Physiological responses and changes in gene expression in the large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea following exposure to hypoxia

Long-term hypoxia-induced physiological response in turbot Scophthalmus maximus L

Hypoxia affects fish's survival, growth, and physiological metabolism processes. In this study, turbot plasma glucose and cortisol contents, hepatic glycolysis (hexokinase [HK], phosphofructokinase [PFK], pyruvate kinase [PK]) and lipolysis (fatty acid synthetase [FAS], lipoprotein lipase [LPL]) enzyme activities, anti-oxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase [CAT], glutathione peroxidase [GSH-Px]) activities, malondialdehyde (MDA), lactate and glycogen contents, gill histological parameters (lamellar length [SLL], width [SLW], interlamellar distance [ID]), respiratory frequency (RF), the proportion of the secondary lamellae available for gas exchange (PAGE), and hifs (hif-1α, hif-2α, hif-3α) expression were determined during long-term hypoxia and reoxygenation. Results showed that long-term hypoxia (3.34 ± 0.17 mg L-1) significantly elevated plasma cortisol and glucose contents; increased hepatic HK, PK, PFK, FAS, and LPL activity; decreased hepatic glycogen, lactate contents, and lipid drop numbers; and caused changes of hepatocyte (vacuolation, pyknotic, and lytic nucleus) after treatment for 4 weeks. Hepatic SOD, CAT, GSH-Px activity, and MDA contents; lamellar perimeter, SLL, ID, RF, and PAGE; and hepatic hif-1α, hif-2α, and hif-3α manifested similar results. Meanwhile, hif-1α is significantly higher than hif-2α, and hif-3α. Interestingly, females and males demonstrated no sex dimorphism significantly different from the above parameters (except hepatic FAS, LPL activity, and lipid drop number) under hypoxia. The above parameters recovered to normal levels after reoxygenation treatment for 4 weeks. Thus, long-term hypoxia promotes turbot hepatic glycogenolysis and lipolysis, induces oxidative damage and stimulates hepatic antioxidant capacity, and alters gill morphology to satisfy insufficient energy demand and alleviate potential damage, while hif-1α plays critical roles in the above physiological process.

Chronic hypoxia drives the occurrence of ferroptosis in liver of fat greening (Hexagrammos otakii) by activating HIF-1α and promoting iron production

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia caused by global climate change and human activities has become a growing concern eliciting serious effect and damages to aquatic animals. Hexagrammos otakii is usually a victim of hypoxia which caused by high density aquaculture and high nutrient input. The mechanism underlying ferroptosis regulation after hypoxia-stress in liver of H. otakii, however, remains elusive.

METHODS

For a duration of 15 days, expose the H. otakii to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (3.4 ± 0.2 mg/L). Detecting alterations in the H. otakii liver tissue by chemical staining, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy. The expression variations of relevant genes in the liver of the H. otakii were simultaneously detected using Western blot and qPCR. A correlation analysis was performed between HIF-1α and iron ion expression in the liver of H. otakii following hypoxic stress.

RESULTS

In this study, we conducted the whole ferroptosis integrated analysis of H. otakii under chronic hypoxic condition. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly accumulated under the hypoxia treatment (Superoxide Dismutase, SOD; Catalase, CAT), and which results in a significantly enhanced of lipid peroxidation (Lipid Peroxidation, LPO; Malondialdehyde, MDA; Aminotransferase, AST; Alanine aminotransferase, ALT) in liver tissue. The HIF-1α signaling is activated to cope with the hypoxia stress through strategies including changing iron ion concentration (Fe3+ and TFR1) to breaking the oxidation balance (GSH and GSH-Px), and enhancing ferroptosis gene expression (GPX4). The expression of genes related to ferroptosis pathway (DMT1, FTH1, STEAP3, ACSL4, γ-GCS, SLC7A11) is significantly upregulated and associated to the expression of iron and HIF-1α.

CONCLUSIONS

It is demonstrated that the HIF-1α/Fe3+/ROS/GPX4 axis is involved in promoting ferroptosis in fat greening hepatocytes following hypoxia-stress. Ultimately, our findings unveil a process by which hypoxic stress strongly encourages ferroptosis by triggering HIF-1α and boosting iron synthesis.

Diverse responses of hypoxia-inducible factor alpha mRNA abundance in fish exposed to low oxygen: the importance of reporting methods

Low dissolved oxygen (hypoxia) poses significant challenges to aquatic ecosystems, affecting the behavior, reproduction, and survival of aquatic organisms. Some fishes respond to hypoxia by changes in gene expression, which may be regulated by the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) family of transcription factors. HIF abundance and activity depends upon the post-translational modification of the alpha protein subunit, although several studies indicate that HIFA mRNA abundance increases in tissues of fishes exposed to hypoxia. This study reviewed reports of laboratory exposures of adult ray-finned fishes to hypoxia and used generalized linear mixed effects models to examine the influence of HIFA gene, tissue sampled, and exposure conditions in explaining the diversity of responses seen in HIFA mRNA abundance. The frequency of hypoxia-induced increases in HIFA mRNA was poorly explained by gene, tissue, or the severity of the hypoxic exposure. Rather, the frequency of reported increases was strongly related to the extent to which studies adhered to guidelines for documenting quantitative real-time PCR methods: the frequency of hypoxia-induced increases in HIFA mRNA decreased sharply in studies with more thorough description of experimental design. Future research should (a) adhere to stringent reporting of experimental design, (b) address the relative paucity of data on HIF2A and HIF3A, and (c) determine levels of HIF alpha protein subunits. By following these recommendations, it is hoped that a more complete understanding will be gained of the role of the HIF family of transcription factors in the response of fish to hypoxia.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α promotes macrophage functional activities in protecting hypoxia-tolerant large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) against Aeromonas hydrophila infection

The immune system requires a high energy expenditure to resist pathogen invasion. Macrophages undergo metabolic reprogramming to meet these energy requirements and immunologic activity and polarize to M1-type macrophages. Understanding the metabolic pathway switching in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) macrophages in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation and whether this switching affects immunity is helpful in explaining the stronger immunity of hypoxia-tolerant L. crocea. In this study, transcript levels of glycolytic pathway genes (Glut1 and Pdk1), mRNA levels or enzyme activities of glycolytic enzymes [hexokinase (HK), phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA)], aerobic respiratory enzymes [pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), and succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)], metabolites [lactic acid (LA) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)], levels of bactericidal products [reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO)], and transcripts and level changes of inflammatory factors [IL1β, TNFα, and interferon (IFN) γ] were detected in LPS-stimulated L. crocea head kidney macrophages. We showed that glycolysis was significantly induced, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle was inhibited, and metabolic reprogramming occurred, showing the Warburg effect when immune cells were activated. To determine the potential regulatory mechanism behind these changes, LcHIF-1α was detected and found to be significantly induced and transferred to the nucleus after LPS stimulation. LcHif-1α interference led to a significant reduction in glycolytic pathway gene transcript expression, enzyme activity, metabolites, bactericidal substances, and inflammatory factor levels; a significant increase in the aerobic respiration enzymes; and decreased migration, invasion, and phagocytosis. Further ultrastructural observation by electron microscopy showed that fewer microspheres contained phagocytes and that more cells were damaged after LcHif-1α interference. LcHif-1α overexpression L. crocea head kidney macrophages showed the opposite trend, and promoter activities of Ldha and Il1β were significantly enhanced after LcHif-1α overexpression in HEK293T cells. Our data showed that LcHIF-1α acted as a metabolic switch in L. crocea macrophages and was important in polarization. Hypoxia-tolerant L. crocea head kidney showed a stronger Warburg effect and inhibited the TCA cycle, higher metabolites, and bactericidal substance levels. These results collectively revealed that LcHif-1α may promote the functional activities of head kidney macrophages in protecting hypoxia-tolerant L. crocea from Aeromonas hydrophila infection.

