Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

A cluster-randomised controlled feasibility trial evaluating the Cognitive Occupation-Based programme for people with Multiple Sclerosis (COB-MS)

INTRODUCTION

There is a high prevalence of cognitive difficulties in MS, but despite this, there are few programmes targeting cognition that focus on the ability to function well in everyday life. The Cognitive Occupation-Based programme for people with Multiple Sclerosis (COB-MS), an occupation-focused cognitive intervention, was developed to address this. It addresses both the functional difficulties and the wide-ranging symptoms that present in MS.

OBJECTIVE

Here we report on the results of a cluster-randomised controlled feasibility trial (ISRCTN11462710; registered 4th September 2019) evaluating the COB-MS in terms of feasibility and initial efficacy as a cognitive intervention for people with MS.

METHOD

The eight-session COB-MS intervention was delivered remotely by occupational therapists to participants with MS in the intervention group. Following the end of the trial the COB-MS was delivered to the wait-list control group. Data was collected from people with MS experiencing cognitive difficulties at baseline, post-intervention, 12-weeks, and 6-month follow-up. The primary outcome measure was the Goal Attainment Scaling at 12 weeks. Data was also collected in the domains of cognition, quality of life, and mood.

RESULTS

One hundred and eighteen people with MS and cognitive difficulties were randomised to either usual care (n = 60) or COB-MS intervention (n = 58). Ninety-four participants were retained at 6-month follow-up. The COB-MS was found to be feasible, including trial procedures and protocol. Data indicates that the COB-MS is accepted by participants and had positive impacts on daily life. Those allocated to the COB-MS group had a significant improvement in the primary outcome compared to the control condition. Progression criteria set for the feasibility trial have been met therefore further testing of the COB-MS at a definitive trial is supported by the results.

CONCLUSION

The results provide a strong basis for a pathway to a future definitive trial of COB-MS, with respect to both feasibility and preliminary, clinical efficacy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN11462710 Date of registration: 4th September 2019.

Working Memory and Inhibition as Mediators in the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Emotional Eating

Objective: Previous studies have focused on the dual relationship among adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), cognitive abilities, and emotional eating. The current study aims to test the mediating role of executive functioning (working memory and inhibition) between ACEs and emotional eating. Methods: A total of 1105 community-based participants, aged 18-45 (Mean = 26.28, SD = 7.09), were included in the study. Among the participants, 698 (63.16%) were female, and 407 (36.84%) were male. Participants completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; the Adult Executive Functioning Inventory; the Dutch Eating Behaviour Scale; the Life Events Checklist; and the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale Short Form. Multiple mediation analyses were employed using MPlus 8.3. Results: Multiple mediation analysis results showed that working memory and inhibition mediate the relationship between ACEs and emotional eating. Furthermore, working memory and inhibition were positively correlated with emotional eating. Discussion: Our findings indicate that difficulties in working memory and inhibition may increase the risk of emotional eating. Early intervention targeting executive functions may prevent emotional eating. Public Significance: Our findings highlight the relationship among ACEs, executive functioning, and emotional eating. Intervening in executive function may have clinical benefits for individuals with ACEs.

Sports participation & childhood neurocognitive development

Various psychosocial factors like collaboration inherent to team sports might provide a more dynamic environment for cognitive challenges that could foster enhanced neurocognitive development compared to individual sports. We investigated the impact of different organised sports on neurocognitive development in children (N = 11,878; aged 9-11) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Participants were classified into four categories based on their sports involvement at baseline and two years later: none, individual-based, team-based, or both. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted on 11 cognitive tests and neuroimaging metrics (i.e., resting-state functional connectivity and various grey matter (GM) and white matter (WM) measurements) between sport groups. A comparison between team and individual sports yielded no significant differences in cognitive measures at baseline and follow-up. Similarly, although WM microstructural differences were significant, the effect size was small. However, participation in any sport at baseline was associated with superior performance in various cognitive domains (i.e. inhibition, processing speed, and others), greater subcortical GM volume (i.e. cerebellum cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and others), and whole-brain WM integrity compared to non-participants. Results suggest a positive association between organised sports participation, specifically individual and team-based sports, and neurocognitive development. However, further investigation is warranted to determine the nuanced effects of different sports on neurocognitive development.

