to describe the generalities of the photobioreactor.

Emerging investigator series: towards a framework for establishing the impacts of pharmaceuticals in wastewater irrigation systems on agro-ecosystems and human health

Use of reclaimed wastewater for agricultural irrigation is seen as an attractive option to meet agricultural water demands of a growing number of countries suffering from water scarcity. However, reclaimed wastewater contains pollutants which are introduced to the agro-environment during the irrigation process. While water reuse guidelines do consider selected classes of pollutants, they do not account for the presence of pollutants of emerging concern such as pharmaceuticals and the potential risks these may pose. Here we use source-pathway-receptor analysis (S-P-R) to develop a holistic framework for evaluating the impacts of pharmaceuticals, present in wastewater used for agricultural irrigation, on human and ecosystem health and evaluate the data availability for the framework components. The developed framework comprised of 34 processes and compartments but a good level of knowledge was available for only five of these suggesting that currently it is not possible to fully establish the impacts of pharmaceuticals in wastewater irrigation systems. To address this, work is urgently needed to understand the fate and transport of pharmaceuticals in arable soil systems and the effects of chronic low-level exposure to these substances on microbes, invertebrates, plants, wildlife and humans. In addition, research pertaining to the fate, uptake and effects of pharmaceutical mixtures and metabolites is lacking as well as data on bio-accessibility of pharmaceuticals after ingestion. Scientific advancements in the five areas prioritised in terms of future research are needed before we are able to fully quantify the agricultural and human health risks associated with reclaimed wastewater use.

Carbamazepine, triclocarban and triclosan biodegradation and the phylotypes and functional genes associated with xenobiotic degradation in four agricultural soils

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are released into the environment due to their poor removal during wastewater treatment. Agricultural soils subject to irrigation with wastewater effluent and biosolids application are possible reservoirs for these chemicals. This study examined the impact of the pharmaceutical carbamazepine (CBZ), and the antimicrobial agents triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS) on four soil microbial communities using shotgun sequencing (HiSeq Illumina) with the overall aim of determining possible degraders as well as the functional genes related to general xenobiotic degradation. The biodegradation of CBZ and TCC was slow, with ≤50% decrease during the 80-day incubation period. In contrast, TCS biodegradation was rapid, with ~80% removal in 25 days. For each chemical, when all four soils were considered together, between three and ten phylotypes (from multiple phyla) were more abundant in the soil samples compared to the live controls. The genera of a number of previously reported CBZ, TCC or TCS degrading isolates were present; Rhodococcus (CBZ), Streptomyces (CBZ), Pseudomonas (CBZ, TCC, TCS), Sphingomonas (TCC, TCS), Methylobacillus (TCS) and Stenotrophomonas (TCS) were among the most abundant (chemical previously reported to be degraded is shown in parenthesis). From the analysis of xenobiotic degrading pathways, genes from five KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) Orthology pathways were the most dominant, including those associated with aminobenzoate, benzoate (most common), chlorocyclohexane/chlorobenzene, dioxin and nitrotoluene biodegradation. Several phylotypes including Bradyrhizobium, Mycobacterium, Rhodopseudomonas, Pseudomonas, Cupriavidus, and Streptomyces were common genera associated with these pathways. Overall, the data suggest several phylotypes are likely involved in the biodegradation of these PPCPs with Pseudomonas being an important genus.