Comparative transcriptomics combined with physiological and functional analysis reveals the regulatory mechanism of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) under acute hypoxia stress

Hypoxia, largely triggered by global warming and water contamination, has become an environmental issue of great concern, posing a great threat to aquatic ecosystem. As one of the world's most economically important fish, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is extremely intolerant of hypoxic environments, however, little is known about the roles of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the response of rainbow trout to hypoxia stress. Herein, effects of moderate (Tm12L) and severe hypoxia for 12 h (Ts12L) and 12 h reoxygenation on histology, biochemical parameters (antioxidant, metabolism and immunity) and transcriptome (lncRNA, miRNA and mRNA) in rainbow trout liver were investigated. We further validated the regulatory relationships between LOC110519952, novel-m0023-5p and glut1a via dual‑luciferase reporter, overexpression and silencing assays. Compared with Tm12L, the liver in Ts12L showed more severe oxidative damage. Anaerobic, lipid and protein metabolism was enhanced under hypoxia stress, especially in Ts12L. We also found that Tm12L could strengthen innate immune response, which was inhibited in Ts12L. Besides, several hypoxia-related genes (glut1a, vegfaa, hmox, epoa, foxo1a and igfbp1) and ceRNA networks were identified from 1824, 427 and 545 differentially expressed mRNAs, miRNAs and lncRNAs, including LOC118965299-novel-m0179-3p-epoa, LOC110519952-novel-m0023-5p-glut1a, MSTRG.7382.2-miR-184-y-hmox and LOC110520012-miR-206-y-vegfaa. Through in vitro and in vivo functional analysis, we demonstrated that glut1a is a target of novel-m0023-5p, and LOC110519952 can positively regulate glut1a by targeting novel-m0023-5p. Introduction of LOC110519952 could attenuate the promoting effects of novel-m0023-5p on rainbow trout liver cell viability and proliferation. This study highlights the differences in the regulatory mechanism of rainbow trout under different concentrations of hypoxia stress and provides valuable data for further research on the molecular mechanisms of fish adaptation to hypoxic environments.

Effects of Environmental Hypoxia on Serum Hematological and Biochemical Parameters, Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (hif) Gene Expression and HIF Pathway in Hybrid Sturgeon (Acipenser schrenckii ♂ × Acipenser baerii ♀)

Hypoxia is a globally pressing environmental problem in aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, a comprehensive analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of hypoxia on physiological responses (hematology, cortisol, biochemistry, hif gene expression and the HIF pathway) of hybrid sturgeons (Acipenser schrenckii ♂ × Acipenser baerii ♀). A total of 180 hybrid sturgeon adults were exposed to dissolved oxygen (DO) levels of 7.00 ± 0.2 mg/L (control, N), 3.5 ± 0.2 mg/L (moderate hypoxia, MH) or 1.00 ± 0.1 mg/L (severe hypoxia, SH) and were sampled at 1 h, 6 h and 24 h after hypoxia. The results showed that the red blood cell (RBC) counts and the hemoglobin (HGB) concentration were significantly increased 6 h and 24 h after hypoxia in the SH group. The serum cortisol concentrations gradually increased with the decrease in the DO levels. Moreover, several serum biochemical parameters (AST, AKP, HBDB, LDH, GLU, TP and T-Bil) were significantly altered at 24 h in the SH group. The HIFs are transcription activators that function as master regulators in hypoxia. In this study, a complete set of six hif genes were identified and characterized in hybrid sturgeon for the first time. After hypoxia, five out of six sturgeon hif genes were significantly differentially expressed in gills, especially hif-1α and hif-3α, with more than 20-fold changes, suggesting their important roles in adaptation to hypoxia in hybrid sturgeon. A meta-analysis indicated that the HIF pathway, a major pathway for adaptation to hypoxic environments, was activated in the liver of the hybrid sturgeon 24 h after the hypoxia challenge. Our study demonstrated that hypoxia, particularly severe hypoxia (1.00 ± 0.1 mg/L), could cause considerable stress for the hybrid sturgeon. These results shed light on their adaptive mechanisms and potential biomarkers for hypoxia tolerance, aiding in aquaculture and conservation efforts.

Hypoxia leads to gill endoplasmic reticulum stress and disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): Mitigation effect of thiamine

Hypoxia in water environment is one of the important problems faced by intensive aquaculture. Under hypoxia stress, the effects of dietary thiamine were investigated on grass carp gill tissue damage and their mechanisms. Six thiamine diets with different thiamine levels (0.22, 0.43, 0.73, 1.03, 1.33 and 1.63 mg/kg) were fed grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) for 63 days. Then, 96-hour hypoxia stress test was conducted. This study described that thiamine enhanced the growth performance of adult grass carp and ameliorated nutritional status of thiamine (pyruvic acid, glucose, lactic acid and transketolase). Additionally, thiamine alleviated the deterioration of blood parameters [glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT), glucose, cortisol, lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), erythrocyte fragility, and red blood cell count (RBC count)] caused by hypoxia stress, and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) content and oxidative damage to the gills. In addition, thiamine alleviated endoplasmic reticulum stress in the gills, which may be related to its inhibition of RNA-dependent protein kinase-like ER kinase (PERK)/eukaryotic translation initiation factor-2α (eIF2α)/activating transcription factor4 (ATF4), inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1)/X-Box binding protein 1 (XBP1) and activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) pathways. Furthermore, thiamine maintaining mitochondrial dynamics balance was probably related to promoting mitochondrial fusion and inhibiting mitochondrial fission, and inhibiting mitophagy may involve PTEN induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)/Parkin-dependent pathway and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-Bcl-2 adenovirus E1B 19 kDa interacting protein 3 (BNIP3) pathway. In summary, thiamine alleviated hypoxia stress in fish gills, which may be related to reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress, regulating mitochondrial dynamics balance and reducing mitophagy. The thiamine requirement for optimum growth [percent weight gain (PWG)] of adult grass carp was estimated to be 0.81 mg/kg diet. Based on the index of anti-hypoxia stress (ROS content in gill), the thiamine requirement for adult grass carp was estimated to be 1.32 mg/kg diet.

Effects of vitamin C combined with sodium alginate on serum biochemistry, oxidative stress, gill tissue morphology, and muscle quality of pearl gentian grouper during waterless transport

This research examined the effects of sodium alginate (SA) and vitamin C (Vc) soaking of pearl gentian grouper before waterless transportation from the perspectives of serum parameters, oxidative stress, muscle quality, and gill tissue morphology. After the fish reached semi-dormancy with a cooling rate of 3 °C/h, fish (420 ± 25 g) were distributed to 4 treatments as follows: S1 group (50 mg/L Vc and 0.1% SA were added), S2 group (50 mg/L Vc and 0.3% SA were added), S3 group (50 mg/L Vc and 0.5% SA were added), and control group (without soaking in protective fluid). After oxygenated packaging, samples were taken at 0, 8, and 16 h of waterless transportation and 12 h after rehydration, respectively. It was found that after 16 h of waterless transport, compared with the control group, cortisol, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid (UA), creatinine (CREA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly decreased (p < 0.05), while albumin, lysozyme (LZM), muscle pH, and total free amino acid (TFAA) contents were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) in the S3 group. Moreover, by gill tissue microscopy, it was found that the protective solution of group S3 did not cause serious deleterious morphological changes to the gill epithelium. The results showed that the grouper was soaked by protective fluid before waterless could maintain surface moisture, reduce gill and kidney function and oxidative stress damage, and maintain the stability of muscle quality. This study provides a novel transportation method for waterless preservation, which helps to reduce transportation costs and improve transportation efficiency.

Ultrastructural, Antioxidant, and Metabolic Responses of Male Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT, Oreochromis niloticus) to Acute Hypoxia Stress

Tilapia tolerate hypoxia; thus, they are an excellent model for the study of hypoxic adaptation. In this study, we determined the effect of acute hypoxia stress on the antioxidant capacity, metabolism, and gill/liver ultrastructure of male genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT, Oreochromis niloticus). Fish were kept under control (dissolved oxygen (DO): 6.5 mg/L) or hypoxic (DO: 1.0 mg/L) conditions for 72 h. After 2 h of hypoxia stress, antioxidant enzyme activities in the heart and gills decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased. In contrast, in the liver, antioxidant enzyme activities increased, and the MDA content decreased. From 4 to 24 h of hypoxia stress, the antioxidant enzyme activity increased in the heart but not in the liver and gills. Cytochrome oxidase activity was increased in the heart after 4 to 8 h of hypoxia stress, while that in the gills decreased during the later stages of hypoxia stress. Hypoxia stress resulted in increased Na+-K+-ATP activity in the heart, as well as hepatic vacuolization and gill lamella elongation. Under hypoxic conditions, male GIFT exhibit dynamic and complementary regulation of antioxidant systems and metabolism in the liver, gills, and heart, with coordinated responses to mitigate hypoxia-induced damage.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha protein increases without changes in mRNA during acute hypoxic exposure of the Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis

The hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF1) is a central regulator of the molecular responses of animals to low oxygen. While the hypoxia-responsiveness of HIF1 is generally attributed to the stabilization of the alpha protein subunit (HIF1α) at low oxygen, several studies on fish report increased tissue levels of HIF1A mRNA during hypoxia, suggesting transcriptional regulation. In the current study, HIF1α protein and HIF1A mRNA were determined in parallel in tissues of Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, exposed to short-term hypoxia (24 h at 1 mg O2 l-1). HIF1α protein was higher in brain, ovary, and skeletal muscle from fish exposed to hypoxia compared with normoxic controls by 6 h, and it remained elevated in brain and ovary at 24 h. In contrast, HIF1A mRNA levels were unaffected by hypoxia in any tissue. Moreover, HIF1α protein and HIF1A mRNA levels in the same tissues were not correlated with one another during either normoxia or hypoxia. Hence, an increase in HIF1α protein does not depend upon an increase in HIF1A mRNA during acute exposure to low oxygen in this species. The results support the widely accepted mechanism of post-translational protein stabilization, rather than new transcription, during the initial response of fish to hypoxia.