The relationship between acute aerobic exercise and inhibitory control in college students: The impact of physical and cognitive engagement

OBJECTIVE

Evidence suggests that acute exercise is an effective way for improving inhibition control, however, the effect of different types of Acute Aerobic Exercise and Inhibitory Control (IC) remains unclear.

METHOD

Using a crossover design, 25 participants (M = 20.20year, SD=0.91) completed 20 min of interventions at 1) moderate intensity exercise, 2) moderate intensity exercise with high cognitive demand (high cognitive-demand exercise), 3) moderate intensity exercise with high physical demand (high physical-demand exercise), and 4) rest condition (low physical and cognitive demand) in a counterbalanced way. Flanker task was completed before and after each intervention to evaluate their inhibitory control ability.

RESULTS

The four interventions significantly reduce reaction times for both congruent and incongruent trials with Flanker task (all P < 0.05). Compared to acute moderate intensity exercise, high physical-demand exercise induced a greater reduction in reaction times for both trial types, whereas high cognitive-demand exercise led to faster reaction times in incongruent trials.

CONCLUSION

Although each intervention effectively enhanced inhibitory control, the exercise demanding high cognitive and physical effort contributed to a more pronounced improvement in inhibitory control performance. This indicates that both increased physical and cognitive engagement can significantly improve the level of inhibitory control in young adults.

Effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The deterioration of executive function is a hallmark of cognitive aging. Reports indicate that signs of decline in executive function begin to emerge as early as middle age. Aerobic exercise improves executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults, but the optimal exercise prescription variables are still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults and explore the dose-response relationship and moderators.

METHODS

We conducted comprehensive searches of PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus for English literature, and CNKI, WanFang, and VIP for Chinese literature, covering the period from inception until April 25, 2024. Randomized controlled trials examining the effect of aerobic exercise on executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults aged 45 or older were included. The Cochrane Collaboration's RoB2 tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. And subgroup analyses and meta-regressions were conducted to elucidate the impact of aerobic exercise on executive function.

RESULTS

Forty-two eligible randomized controlled trials, involving a total of 2881 participants, met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review and meta-analysis. The pooled results showed that aerobic exercise had positive effects on improving cognitive flexibility (Hedge's g = 0.343, p < 0.001), working memory (Hedge's g = 0.392, p < 0.001), and inhibitory control (Hedge's g = 0.229, p < 0.001) in healthy middle-aged and older adults. However, it did not demonstrate an improvement in planning (Hedge's g = 0.094, p = 0.440). The dose-response relationships between different exercise parameters and subdomains of executive functions revealed that the largest effects on cognitive flexibility were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity mind-body exercise, 46-60 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. Regarding working memory, the largest effects were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. For inhibitory control, the greatest effects were noted after 13-24 weeks of low-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 3-4 days per week.

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise can significantly improve cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control in healthy middle-aged and older adults. The effect of aerobic exercise on different aspects of executive function is influenced by specific exercise parameters, suggesting that personalized aerobic exercise programs may be more effective for enhancing executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults.

The contributions of motor skill proficiency to cognitive and social development in early childhood

With limited evidence from intervention studies, causal relationships between motor competence and cognitive and social development have yet to be clearly established. In this research, we investigated whether a targeted training programme to improve fundamental movement skills (i.e., object control, locomotor) in young children would also lead to improvements in the cognitive (i.e., executive function) and social (i.e., socioemotional competence) domains. Using a two-arm group randomised intervention design, 185 children aged 36 to 60 months (mean 47.51, SD 8.11 months) were allocated to a motor skill intervention group or an active control group. The intervention was implemented over one school year, and outcomes were monitored across five time points. Longitudinal analysis was performed using hierarchical linear mixed-effects and latent growth curve models. Participation in the motor skill intervention led to higher rates of development of object control skills (p < 0.001) and executive function (p < 0.001). A dose‒response relationship was found in which those children who displayed greater development of object control skills over time also displayed greater development of executive function (p = 0.001). We found no significant effects of the intervention on locomotor skills, social behaviours, or socioemotional competence. These findings provide evidence of a causal relationship between motor and cognitive development.

Training kindergarten children on learning from their mistakes

This study investigated whether feedback on their errors and speed improves kindergarten children's performance in an executive function (EF) task. Children from Switzerland (N = 213, 49% female, Mage = 6.4 years) were tested in the Hearts and Flowers task pre- and post-training and trained either on a variant of this task with (n = 71) or without feedback (n = 72), or on a control learning task (n = 70). The feedback group performed more efficiently than the no-feedback group during the intervention and partially also in the post-test. Both EF training groups performed more efficiently than the control group in the post-test. These results suggest that kindergarten children detect and monitor their errors and even get better at it given the opportunity to practice. Moreover, they benefit additionally from external feedback. Integrating feedback into computerized cognitive training (and learning apps) could be a potential avenue for interventions in school settings.

Supporting Young Children's Self-Regulation Through Nature-Based Practices in Preschool

Self-regulation is a crucial skill in early childhood, due to its influence on school readiness and success, as well as its foundational role in promoting wellbeing across the lifespan. Additionally, self-regulation is malleable, particularly during early childhood. This study investigated the impact of nature-based practices on preschoolers' self-regulation. The Preschool Self-Regulation Assessment (PSRA) and PSRA Assessor Report were administered to 115 children from nine preschool programs at the beginning and end of the school year. While further research is needed, results suggest the potential for nature-based practices to support SR, in particular hot executive function, and particularly in children from lower socio-economic backgrounds in public preschool. This study contributes to the literature regarding effective practices for supporting self-regulation development in young children and adds to the growing body of research surrounding the impact of nature play on child development and school readiness.

Dopamine in Sports: A Narrative Review on the Genetic and Epigenetic Factors Shaping Personality and Athletic Performance

This narrative review examines the relationship between dopamine-related genetic polymorphisms, personality traits, and athletic success. Advances in sports genetics have identified specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in dopamine-related genes linked to personality traits crucial for athletic performance, such as motivation, cognitive function, and emotional resilience. This review clarifies how genetic variations can influence athletic predisposition through dopaminergic pathways and environmental interactions. Key findings reveal associations between specific SNPs and enhanced performance in various sports. For example, polymorphisms such as COMT Val158Met rs4680 and BDNF Val66Met rs6265 are associated with traits that could benefit performance, such as increased focus, stress resilience and conscientiousness, especially in martial arts. DRD3 rs167771 is associated with higher agreeableness, benefiting teamwork in sports like football. This synthesis underscores the multidimensional role of genetics in shaping athletic ability and advocates for integrating genetic profiling into personalized training to optimize performance and well-being. However, research gaps remain, including the need for standardized training protocols and exploring gene-environment interactions in diverse populations. Future studies should focus on how genetic and epigenetic factors can inform tailored interventions to enhance both physical and psychological aspects of athletic performance. By bridging genetics, personality psychology, and exercise science, this review paves the way for innovative training and performance optimization strategies.

Computerized cognitive games versus cognitive exergame: the comparison of motor and cognitive functions enhancement in the elderly

BACKGROUND

Considering the importance of cognitive and motor functions of the elderly people, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a cognitive exergame, called Neurolight compared to computerized cognitive games, in enhancing core executive functions and motor performance.

METHODS

A total of 36 individuals in the age range of 60 to 69 years were studied in the form of three groups: The control group continued their daily activities, while the Neurolight group underwent a cognitive-motor training and the Maghzineh performed a computer-based cognitive training program for 24 sessions. Before and after interventions, working memory, inhibitory control, and balance were measured respectively by the N-back, Stroop, and TUG tests.