Ulva prolifera Stress in the Yellow Sea of China: Suppressed Antioxidant Capacity and Induced Inflammatory Response of the Japanese Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

As the largest green macroalgal bloom in the Yellow Sea of China, the overgrowth and degradation of Ulva prolifera (U. prolifera) have a harmful effect on marine organisms and the aquaculture industry. However, the regulation mechanism of U. prolifera stress on the antioxidant capacity and inflammatory response of marine fish is still not completely understood. A 15-day exposure experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of U. prolifera stress on the antioxidant capacity and inflammatory response of the Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) (283.11 ± 6.45 g). The results showed that U. prolifera stress significantly decreased their survival rate. Serum total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and non-specific immune-related enzyme activities were significantly impacted under U. prolifera conditions. Moreover, U. prolifera stress significantly decreased T-AOC, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and catalase (CAT) activities in the liver, while malondialdehyde (MDA) contents were significantly increased. Similarly, antioxidant-related gene (cat, nrf2, and keap1) expressions were synchronously downregulated in the liver under U. prolifera stress. Furthermore, U. prolifera stress significantly upregulated pro-inflammatory gene (tnf-α, il-1β, ifn-γ, and p65) expressions and the phosphorylation levels of the p38 and JNK MAPK pathways in the head kidney. In addition, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related gene and protein expressions were also upregulated in the head kidney. Overall, these results revealed that U. prolifera stress suppressed the antioxidant capacity and induced an inflammatory response in the Japanese flounder. This study could advance the understanding of the adverse effects of U. prolifera stress on marine benthic fish and promote the sustainable development of aquaculture.

The heat shock protein 20 gene family in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea): Identification, phylogenetic relationships, expression analyses

Large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is an economically important fish in China, but its aquaculture industry has been threatened by both biotic and abiotic stressors such as hypoxia and pathogens. In the current study, hsp20 genes were identified and analyzed systematically for the first time from the genome of large yellow croaker, and their roles in hypoxia response and Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas plecoglossicida infection were investigated. Herein, 11 hsp20 genes were identified and annotated, phylogenetic analysis and selection pressure analysis showed that the hsp20 genes were evolutionarily-constrained and their function was conserved among fishes. Besides, we observed the expression patterns of the hsp20 genes under hypoxia and two pathogens' stress. In brief, seven, four, seven genes responded to hypoxia stress, A. hydrophila infection and P. plecoglossicida challenge, respectively, which indicated that they were involved in hypoxia and disease responses. Furthermore, pathogen- and time-specific pattern was observed after A. hydrophila and P. plecoglossicida infection whereas tissue-specific pattern was observed after hypoxia exposure, revealing that hsp20 genes showed differential functions in response to hypoxia and immune stress. Taken together, these results provided preliminary information for future analysis of the roles of hsp20 genes in both biotic and abiotic stress response in fish.

Hypoxia-induced physiological responses in fish: From organism to tissue to molecular levels

Dissolved oxygen (DO) in water bodies is a prerequisite for fish survival and plays a crucial role in fish growth, development, and physiological processes. However, with increasing eutrophication, greenhouse effects, and extreme weather conditions, DO levels in aquatic environments often become lower than normal. This leads to stress in fish, causing them to exhibit escape behavior, inhibits their growth and development, and causes tissue damage. Moreover, oxidative stress, decreased immune function, and altered metabolism have been observed. Severe hypoxia can cause massive fish mortality, resulting in significant economic losses to the aquaculture industry. In response to hypoxia, fish exhibit a series of behavioral and physiological changes that are self-protective mechanisms formed through long-term evolution. This review summarizes the effects of hypoxic stress on fish, including the asphyxiation point, behavior, growth and reproduction, tissue structure, physiological and biochemical processes, and regulation of gene expression. Furthermore, future research directions are discussed to provide new insights and references.

Heatwave resilience of juvenile white sturgeon is associated with epigenetic and transcriptional alterations

Heatwaves are increasing in frequency and severity, posing a significant threat to organisms globally. In aquatic environments heatwaves are often associated with low environmental oxygen, which is a deadly combination for fish. However, surprisingly little is known about the capacity of fishes to withstand these interacting stressors. This issue is particularly critical for species of extreme conservation concern such as sturgeon. We assessed the tolerance of juvenile white sturgeon from an endangered population to heatwave exposure and investigated how this exposure affects tolerance to additional acute stressors. We measured whole-animal thermal and hypoxic performance and underlying epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms. Sturgeon exposed to a simulated heatwave had increased thermal tolerance and exhibited complete compensation for the effects of acute hypoxia. These changes were associated with an increase in mRNA levels involved in thermal and hypoxic stress (hsp90a, hsp90b, hsp70 and hif1a) following these stressors. Global DNA methylation was sensitive to heatwave exposure and rapidly responded to acute thermal and hypoxia stress over the course of an hour. These data demonstrate that juvenile white sturgeon exhibit substantial resilience to heatwaves, associated with improved cross-tolerance to additional acute stressors and involving rapid responses in both epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms.

Effects of transportation on physiological indices and metabolomics of the large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea

The aim of this study was to investigate the survival rate, biochemical indices, and metabolome changes of the large yellow croaker after 48 h of live transportation. Two hundred and forty large yellow croakers (body weight: 23.4 ± 5.3 g, total length: 12.2 ± 0.7 cm) were used in this experiment. The transport buckets were filled with fresh seawater and the parameters of the water were a temperature of 16 ± 0.5 °C and a dissolved oxygen content of 6.0-7.2 mg/L. Large yellow crokers were first divided to 0, 10, 20, and 30 mg/L MS-222 groups to observe the 12 h survival rate. The survival rate of 10 mg/L MS-222 group (T1) was the 95%, highest of all, and was further analyzed. The results of liver biochemical indices indicated inhibition of gluconeogenesis and pentose phosphate pathway metabolism. In addition, metabolomics analysis identified significantly differentially expressed metabolites between T1 group and 0 mg/L MS-222 control (C) groups. Furthermore, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) results revealed that the pathways of amino acid metabolism, especially the lysine, aspartate, and homoserine in the liver were significantly affected. In conclusion, the combination of metabolomics and liver biochemical assays provided a characterization of the response mechanism of L. crocea exposed to live transportation.

Effects of hypoxia and reoxygenation on apoptosis, oxidative stress, immune response and gut microbiota of Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis

Hypoxia causes irreversible damage to aquatic animals. However, few reports have explored the effect of hypoxia stress and reoxygenation on intestinal homeostatic imbalance and consequent hepatopancreas-intestine axis health in crustacean. Herein, 180 Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) were equally divided into control (DO 7.0 ± 0.2 mg/L) and treatment groups. The treatment group was exposed with continuous hypoxic stress (DO 3.0 ± 0.1 mg/L) for 96 h and then reoxygenated (DO 6.9 ± 0.1 mg/L) for 96 h. The effects on intestines and hepatopancreas of Chinese mitten crab were investigated, and the role of gut microbiota in hypoxia induced damages was explored. Hypoxia impaired intestinal tissue structure, and decreased swelling and the number of goblet cells, which are features that did not significantly improve after reoxygenation. With prolonged hypoxic stress, the activities of antioxidant enzymes (LDH, SOD and CAT) and MDA content in intestine were significantly elevated. Moreover, the level of oxidative stress increased, which led to upregulated apoptosis rate and expression of apoptosis-related genes (Caspase 3, Caspase 8 and BAX). In addition, the expression of immune related genes (MyD88, ALF1, Relish and Crustin) in hepatopancreas and intestine was both significantly induced under hypoxia, which activated the immune defense mechanism of Chinese mitten crab to adapt to the hypoxic environment. Furthermore, diversity and relative abundance of gut microbiota decreased noticeably during hypoxic stress; the number of beneficial bacteria downregulated. Finally, KEGG pathway analysis revealed that nine pathways were significantly enriched in intestinal microorganisms, including autoimmune disease and environmental adaptation. Collectively, these results suggested that hypoxia negatively affected E. sinensis health by triggering oxidative stress, altering the composition of the gut microbiota and inhibiting the immune response.