RESULTS

The results showed that cognitive-motor exercises using Neurolight, for 24 sessions, were able to significantly improve working memory, inhibitory control, and balance in individuals in this age group.

CONCLUSION

This finding supports the other studies suggesting combined cognitive and physical exercises for better effect. Based on its findings, the use of this exercise system can be suggested to coaches and therapists working with the elderly.

Executive and attentional functioning interventions in preterm children: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review, performed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, seeks to summarize the interventions that have been developed in order to improve executive functioning and attention in children born prematurely.

METHODS

The PICOS framework helped guide the structure and relevant terms selected for the study. Electronic systematic searches of the databases PubMed (NLM), Ovid Medline, Ovid All EBM Reviews, Ovid Embase, and Ovid PsycINFO were completed in March 2022. This review focuses on interventions that target attention and executive functioning in prematurely born children between birth and 12 years old, with outcome measures assessed between 3 and 12 years old, even if the age range in the study can exceed our own parameters. Data extraction included sample characteristics, country of recruitment, type of intervention, description of the intervention group and control group, outcome measures, and overall results. An assessment of the quality of methodology of studies was performed through an adaptation of the Downs and Black checklist for both randomized and nonrandomized studies in healthcare interventions. An assessment of the risk of bias was also presented using the Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized trials 2.0.

RESULTS

A total of 517 premature children received an intervention at some point between birth and early adolescence. Eleven different interventions were assessed in 17 studies, with rating of the quality of methodology and outcomes ranging from lower quality studies (44% quality rating) to robust studies (96% quality rating) in terms of reporting standards, external and internal validity, and power. Five of those studies focused on interventions administered in the neonatal intensive care unit or shortly postdischarge (e.g., the Mother-Infant Transaction Program and the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program, documented in two articles each [11%] or the Infant Behavioral Assessment and Intervention Program assessed in one study [about 5%]), while 12 articles reported on interventions administered between the ages of 1.5-12 years old [mostly computerized cognitive training programs such as Cogmed (23%) and BrainGame Brian (17%)]. Of the 17 articles examined, 12 (70%) showed positive short-term outcomes postintervention and 3 (17%) demonstrated positive long-term results with small to large effect sizes (0.23-2.3). Among included studies, 50% showed an overall high risk of bias, 21.4% showed some concerns, and 28.6% were low risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the heterogeneity of the programs reviewed, the presented findings should be interpreted as descriptive results. A careful and individualized selection from the various available interventions should be made based on the target population (i.e., age at intervention administration and outcome testing) before implementing these program protocols in clinical settings.

Effects of open-skill and closed-skill exercise on subthreshold depression in female adolescents: A randomized controlled trial

Background

Subthreshold depression (SD) affects a significant proportion of adolescent females, posing a risk of major depression in later life. This study examines the effects of open-skill exercise (OSE) and closed-skill exercise (CSE) on SD, executive function (EF), and emotional states in female adolescents.

Methods

A double-blind randomized controlled trial involved 95 female adolescents (mean age = 16.73 ± 0.42 years) with SD symptoms. Participants were assigned to OSE, CSE, or control (CON) groups and underwent an 8-week exercise program. Primary outcomes were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-13) and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), with secondary outcomes including EF tasks and emotional assessments. Differences were examined using generalized linear mixed models with intention-to-treat and multiple imputation.

Results

Both OSE and CSE significantly reduced depressive symptoms, with CSE showing greater improvement. EF assessments showed enhanced cognitive flexibility and working memory in both exercise groups at 4 weeks, and superior inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in the CSE group at 8 weeks. Emotional assessments indicated a notable reduction in negative emotions in the CSE group after 8 weeks.

Conclusions

Both OSE and CSE reduce SD symptoms in female adolescents, with CSE providing more sustained benefits for EF and emotional states. Further research on exercise interventions for mental health is warranted.Trial registration number: ChiCTR2400081139.

Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Aerobic, Exercise and Sports Participation in Female Cognition: A Scoping Review : Sports, Fitness, and Cognition

BACKGROUND

The impact of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) on cognition is thought to be mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Aerobic exercise can increase CRF through various activities, including sports participation. The relationship between these factors in females has yet to be elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to map the current literature on the effects of aerobic exercise, sports participation, and CRF in healthy adult females, with sub-topics of pregnancy and menstrual cycle periodicity.

METHODS

A scoping review of the literature was conducted following PRISMA guidelines and the PCC mnemonic (population, concept, and context). The following five databases were screened: CINAHL, Medline, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and Scopus. Eligible articles included healthy adult females, investigated aerobic exercise, sports participation or CRF, and linked outcomes to cognition. Data from included manuscripts was extracted and analyzed. Two sub-population groupings (pregnant individuals and menstrual cycle) were established to further aid the interpretation of the findings.

RESULTS

Of the 300 titles and abstracts screened, 74 were eligible for full-text screening, and 28 were included in the scoping review. Of the 28 included, 14 did not control for or report on menstrual cycle phase or sex hormones.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review found an inverse 'U' relationship between aerobic exercise and cognition, demonstrating an optimal dose of aerobic exercise to benefit cognitive functions. As estrogen may impact the relationship between CRF and neural growth factors, more research is needed on this pathway, independent of the menstrual cycle, to determine potential beneficial effects. It is currently unknown whether sports participation can independently impact cognition.

Effects of different exercise interventions on executive function in children with autism spectrum disorder: a network meta-analysis

Background

A large body of research has identified the positive effects of physical activity on children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the specific benefits of different types of sports on executive functioning in children with ASD remain unclear. The aim of this study was to further analyze the effects of different sports on executive functioning in children with ASD using reticulated meta-analysis and to establish their effectiveness ranking.

Methods

This study conducted a comprehensive online search in Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, and CNKI databases. It included randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies, and synthesized the data using a Bayesian framework.

Results

Several relevant studies were included. The results showed that physical activity significantly improved all three dimensions of executive functioning (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) in children with ASD. The improvement in cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control both reached a medium effect size. However, the improvement in inhibitory control was better than that in cognitive flexibility, while the improvement in working memory did not reach the level of a medium effect. Mini Basketball was effective in improving inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, but not working memory. Ping Pong was more effective in cognitive flexibility and working memory, but weaker in inhibitory control. Fixed Bicycle was less effective in all three dimensions. Among other interventions, Learning Bicycles, Animal-assisted therapy, and Exergaming performed better in cognitive flexibility. SPARK, Neiyang Gong, and Martial Arts were also effective in improving inhibitory control. However, SPARK and Fixed Bicycle were not significant in improving working memory.

Conclusion

Physical activity as an intervention can significantly improve the executive function of children with ASD. The intervention effects of different sports on different dimensions of executive function vary. Mini Basketball was outstanding in improving inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Ping Pong was effective in improving cognitive flexibility and working memory. Fixed Bicycle was not effective in any dimension.

The impact of an exercise and sport intervention on cognitive function and pain among forcibly displaced individuals at risk for PTSD: a secondary analysis of the SALEEM randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

In response to the global scope of forced displacement, international organizations highlight the need of scalable solutions to support individuals' health and integration into host societies. Exposure to high mental and physical stress perceived before, during, and after displacement can impair functional capabilities, essential for adapting to a new environment. This secondary analysis examined the impact of an exercise and sport intervention on cognitive function and pain severity among individuals living in a refugee camp in Greece.

METHODS

We implemented a randomized controlled trial involving n = 142 (52.8% women) forcibly displaced individuals from Southwest Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Participants were randomly assigned to a waitlist or a 10-week co-designed exercise and sport intervention with a 1:1 allocation rate between groups and sexes. Assessments at baseline and follow-up included the Flanker task, the Oddball paradigm, pain severity via visual analog scales, and the Åstrand-Rhyming indirect test of maximal oxygen uptake. We analyzed the intervention effects using structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

Our findings did not indicate a direct intervention effect on cognitive function or pain (p ≥ .332). However, the intervention group significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness, ß = .17, p = .010, which was associated with faster reaction times in cognitive tasks, ß =  - .22, p = .004. Moreover, there was some evidence that adherence might be linked to reduced pain severity, ß =  - .14, p = .065.

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise and sport did not directly impact cognitive function and pain severity among a sociodemographically diverse sample living in a refugee camp, suggesting the need for complementary measures. Nevertheless, our results indicate that improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness benefit aspects of attention.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was approved by the local ethics committee of the University of Thessaly (no. 39) and registered prospectively on February 8, 2021 at the ISRCTN registry (no. 16291983).

Associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and executive function in Chinese adolescents

Executive function (EF) has a significant impact on career achievement in adolescence and later adulthood, and there are many factors that influence EF. Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an important factor in the physical fitness of adolescents and is of great significance to healthy development. However, the current association between CRF and EF in Chinese adolescents is still unclear. For this reason, this study analysed the association between CRF and EF. A three-stage stratified cluster sampling method was used to investigate the demographic information, CRF, EF and multiple covariates of 1245 adolescents in China. One-way analysis of variance and chi-square test were used to compare the EF status of different CRFs. The association between CRF and EF was analysed using multiple linear regression analysis and logistic regression analysis. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that, after adjusting for relevant confounding factors, compared with Chinese adolescents with VO2max < P25, the inhibition function reaction time, 1back reaction time, 2back reaction time, and cognitive flexibility response time of adolescents with VO2max > P75 decreased by 1.41 ms, 238.73 ms, 273.09 ms, 74.14 ms. Logistic regression analysis showed that compared with Chinese adolescents with VO2max > P75, Chinese adolescents with VO2max < P25 developed inhibitory function dysfunction (OR 2.03, 95% CI: 1.29, 3.20), 1back dysfunction (OR 6.26, 95% CI 3.94, 9.97), 2back dysfunction (OR 8.94, 95% CI 5.40, 14.82), cognitive flexibility dysfunction (OR 2.26, 95% CI 1.44, 3.57) The risk was higher (P < 0.01). There is a positive association between CRF and EF in Chinese adolescents. High-grade CRF adolescents have higher EF levels, that is, shorter response times. This study provides reference and lessons for better promoting adolescents' executive function development in the future.

Emotions or cognitions first? Longitudinal relations between executive functions and emotion regulation in childhood

Executive functions and emotion regulation develop from early childhood to adolescence and are predictive of important psychosocial outcomes. However, despite the correlation between the two regulatory capacities, whether they are prospectively related in school-aged children remains unknown, and the direction of effects is uncertain. In this study, a sample drawn from two birth cohorts in Norway was biennially examined between the ages of 6 and 14 (n = 852, 50.1% girls, 93% Norwegian). Parents completed the Emotion Regulation Checklist, and teachers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model revealed that improved emotion regulation predicted increased executive functioning to the same extent throughout development, whereas enhanced executive functioning was unrelated to future changes in emotion regulation.

Associations between middle childhood executive control aspects and adolescent substance use and externalizing and internalizing problems

This study examines the degree to which two middle childhood executive control aspects, working memory and combined inhibitory control/flexible shifting, predict adolescent substance use and externalizing and internalizing problems. Participants were 301 children (ages 3-6 years; 48.2% male) recruited from a Midwestern city in the United States and followed into adolescence (ages 14-18 years). Working memory had a statistically significant unadjusted association with externalizing problems (r = -.30, p = .003) in a confirmatory factor analysis. Neither factor significantly predicted any of the adolescent outcomes in a structural equation model that adjusted for each EC aspect, sociodemographic covariates, and middle childhood externalizing and internalizing problems. Stronger prediction of EC aspects might not emerge until they become more fully differentiated later in development.