Blood redistribution preferentially protects vital organs under hypoxic stress in Pelteobagrus vachelli

Blood redistribution occurs in mammals under hypoxia but has not been reported in fish. This study investigated the tissue damage, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) activation level, and blood flow changes in the brain, liver, and muscle of Pelteobagrus vachelli during the hypoxia process for normoxia-hypoxia-asphyxia. The results showed that P. vachelli has tissue specificity in response to hypoxic stress. Cerebral blood flow increased with less damage than in the liver and muscle, suggesting that P. vachelli may also have a blood redistribution mechanism in response to hypoxia. It is worth noting that severe hypoxia can lead to a sudden increase in the degree of brain tissue damage. In addition, higher dissolved oxygen levels activate HIF and may have contributed to the reduced damage observed in the brain. This study provides basic data for investigating hypoxic stress in fish.

Effects of hypoxia and reoxygenation on oxidative stress, histological structure, and apoptosis in a new hypoxia-tolerant variety of blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala)

A new hypoxia-tolerant variety of blunt snout bream was obtained by successive breeding of the wild population, which markedly improved hypoxia tolerance. In this study, the hypoxia-tolerant variety was exposed to hypoxia (2.0 mg O₂·L^-1) for 4, 7 days. The contents of blood biochemical indicators including the number of red blood cells (RBC), total cholesterol (T-CHO), total protein (TP), triglyceride (TG), glucose (GLU), and lactic acid (LD) increased significantly (P < 0.05) under hypoxia. The glycogen content in the liver and muscle decreased significantly (P < 0.05) and the LD content in the brain, muscle and liver increased significantly (P < 0.05) under hypoxia. The levels of oxidative stress-related indicators i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) also changed significantly (P < 0.05) in the heart, liver, and intestine of the new variety under hypoxia. Additionally, hypoxia has caused injuries to the heart, liver, and intestine, but it shows amazing repair ability during reoxygenation. The apoptotic cells and apoptosis rate in the heart, liver, and intestine increased under hypoxia. Under hypoxia, the expression of the B-cell lymphomas 2 (Bcl-2) gene in the heart, liver, and intestine was significantly (P < 0.05) down-regulated, while the expression of the BCL2-associated agonist of cell death (Bad) gene was significantly (P < 0.05) up-regulated. These results are of great significance for enriching the basic data of blunt snout bream new variety in response to hypoxia and promoting the healthy development of its culture industry.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Head Kidney of Aeromonas hydrophila-infected Hypoxia-tolerant and Normal Large Yellow Croaker

The large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is one of the most economically important marine fish on the southeast coast of China and much of its yield is usually lost by hypoxia. To address this problem and lay a foundation for culturing a new strain of large yellow croaker with hypoxia tolerance, our research group screened a hypoxia-tolerant population of L. crocea. Surprisingly, we also found that hypoxia-tolerant population exhibited higher survival when infected with pathogens compared to the normal population during the farming operation. In order to understand the mechanism underlying the higher survival rate of the hypoxia-tolerant population and enrich the head kidney immune mechanism of L. crocea infected with pathogens, we compared and analyzed the head kidney transcriptome of the hypoxia-tolerant and normal individuals under Aeromonas hydrophila infection. We obtained 159.68 GB high-quality reads, of which more than 87.61% were successfully localized to the reference genome of L. crocea. KEGG analysis revealed differentially expressed genes in the signaling pathways involving immunity, cell growth and death, transport and catabolism, and metabolism. Among these, the toll-like receptor signaling pathway, Nod-like receptor signaling pathway, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, phagosome, apoptosis, and OXPHOS pathways were enriched in both groups after infection compared to before, and were enriched in infected tolerant individuals compared to normal individuals. In addition, we found that the expression of hif1α and its downstream genes were higher in the hypoxia-sensitive group of fish than in the normal group. In conclusion, our results showed some signaling pathways and hub genes, which may participate in A. hydrophila defense in the head kidney of two populations, and may contribute to the higher survival rate in the hypoxia-tolerant population. Overall, these findings increase our understanding of the defense mechanism within the head kidney of L. crocea under A. hydrophila infection, and suggest a preliminary hypothesis for why hypoxia-tolerant individuals may exhibit a higher survival rates after infection. Our study provides scientific evidence for the breeding of a new hypoxia-tolerant strain of L. crocea for aquaculture.

Tolerance of juvenile Peruvian rock seabass (Paralabrax humeralis Valenciennes, 1828) and Peruvian grunt (Anisotremus scapularis Tschudi, 1846) to low-oxygen conditions

Hypoxia is currently one of the greatest threats to coastal ecosystems worldwide, generating massive mortality of marine organisms, loss of benthic ecosystems and a decrease in fishery production. We evaluated and compared the tolerance to hypoxia of two species from different habitats of the Peruvian coast, the Peruvian rock seabass Paralabrax humeralis and the Peruvian grunt Anisotremus scapularis. The effect of hypoxia was measured as a function of the exposure time (progressive and chronic) on the behavioural and physiological responses of the two species, as well as on the enzymatic activity associated with the oxidative stress response of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP). The ventilatory frequency was measured at two different temperatures (16 and 22°C) under progressive hypoxia conditions to determine the ventilatory critical point (Vcp). A. scapularis showed a higher Vcp than P. humeralis, which was positively affected by temperature. The median lethal time of A. scapularis was 36 min at 60% of oxygen saturation, while P. humeralis showed no mortality after 31 days of exposure at 5% oxygen saturation. Different enzymatic activity (P < 0.05) between species under hypoxia was recorded, in SOD (gill and muscle) and AKP (blood). A general tendency, under hypoxia, to slightly increase LDH activity (except for blood in A. scapularis, P < 0.05) and SOD activity (mainly in muscle of A. scapularis, P < 0.05), and decrease AKP activity (mainly in liver of P. humeralis, P < 0.05) was observed. The response of P. humeralis to hypoxia goes through a reduction in activity and metabolism, so this species can be considered hypoxia-tolerant, allowing it to face hypoxia events during prolonged periods. On the other hand, A. scapularis response to hypoxia prioritizes avoidance mechanisms and, together with other adaptations, makes it especially vulnerable to hypoxia and able to be considered hypoxia-intolerant.

Different patterns of hypoxia aggravate the toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics in the mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis: Environmental risk assessment of plastics under global climate change

Hypoxia, largely triggered by anthropogenic activities and global climate change, exerts widespread and expanding stress on marine ecosystems. As an emerging contaminant, the influence of nanoplastics on marine organisms has also attracted attention in recent years. However, the impact of hypoxia on the risk assessments of nanoplastics is rarely considered. This study investigated the toxicity of PS-NPs (0, 0.5, and 5 mg/L) to the coastal mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis under different patterns of hypoxia (normoxia, constant hypoxia, and fluctuating hypoxia). The results showed that constant hypoxia might reduce the accumulation of PS-NPs in mussels by decreasing the standard metabolic rate. The impairment of PS-NPs on mussel immunity was also exacerbated by constant hypoxia. Fluctuating hypoxia did not affect the accumulation of PS-NPs, but aggravated the oxidative damage caused by PS-NPs. These findings emphasize the importance of environmental factors and their temporal variability in plastic risk assessment.

Genetics Responses to Hypoxia and Reoxygenation Stress in Larimichthys crocea Revealed via Transcriptome Analysis and Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network

Simple Summary

Hypoxia, which occurs frequently in aquaculture, can cause serious harm to all aspects of the growth, reproduction and metabolism of cultured fish. Due to the intolerance of Larimichthys crocea to hypoxia, Larimichthys crocea often floats head or even dies under hypoxic environment. However, the molecular mechanism of hypoxia tolerance in Larimichthys crocea has not been fully described. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the hub regulatory genes under hypoxic stress environment by transcriptome analysis of three key tissues (liver, blood and gill) in Larimichthys crocea. We identified a number of important genes that exercise different regulatory functions. Overall, this study will provide important clues to the molecular mechanisms of hypoxia tolerance in Larimichthys crocea.

Abstract

The large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is an important marine economic fish in China; however, its intolerance to hypoxia causes widespread mortality. To understand the molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxia tolerance in L. crocea, the transcriptome gene expression profiling of three different tissues (blood, gills, and liver) of L. crocea exposed to hypoxia and reoxygenation stress were performed. In parallel, the gene relationships were investigated based on weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Accordingly, the Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis showed that several pathways (e.g., energy metabolism, signal transduction, oxygen transport, and osmotic regulation) may be involved in the response of L. crocea to hypoxia and reoxygenation stress. In addition, also, four key modules (darkorange, magenta, saddlebrown, and darkolivegreen) that were highly relevant to the samples were identified by WGCNA. Furthermore, some hub genes within the association module, including RPS16, EDRF1, KCNK5, SNAT2, PFKL, GSK-3β, and PIK3CD, were found. This is the first study to report the co-expression patterns of a gene network after hypoxia stress in marine fish. The results provide new clues for further research on the molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxia tolerance in L. crocea.

The evolutionary and physiological significance of the Hif pathway in teleost fishes

The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway is a key regulator of cellular O2 homeostasis and an important orchestrator of the physiological responses to hypoxia (low O2) in vertebrates. Fish can be exposed to significant and frequent changes in environmental O2, and increases in Hif-α (the hypoxia-sensitive subunit of the transcription factor Hif) have been documented in a number of species as a result of a decrease in O2. Here, we discuss the impact of the Hif pathway on the hypoxic response and the contribution to hypoxia tolerance, particularly in fishes of the cyprinid lineage, which includes the zebrafish (Danio rerio). The cyprinids are of specific interest because, unlike in most other fishes, duplicated paralogs of the Hif-α isoforms arising from a teleost-specific genome duplication event have been retained. Positive selection has acted on the duplicated paralogs of the Hif-α isoforms in some cyprinid sub-families, pointing to adaptive evolutionary change in the paralogs. Thus, cyprinids are valuable models for exploring the evolutionary significance and physiological impact of the Hif pathway on the hypoxic response. Knockout in zebrafish of either paralog of Hif-1α greatly reduces hypoxia tolerance, indicating the importance of both paralogs to the hypoxic response. Here, with an emphasis on the cardiorespiratory system, we focus on the role of Hif-1α in the hypoxic ventilatory response and the regulation of cardiac function. We explore the effects of the duration of the hypoxic exposure (acute, sustained or intermittent) on the impact of Hif-1α on cardiorespiratory function and compare relevant data with those from mammalian systems.

Physiological responses and molecular strategies in heart of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) under hypoxia and reoxygenation

A sufficient oxygen concentration is essential for fish growth, reproduction, and metabolism. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is sometimes challenged by hypoxia during intensive aquaculture or because of environmental changes. However, the response to hypoxic stress in the heart of silver carp remains relatively unknown. In the present study, we reported the effects of hypoxia on histological structures, enzyme activities, and gene expression in the heart of silver carp. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining of heart sections showed that the myocardial fibers gradually became disordered, swollen, and even ruptured during hypoxic treatment. These phenotypes were also supported by increased activities of injury-related enzymes. Moreover, the transcriptome was analyzed to determine the molecular strategies of hypoxia adaptation in the heart. PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, and JAK-STAT signaling pathway were the most prominent pathways activated by hypoxia. Twenty significantly differentially expressed genes were selected to create a network diagram related to cell proliferation, carbohydrate metabolism, oxidative stress, and angiogenesis. Additionally, reoxygenation could ameliorate cardiac injury and eliminate the effects of hypoxia on gene expression. This was the first comparative transcriptomic study to explore the molecular mechanism of the response to hypoxia and reoxygenation in the heart of silver carp. Our results provide a theoretical basis for cultivating hypoxia-tolerant carp varieties in the future.

Altered physiological response and gill histology in black rockfish, Sebastes schlegelii, during progressive hypoxia and reoxygenation

Hypoxia has gradually become common in aquatic ecosystems and imposes a significant challenge for fish farming. The loss of equilibrium (LOE), 50% lethal time (LT50), plasma cortisol, glucose, red blood cells (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), gill histological alteration, and related parameters (lamellar length [SLL] and width [SLW], interlamellar distance [ID], basal epithelial thickness [BET], lamellar surface area [LA], and gill surface area [GSA]); respiratory rate; the proportion of the secondary lamellae available for gas exchange (PAGE); and hypoxia-inducible factor (hif-1α, hif-2α) mRNA expression were determined during progressive hypoxia and reoxygenation (R-0, R-12, R-24 h) to illustrate the underlying physiological response mechanisms in black rockfish Sebastes schlegelii. Results showed that the DO concentration significantly decreased during progressive hypoxia, while DO at LOE and LT50 were 2.42 ± 0.10 mg L^-1 and 1.67 ± 0.38 mg L^-1, respectively. Cortisol and glucose were significantly increased at LOE and LT50, with the highest levels observed at LT50, and then gradually recovered to normal within reoxygenation 24 h. RBC number and Hb results were like those of glucose. Hypoxia stress resulted in lamellar clubbing, hypertrophy, and hyperplasia. Respiratory frequency significantly increased at LOE and decreased at LT50. Lamellar perimeters, SLL, ID, LA, GSA, and PAGE, significantly increased at LOE and LT50, with the highest values observed at LT50. However, SLW and BET significantly decreased at LOE, LT50, and R-0. These parameters recovered to nearly normal levels at R-24 h. hif-1α mRNAs in gill and liver were significantly upregulated at LOE and LT50, and recovery to normal after reoxygenation 24 h. hif-2α mRNAs in gill was similar to that of hif-1α, whereas hepatic hif-2α mRNAs remained unchanged during hypoxia-reoxygenation. These results indicated that progressive hypoxia stress elevated RBC number, Hb, cortisol, and glucose levels, induced the alteration of gill morphology, increased LA and GSA, stimulated respiratory frequency and PAGE, and upregulated the transcription of hif-1α and hif-2α in gill and liver. Reoxygenation treatment for 24 h alleviated the stress mentioned above effects. These findings expand current knowledge on hypoxia tolerance in black rockfish Sebastes schlegelii.

Histopathological, hematological, and biochemical changes in high-latitude fish Phoxinus lagowskii exposed to hypoxia

Hypoxia is one of the most significant threats to biodiversity in aquatic systems. The ability of high-latitude fish to tolerate hypoxia with histological and physiological responses is mostly unknown. We address this knowledge gap by investigating the effects of exposures to different oxygen levels using Phoxinus lagowskii (a high-latitude, cold-water fish) as a model. Fish were exposed to different oxygen levels (0.5 mg/L and 3 mg/L) for 24 h. The loss of equilibrium (LOE), an indicator of acute hypoxia tolerance, was 0.21 ± 0.01 mg/L, revealing the ability of fish to tolerate low-oxygen conditions. We sought to determine if, in P. lagowskii, the histology of gills and liver, blood indicators, enzyme activities of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and antioxidants changed to relieve stress in response to acute hypoxia. Notably, changes in vigorous jumping behavior under low oxygen revealed the exceptional hypoxia acclimation response compared with other low-latitude fish. A decrease in blood parameters, including RBC, WBC, and Hb, as well as an increase in MCV was observed compared to the controls. The increased total area in lamella and decreased ILCM volume in P. lagowskii gills were detected in the present study. Our results also showed the size of vacuoles in the livers of the hypoxic fish shrunk. Interestingly, an increase in the enzyme activity of lipid metabolism but not glucose metabolism was observed in the groups exposed to hypoxia at 6 h and 24 h. After combining histology and physiology results, our findings provide evidence that lipid metabolism plays a crucial role in enhancing hypoxia acclimation in P. lagowskii. Additionally, SOD activity significantly increased during hypoxia, suggesting the presence of an antioxidant response of P. lagowskii during hypoxia. High expression levels of lipogenesis and lipolysis-related genes were detected in the 6 h 3 mg/L and 24 h 3 mg/L hypoxia group. Enhanced expression of lipid-metabolism genes (ALS4, PGC-1, and FASN) was detected during hypoxia exposure. Together, these data suggest that P. lagowskii's ability to tolerate hypoxic events is likely mediated by a comprehensive strategy.

Comparison of effects in sustained and diel-cycling hypoxia on hypoxia tolerance, histology, physiology and expression of clock genes in high latitude fish Phoxinus lagowskii

Phoxinus lagowskii is a popular fish in Chinese cuisine. Though it is found mainly in China's high-latitude regions, where diel-cycling hypoxia (DCH) is known to have unique impacts on aquatic organisms, there is little known about its response to hypoxia. Currently, nothing is known about the changes in blood parameters, gill and liver morphology, glucose and lipid metabolism, or expression of genes involved in clock and glucose metabolism in response to sustained hypoxia (SH) and diel-cycling hypoxia (DCH). To elucidate the influence of sustained and diel-cycling hypoxia on fish hypoxia tolerance, resting oxygen consumption (MO₂) analysis was performed after ten days of hypoxia. This analysis revealed that hypoxia tolerance profoundly improved after ten days of either sustained or diel-cycling hypoxia acclimation, with DCH groups showing greater improvements than SH groups. Additionally, an increase in RBCs was found in P. lagowskii, suggesting an increase in the O₂-carrying capacity of the blood to tolerate hypoxia. Hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations in P. lagowskii were increased at four days of diel-cycling hypoxia, confirming that physiological and metabolic adaptation to hypoxia is based on the duration of O₂ exposure. Increased Hb and hematocrit (Hct) were found in DCH-exposed fish, both of which have been directly linked to high-latitude hypoxia tolerance. In the gills, lamella surface area increased in SH-exposed fish more than DCH-exposed fish, and these increases were accompanied by a decrease in the volume of interlamellar cell mass (ILCM). Histology changes in the liver showed a higher frequency of cytoplasmic vacuolization in DCH-exposed fish. PK increases in SH-exposed fish suggest that fish can use more energy sources in persistent hypoxia. Meanwhile, DCH-exposed fish use TG as an energy source. In SH-exposed fish, self-regulation of Cry1a was observed, whereas Cry1b gene was up-regulated significantly. In DCH-exposed fish, three of eight clock genes studied had increased expression, including Per1a, Clocka, and Cry1b, suggesting that SH and DCH result in different hypoxic responses. This study presents a novel approach to the study of fish responses to hypoxia in high latitude and shows that sustained hypoxia and diel-cycling hypoxia induce large differences in fish physiology.