Use of Virtual Reality in School-Aged Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Novel Approach

Virtual reality (VR) applications in paediatric rehabilitation are recent but promising. This brief report describes a VR rehabilitation program for a small sample of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The program focused explicitly on executive functions, a key area of concern for this population. It was conducted over 11 weeks in the CARE Lab. This lab was designed with appropriate structural characteristics and sophisticated technology to provide a rehabilitative setting with recreational and semi-immersive features. Before and after the VR training, the children were evaluated in terms of visual attention, inhibition, planning abilities, and visual-motor coordination. The rehabilitation programs were customised according to the clinical needs and the functional profile of each patient, proposing different games with variable complexity levels. These preliminary results showed a global and clinically significant change in executive functions, especially visual attention and inhibition skills. These findings suggest interesting implications for clinical practice, providing new information for professionals regarding the application of VR in the field of paediatric rehabilitation.

Effects of cognitively engaging physical activity interventions on executive function in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to evaluate the effects of cognitively engaging Physical Activity (PA) interventions on Executive Function (EF) in children and adolescents. It examines how different intervention modalities, durations, frequencies, and session lengths influence these effects.

Methods

We followed the PRISMA guidelines and searched PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Embase, and Web of Science for relevant studies. Studies were included if they were Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) focusing on PA with cognitive elements targeting EF in healthy children and adolescents. Data were extracted and effect sizes computed using Standardized Mean Differences (SMDs).

Results

From an initial 1,635 articles, 23 studies with 2,857 participants were included. The overall effect of cognitively engaging PA on EF was significant (SMD = 0.32, 95% CI 0.14-0.51), with notable improvements in inhibitory control (SMD = 0.35) and working memory (SMD = 0.34). High heterogeneity was observed (I 2 = 91.1%). Moderator analyses revealed that interventions lasting more than 6 weeks, with sessions over 20 min and conducted more than twice a week, were particularly effective.

Conclusion

Cognitively engaging PA interventions positively impact EF in children and adolescents, particularly in inhibitory control. Effective interventions are characterized by longer duration, higher frequency, and extended session lengths. These findings underscore the importance of integrating cognitive challenges within PA programs to enhance EF, warranting future research and practical applications in educational and developmental settings.

Executive functions and their relationship with age: Insights from a novel neuropsychological Assessment Battery in Children-a pilot study

Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to manage and coordinate their thoughts and actions toward achieving specific goals. EFs include planning, organizing, initiating, and monitoring actions, and have been found to improve with age due to the maturation of the brain, especially during childhood. Therefore, our correlational study sought to determine the relationship between the performance in executive functions and age in 79 children (36 girls, 45.6%) throughout development, between the ages of 6 and 12 (mean = 9.25; SD = 2.05), using a battery designed in Chile: BEFE (Batería de Evaluación de las Funciones Ejecutivas: Executive Function Assessment Battery) based on traditional neuropsychological tests to evaluate Working Memory, Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility, and Planning skills. Our results showed various correlations between the variables age and performance in various behavioral parameters, demonstrating an increase in the number of correct responses (positive correlation) and/or a decrease in errors (negative correlation) with age (6-12) in the subtests that correspond to dimensions of Cognitive Flexibility (Semantic and Phonological Fluency, Card Sorting Game, and Tracing Tasks), Inhibitory Control (ENA-F and Sentence Completion), Working Memory (Audio-verbal WM Forward and Ordering, and Visuospatial WM Forward and Backward), and Planning (La Portada de Antofagasta and FISA Maps). These results are consistent with previous empirical evidence and support the notion of a developmental relationship between EF performance and age. Additionally, this study contributes to understanding EF development in culturally specific contexts, highlighting the importance of contextually relevant assessment tools in evaluating cognitive development.