The transcriptomic responses of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to high temperature stress alone, and in combination with moderate hypoxia

BACKGROUND

Increases in ocean temperatures and in the frequency and severity of hypoxic events are expected with climate change, and may become a challenge for cultured Atlantic salmon and negatively affect their growth, immunology and welfare. Thus, we examined how an incremental temperature increase alone (Warm & Normoxic-WN: 12 → 20 °C; 1 °C week- 1), and in combination with moderate hypoxia (Warm & Hypoxic-WH: ~ 70% air saturation), impacted the salmon's hepatic transcriptome expr\ession compared to control fish (CT: 12 °C, normoxic) using 44 K microarrays and qPCR.

RESULTS

Overall, we identified 2894 differentially expressed probes (DEPs, FDR < 5%), that included 1111 shared DEPs, while 789 and 994 DEPs were specific to WN and WH fish, respectively. Pathway analysis indicated that the cellular mechanisms affected by the two experimental conditions were quite similar, with up-regulated genes functionally associated with the heat shock response, ER-stress, apoptosis and immune defence, while genes connected with general metabolic processes, proteolysis and oxidation-reduction were largely suppressed. The qPCR assessment of 41 microarray-identified genes validated that the heat shock response (hsp90aa1, serpinh1), apoptosis (casp8, jund, jak2) and immune responses (apod, c1ql2, epx) were up-regulated in WN and WH fish, while oxidative stress and hypoxia sensitive genes were down-regulated (cirbp, cyp1a1, egln2, gstt1, hif1α, prdx6, rraga, ucp2). However, the additional challenge of hypoxia resulted in more pronounced effects on heat shock and immune-related processes, including a stronger influence on the expression of 14 immune-related genes. Finally, robust correlations between the transcription of 19 genes and several phenotypic traits in WH fish suggest that changes in gene expression were related to impaired physiological and growth performance.

CONCLUSION

Increasing temperature to 20 °C alone, and in combination with hypoxia, resulted in the differential expression of genes involved in similar pathways in Atlantic salmon. However, the expression responses of heat shock and immune-relevant genes in fish exposed to 20 °C and hypoxia were more affected, and strongly related to phenotypic characteristics (e.g., growth). This study provides valuable information on how these two environmental challenges affect the expression of stress-, metabolic- and immune-related genes and pathways, and identifies potential biomarker genes for improving our understanding of fish health and welfare.

Cardiac Transcriptomics Reveals That MAPK Pathway Plays an Important Role in Hypoxia Tolerance in Bighead Carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis)

As aquatic animals, fishes often encounter various situations of low oxygen, and they have evolved the ability to respond to hypoxia stress. Studies of physiological and molecular responses to hypoxia stress are essential to clarify genetic mechanisms underlying hypoxia tolerance in fish. In this study, we performed acute hypoxia treatment in juvenile bighead carp (Hypophthalmicthys nobilis) by decreasing water O₂ from 6.5 mg/L to 0.5 mg/L in three hours. This hypoxia stress resulted in a significant increase in blood lactate and serum glucose. Comparisons of heart transcriptome among hypoxia tolerant (HT), hypoxia sensitive (HS), and normoxia control (NC) groups showed that 820, 273, and 301 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in HS vs. HT, NC vs. HS, and NC vs. HT (false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.01, Fold Change> 2), respectively. KEGG pathway enrichment showed that DEGs between HS and HT groups were mainly involved in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, insulin signaling, apoptosis, tight junction and adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes pathways, and DEGs in MAPK signaling pathway played a key role in cardiac tolerance to hypoxia. Combined with the results of our previous cDNA-amplified fragment length polymorphism (cDNA-AFLP) analysis of hypoxia stress in this species, such genes as stbp2, ttn, mapk, kcnh, and tnfrsf were identified in both studies, representing the significance of these DEGs in hypoxia tolerance in bighead carp. These results provide insights into the understanding of genetic modulations for fish heart coping with hypoxia stress and generate basic resources for future breeding studies of hypoxia resistance in bighead carp.

Acute hypoxia changes the mode of glucose and lipid utilization in the liver of the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) undountedly affects fish distribution, metabolism, and evern survival. Intensive aquaculture and environmental changes will inevitably lead to hypoxic stress for largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). The different metabolic responses and mechanism still remains relatively unknown during acute hypoxia exposure. In this study, largemouth bass were subjected to hypoxic stress (3.0 ± 0.2 mg/L and 1.2 ± 0.2 mg/L) for 24 h and 12 h reoxygenation to systemically evaluate indicators of glucose and lipid metabolism. A regulatory network was constructed using RNA-seq to further elucidate the transcriptional regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. During hypoxia for 4 h, the liver glycogen, glucose and pyruvic acid contents significantly decreased, whereas plasma glucose content and liver lactic acid content increased significantly. The accumulation of liver triglycerides and non-esterified fatty acids was enhanced during hypoxia for 8 h. The activity of key enzymes revealed the different metabolic responses to hypoxia exposure for 4 h, including the enhancement of glycolysis, and inhibition of gluconeogenesis. Furthermore, hypoxia exposure for 8 h increased lipid mobilization, and inhibited the β-oxidation. In addition, an integrated regulatory network of 9 major pathways involved in the response to hypoxia exposure was constructed, including HIF signaling pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, AMPK signaling pathway, insulin signaling pathway and PPAR signaling pathway; glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, pyruvate metabolism, fatty acid degradation and fatty acid biosynthesis. Additionally, reoxygenation inhibited glycolysis, and promoted gluconeogenesis and lipid oxidation, but energy deficits persisted. In short, although the mobilization and activation of fatty acid in liver were enhanced in the early stage of hypoxia, glycolysis was the main energy source under acute hypoxia. The extent and duration of hypoxia determine the degree of change in energy metabolism.

Regulation of 14-3-3β/α gene expression in response to salinity, thermal, and bacterial stresses in Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baeri)

The 14-3-3 proteins are a family of widely expressed acidic proteins, which are involved in the regulation of many biological processes of animals. However, no research regarding 14-3-3 has been described in sturgeon to date, one of the most primitive Actinopterygii species. Here, we identified the first 14-3-3 gene from Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baeri), named Ab14-3-3β/α (GenBank Accession No. KY094076.1). The cDNA of Ab14-3-3β/α is 1212 bp in length, containing a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 82 bp, a 3'UTR of 392 bp, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 738 bp, encoding a polypeptide of 245 amino acids which contains a 14-3-3 homologs domain (PF00244). Phylogenetic analysis showed that the 14-3-3 gene product from Acipenser baeri is a counterpart of vertebrate 14-3-3β/α. The deduced Ab14-3-3β/α protein shares high identities of 46.5-95.5% with the homologs of other species. Ab14-3-3β/α mRNA was constitutively expressed in all examined tissues, with high expression levels in the blood and gill. Furthermore, the expression level of Ab14-3-3β/α mRNA increased significantly in the gill at 1 h under acute salinity shock by transfer of Siberian sturgeons from fresh water (FW) to 15 ppt. In fish subjected to a high temperature (31 °C), Ab14-3-3β/α showed a significant upregulation in the liver at 3 h compared with the control group (24 °C). A 4.85-fold increase of Ab14-3-3β/α expression in the spleen of Siberian sturgeon was observed at 24 h following Aeromonas hydrophila challenge. Collectively, these results indicated that Ab14-3-3β/α might play a certain role in sturgeon in response to some environmental stresses and bacterial challenge.

Hypoxia tolerance is unrelated to swimming metabolism of wild, juvenile striped bass (Morone saxatilis)

Juvenile striped bass residing in Chesapeake Bay are likely to encounter hypoxia that could affect their metabolism and performance. The ecological success of this economically valuable species may depend on their ability to tolerate hypoxia and perform fitness-dependent activities in hypoxic waters. We tested whether there is a link between hypoxia tolerance (HT) and oxygen consumption rate (ṀO2 ) of juvenile striped bass measured while swimming in normoxic and hypoxic water, and to identify the interindividual variation and repeatability of these measurements. HT (loss of equilibrium) of fish (N=18) was measured twice collectively, 11 weeks apart, between which ṀO2  was measured individually for each fish while swimming in low flow (10.2 cm s-1) and high flow (∼67% of critical swimming speed, Ucrit) under normoxia and hypoxia. Both HT and ṀO2  varied substantially among individuals. HT increased across 11 weeks while the rank order of individual HT was significantly repeatable. Similarly, ṀO2  increased in fish swimming at high flow in a repeatable fashion, but only within a given level of oxygenation. ṀO2  was significantly lower when fish were swimming against high flow under hypoxia. There were no clear relationships between HT and ṀO2  while fish were swimming under any conditions. Only the magnitude of increase in HT over 11 weeks and an individual's ṀO2  under low flow were correlated. The results suggest that responses to the interacting stressors of hypoxia and exercise vary among individuals, and that HT and change in HT are not simple functions of aerobic metabolic rate.

Transcriptome and physiology analysis identify key metabolic changes in the liver of the large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) in response to acute hypoxia

The large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is one of the most important marine economic fish in the southeast coast of China. However, hypoxia stress become a major obstacle to the benign development of L. crocea industry. To understand the energy metabolism mechanism adapted to hypoxia, we analyzed the transcriptome and physiology of L. crocea liver in response to hypoxia stress for different durations. We obtained 243,756,080 clean reads, of which 83.38% were successfully mapped to the reference genome of L. crocea. The heat map analysis showed that genes encoding enzymes involved in glycolysis/gluconeogenesis were significantly upregulated at various time points. Moreover, genes encoding enzymes related to the citrate cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and amino acid metabolism were significantly downregulated at 6 and 24 h, but upregulated at 48 and 96 h. The change of liver in physiology processes, including respiratory metabolism, and activities of the carbohydrate metabolism enzymes showed a similar trend. The results revealed that the respiratory metabolism of L. crocea was mainly anaerobic within 24 h of hypoxia stress, and aerobic metabolism was dominant after 24 h. Carbohydrate metabolism plays a crucial role in energy supply and amino acid metabolism is an important supporting character to cope with acute hypoxia stress. There was no significant change in lipid utilization under short-term acute stress. This study increases our understanding of the energy metabolism mechanism of the hypoxia response in fish and provides a useful resource for L. crocea genetics and breeding.

Diel variation in cortisol, glucose, lactic acid and antioxidant system of black sea bass Centropristis striata under natural photoperiod

Diel rhythm in activity of antioxidant enzymes, as well as contents of glutathione and lipid peroxides, has been intensively investigated in Mammalia and Aves, however, the relevant studies about fish are few. In the present study, we examined variation in contents of cortisol, glucose and lactic acid in plasma of black sea bass Centropristis striata under natural photoperiod during a 24-h period. In addition, variation in activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GR) as well as contents of total glutathione (T-GSH), reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver and plasma of the fish were also determined. The plasma and liver samples were collected from the test fish at 3 h intervals during a 24-h cycle, with the first sampling time set at 03:00 h. No significant differences were found in glucose content and activities of GSH-PX and GR in plasma, as well as activities of SOD and GR in liver among different sampling times. In contrast, apparent variation was observed in contents of cortisol, lactic acid and MDA in plasma, activities of SOD and CAT in plasma, contents of MDA, T-GSH, GSH and GSSG in liver and activities of GSH-PX and CAT in liver between different sampling times. Moreover, contents of cortisol and MDA in plasma, SOD activity in plasma, and contents of MDA, GSH and GSSG in liver exhibited circadian rhythm, and their acrophases occurred at 06:08 h, 18:38 h, 15:09 h, 09:57 h, 23:36 h and 07:30 h, respectively. The present study indicates that some physiological parameters relating to stress response, such as cortisol and MDA contents in plasma, MDA, GSH and GSSG contents in liver and SOD activity in plasma changed at different time throughout a day in black sea bass. Therefore, caution should be taken when evaluating stress response in fish with these physiological parameters measured at different times.

Time course analysis of immunity-related gene expression in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus during exposure to thermal and hypoxic stress

Temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration are important abiotic factors that can limit the growth and survival of sea cucumbers by affecting their immune systems. As global warming intensifies, sea cucumbers are increasingly exposed to adverse environmental conditions, which can cause severe economic losses and limit the sustainable development of sea cucumber aquaculture. It is therefore important to better understand how sea cucumbers respond to environmental stress, especially with regard to its effects on immunity. In the present study, the time series of immunity-related gene expression in sea cucumbers under thermal and hypoxic stresses were analyzed separately. The expression trends of 17 genes related to the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway, the protease family, the complement system, heat shock proteins (HSPs) and the transferrin family during exposure to two stresses at eight time points were concluded. These genes have interconnected roles in stress defense. The expression levels of genes relating to the NF-κB pathways and HSPs were strongly affected in the sea cucumber thermal stress response, while melanotransferrin (Mtf), ferritin (Ft) and mannan-binding C-type lectin (MBCL) were affected by hypoxia. In contrast, complement factor B (Bf), myosin V (Mys) and serine protease inhibitor (SPI) were not that sensitive during the initial period of environmental stress. Similar expression patterns under both thermal and hypoxic stress for certain genes, including an increase in Hsp90 and decreases in lysozyme (Lys), major yolk protein (MYP) and cathepsin C (CTLC) were observed in sea cucumbers. Conversely, NF-κB and Hsp70 were differentially affected by the two stress treatments. Lysozyme-induced immune defense was inconstant in sea cucumbers coping with stress. A gene ontology (GO) analysis of the selected genes revealed that the most co-involved terms related to immunity and iron ion. Our analysis suggests that sea cucumbers demonstrate complex and varied immune responses to different types of stresses. This dynamic image of the immune responses and stress tolerance of sea cucumbers provides new insights into the adaptive strategies of holothurians in adverse environments.

Oxidative stress response of caddisfly Stenopsyche marmorata larvae to abrupt hypoxia-normoxia shift

Natural and anthropogenic effects cause low dissolved oxygen conditions (hypoxia) and subsequent reoxygenated conditions (normoxia) in river systems. However, oxidative stress responses to hypoxia-normoxia shift in aquatic insects are still poorly understood. Here, we exposed caddisfly Stenopsyche marmorata larvae to 30-min hypoxic followed by 1-d normoxic exposure, with experiments being repeated at 14 °C (Exp.1) and 20 °C (Exp.2), respectively. Exp.1 was conducted in December 2016 using overwintering larvae, and Exp.2 was conducted in June 2016 using non-wintering larvae. The responses of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity, oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and energy reserves were investigated. The hypoxia-normoxia shift considerably inhibited CAT and ORAC in Exp.1. In addition, the energy reserves were decreased in response to exposure to severe hypoxia-normoxia. However, LPO was not induced under these conditions. It is conceivable that regulating antioxidant defense enzymes and utilizing energy reserves may suppress the expected increases in LPO. In contrast, the hypoxia-normoxia shift in Exp.2 had almost no effect on oxidative stress response, with only ORAC being induced. Exp.1 had a lower dissolved oxygen partial pressure and a larger difference in the oxygen partial pressure between hypoxia and normoxia than Exp.2. The severity of hypoxia-normoxia shift and the differences in the life cycles (overwintering or non-wintering) may cause the difference in the response of ORAC in Exp.1 and Exp.2. This study revealed that the effect of the hypoxia-normoxia shift on oxidative stress response in aquatic insects and the strength of the impact of the shift on oxidative stress response may be influenced by water temperature and life cycles.

Response of AMP-activated protein kinase and lactate metabolism of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) under acute hypoxic stress

To study adaptation of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) to hypoxic stress, we investigated physiological responses and lactate metabolism of the fish under acute hypoxia. The objectives of this study were to (a) observe changes in glucose, glycogen, and lactate content; (b) detect the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in serum, brain, heart, and liver tissues; and (c) quantify the dynamic gene expression of AMP activated protein kinase alpha (AMPKα), hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α), monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4), and lactate dehydrogenase-a (LDHa) following exposure to hypoxia. The fish were subjected to two hypoxia stresses (dissolved oxygen [DO] 1.20 ± 0.2 mg/L and 3.50 ± 0.3 mg/L, respectively) for 24 h. Our results showed that hypoxic stress significantly increased the decomposition of liver glycogen and significantly increased the concentration of blood glucose; however, the muscle glycogen content was not significantly decreased, which indicates that liver glycogen was the main energy source under acute hypoxia. Moreover, hypoxia led to accumulation of a large amount of lactic acid in tissues, possibly due to the activity of lactic acid dehydrogenase, but this process was delayed in the heart and brain relative to the liver. Additionally, hypoxia induced the expression of AMPKα, HIF-1α, MCT1, MCT4, and LDHa, suggesting that glycometabolism had switched from aerobic to anaerobic. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of the response to hypoxia in largemouth bass.

Caffeine modulates brain purinergic signaling in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) under hypoxia conditions: improvement of immune and inflammatory responses

Purinergic signaling is linked to neurodegenerative and proinflammatory damage during pathological conditions such as hypoxia, but involvement of this pathway in brain damage in fish exposed to environmental hypoxia remains unknown, and we propose dietary supplementation with caffeine in order to improve the immune response. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate whether the enzymatic purinergic signaling pathway is associated with inflammatory brain damage in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) exposed to environmental hypoxia and whether dietary supplementation with caffeine (5% and 8%) can prevent these changes in purinergic signaling. Animals were randomly divided into six groups (A-F, n = 6 per group, in triplicate), as follows: groups A-C were submitted to normoxia, while groups D-F were submitted to hypoxia. Groups A and D received the basal diet, while groups B and D and groups C and F received a diet containing 5% and 8% caffeine, respectively, and fed with their respective diets for 21 days. After 21 days, aeration was disconnected (groups D-F) and the dissolved oxygen levels were maintained as follows: group A (6.55 ± 0.23 mg/L), group B (6.51 ± 0.24 mg/L), group C (6.58 ± 0.22 mg/L), group D (1.23 ± 0.11 mg/L), group E (1.20 ± 0.15 mg/L), and group F (1.18 ± 0.13 mg/L). Cerebral triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase) using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a substrate and 5'-nucleotidase activities decreased in fish exposed to 72 h of hypoxia compared with the normoxia group, while adenosine deaminase (ADA) activity and levels of nitric oxide (NO_x) metabolites were higher. Dietary supplementation with 5% and 8% caffeine prevented all alterations elicited by hypoxia, with the exception of ADA activity in the case of 5% caffeine. Based on this evidence, our findings reveal that nucleotide/nucleoside hydrolysis is modified in the brains of fish exposed to 72 h of hypoxia, contributing to inflammatory damage, which apparently is mediated by excessive ATP content in the extracellular medium and by excessive NO_x production. Also, the use of a diet containing 5% and 8% caffeine prevented these alterations (except 5% of dietary caffeine on ADA activity) and can be considered an interesting approach to preventing the impairment of immune and inflammatory responses elicited by hypoxia, principally the inclusion of 8% caffeine.

Low temperature-induced variation in plasma biochemical indices and aquaglyceroporin gene expression in the large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea

Low temperature influences multiple physiological processes in fish. To explore the adaptability of the large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) to low temperature, the concentrations of glycerol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and triglycerides (TG) in plasma, as well as the expression levels of metabolism-related genes aqp7 and aqp10, were measured after exposure to low temperature stress and during subsequent rewarming. In addition, tissue samples from the intestine and liver were histologically analyzed. We found that the concentrations of plasma glycerol, BUN, and TG, decreased under low temperature stress, suggesting the metabolism of fat and protein slowed at low temperature. The expression levels of aqp7 and aqp10 mRNA were also downregulated under exposure to low temperature. Interestingly, above plasma indices and gene expression returned to basic levels within 24 h after rewarming. Furthermore, the liver and the intestine were damaged under continuous low temperature stress, whereas they were repaired upon rewarming. From the above results, we concluded that aqp7 and aqp10 genes were sensitive to low temperature, and that the decrease in their expression levels at low temperature might reduce energy consumption by L. crocea. However, the adaptation to low temperature was limited because the key metabolic tissues were damaged under continuous exposure to low temperature. Interestingly, the metabolism of L. crocea was basically back to normal within 24 h of rewarming, showing that it has high capacity of self-recovery.

Transcriptome Analysis Provides Insights Into the Adaptive Responses to Hypoxia of a Schizothoracine Fish (Gymnocypris eckloni)

The schizothoracine fish endemic to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are comparatively well adapted to aquatic environments with low oxygen partial pressures. However, few studies have used transcriptomic profiling to investigate the adaptive responses of schizothoracine fish tissues to hypoxic stress. This study compared the transcriptomes of Gymnocypris eckloni subjected to 72 h of hypoxia (Dissolved oxygen, DO = 3.0 ± 0.1 mg/L) to those of G. eckloni under normoxia (DO = 8.4 ± 0.1 mg/L). To identify the potential genes and pathways activated in response to hypoxic stress, we collected muscle, liver, brain, heart, and blood samples from normoxic and hypoxic fish for RNA-Seq analysis. We annotated 337,481 gene fragments. Of these, 462 were differentially expressed in the hypoxic fish as compared to the normoxic fish. Under hypoxia, the transcriptomic profiles of the tissues differed, with muscle the most strongly affected by hypoxia. Our data indicated that G. eckloni underwent adaptive changes in gene expression in response to hypoxia. Several strategies used by G. eckloni to cope with hypoxia were similar to those used by other fish, including a switch from aerobic oxidation to anaerobic glycolysis and the suppression of major energy-requiring processes. However, G. eckloni used an additional distinct strategy to survive hypoxic environments: a strengthening of the antioxidant system and minimization of ischemic injury. Here, we identified several pathways and related genes involved in the hypoxic response of the schizothoracine fish. This study provides insights into the mechanisms used by schizothoracine fish to adapt to hypoxic environments.

Experimental evidence of masculinization by continuous illumination in a temperature sex determination teleost (Atherinopsidae) model: is oxidative stress involved?

The present study evaluates the influence of continuous light on phenotypic sex ratios in Chirostoma estor, a temperature sex determination animal model. Relative gene expression levels of 5 day old larvae were performed on two early gonad differentiation genes (sox9 and foxl2), two stress axis activation genes (gcr1 and crf) and four reactive oxygen species (ROS) antagonist effector genes (sod2, ucp2, gsr and cat). Two light treatments were applied from fertilization; control (12L:12D) simulated natural photoperiod and a continuous illumination photoperiod. By the end of the trial (12 weeks after hatching), differentiated and normal gonads were clearly identifiable in both treatments by histological observations. Regarding sex ratio, 73% of phenotypic males were found in continuous illumination compared with 40% in controls. Consistently, the sox9 gene (involved in early testis differentiation) showed an over expression in 64% of the individual larvae analysed compared with foxl2 (ovarian differentiation) suggesting a masculinization tendency in continuous illumination. On the other hand, only 36% of individuals showed the same tendency in the control treatment consistent with phenotypic sex ratios found under normal culture conditions. Relative gene expression results did not show significant difference in sod2, ucp2 and gcr1 levels, but cat, gsr and crf showed significantly higher expression levels in the continuous illumination treatment suggesting that both, the stress axis and ROS response mechanisms were activated at this time. This study suggests, a link between continuous light, oxidative stress and environmental sex determination in vertebrates. However, further research is necessary to describe this possible upstream mechanism that may drive some aspects of sexual plasticity in vertebrates.

Current Trends and Research Challenges Regarding "Preparation for Oxidative Stress"

Survival under stress, such as exposure to hypoxia, anoxia, freezing, dehydration, air exposure of water breathing organisms, and estivation, is commonly associated to enhanced endogenous antioxidants, a phenomenon coined "preparation for oxidative stress" (POS). The regulation of free radical metabolism seems to be crucial under these selective pressures, since this response is widespread among animals. A hypothesis of how POS works at the molecular level was recently proposed and relies on two main processes: increased reactive species production under hypoxia, and activation of redox-sensitive transcription factors and signaling pathways, increasing the expression of antioxidants. The present paper brings together the current knowledge on POS and considers its future directions. Data indicate the presence of POS in 83 animal species (71.6% among investigated species), distributed in eight animal phyla. Three main research challenges on POS are presented: (i) to identify the molecular mechanism(s) that mediate/induce POS, (ii) to identify the evolutionary origins of POS in animals, and (iii) to determine the presence of POS in natural environments. We firstly discuss the need of evidence for increased RS production in hypoxic conditions that underlie the POS response. Secondly, we discuss the phylogenetic origins of POS back 700 million years, by identifying POS-positive responses in cnidarians. Finally, we present the first reports of the POS adaptation strategy in the wild. The investigation of these research trends and challenges may prove useful to understand the evolution of animal redox adaptations and how they adapt to increasing stressful environments on Earth.