Identifying Language Development in Children with ADHD: Differential Challenges, Interventions, and Collaborative Strategies

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) significantly influences children's language acquisition and usage. This theoretical study explores the multifaceted impact of ADHD on language development, specifically focusing on reading and writing challenges. Existing research reveals that approximately 30% of children with ADHD show significant delays in reading proficiency. Additionally, about 40% of these children struggle with phonological processing, which directly impacts their reading and writing skills. Interventions targeting executive function training combined with phonics-based instruction have been shown to significantly improve language outcomes. This study introduces a comprehensive framework connecting these challenges to specific interventions and collaborative strategies, emphasizing the importance of a multi-disciplinary approach. This work provides perspectives on the specific connections between ADHD symptoms and language difficulties, offering detailed potential solutions based on empirical data. Moreover, it features the necessity of adopting integrated intervention strategies to advance academic outcomes and communicative competencies for children with ADHD, providing new understandings into effective educational practices.

Volleyball training improves working memory in children aged 7 to 12 years old: an fNIRS study

This study aimed to investigate the effect of a 12-wk extracurricular volleyball training on working memory from both behavioral and cerebral aspects. A total of 80 children were randomized assigned to (i) the experimental group, who engaged in extracurricular volleyball training for 60 min, thrice a week for 12 wk, and (ii) the control group, who maintained their regular daily routine. Working memory was evaluated in both groups using the N-back task before and after the intervention. Furthermore, functional near-infrared spectroscopy was employed to monitor the level of oxygenated hemoglobin in the prefrontal cortex. The experimental group performed better in the behavioral task than the control group, as evidenced by a shorter response time and a higher correct rate. The functional near-infrared spectroscopy results suggested that the activation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group. In addition, correlation analyses showed that the enhancement of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation was significantly correlated with decreasing response time and improving response accuracy in the N-back task. These findings suggest that the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is likely the neural substrate for improved working memory performance elicited by 12-wk open skill exercise.

Athletes with meditation experience counteract the detrimental effect of mental fatigue on endurance performance and neurocognitive functions

The current study examined whether meditation experience is associated with changes in endurance performance and inhibitory control-relevant neurocognitive functions caused by mental fatigue. Twenty-four athletes with meditation experience (AME) and twenty-five athletes without meditation experience (AWME) underwent a 30-min incongruent Stroop test in mental fatigue condition (MF) and a 30-min congruent Stroop test in control condition (CON) in a randomised-counterbalanced order. Inhibitory control-relevant neurocognitive functions were assessed using Flanker task and event-related potentials, followed by an endurance task using the Bruce treadmill protocol. Visual analogue scale was used to evaluate perceived mental fatigue (VAS-MF) before (T1), after Stroop test (T2) and after Flanker task (T3), and VAS for motivation (VAS-M) was used to evaluate motivation in Flanker task and endurance task. Results indicated that, compared to the CON, AWME in the MF exhibited overall lower accuracy, smaller incongruent N2 amplitude of the Flanker task (ps < .05), and shorter time to exhaustion (TTE) of the endurance task (p < .001), whereas AME did not exhibited difference in these outcomes between the conditions. Along with athletes in the MF reported lower VAS-M in endurance task. These findings suggest the benefits of meditation experience in mitigating the negative effects of mental fatigue.

The Effects of Telehealth Parent Coaching on Occupational Performance and Executive Function of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders, and Parent Self-Efficacy: A Preliminary Study

This study examined the effectiveness of telehealth parent coaching on occupational performance and executive functions of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) and executive function deficits and parent self-efficacy. A one group pretest-posttest design was implemented with nine parents of children with ADHD ages 7-12 years old. The intervention consisted of ten, 60-minute, individual sessions, one per week delivered via telehealth. The parent program had three coaching components: goal setting, education, and the problem-solving process. Using strategies from the Four-Quadrant Model of Facilitated Learning, the results showed statistical improvement in performance and satisfaction of occupational performance and all executive functions scores of children except for the Shift and Emotional Control. Parent self-efficacy was also improved. These preliminary results suggest that the telehealth parent coaching program may potentially support a family who has a child with ADHD and executive function deficits.

Cognitive simulation along with neural adaptation explain effects of suggestions: a novel theoretical framework

Hypnosis is an effective intervention with proven efficacy that is employed in clinical settings and for investigating various cognitive processes. Despite their practical success, no consensus exists regarding the mechanisms underlying well-established hypnotic phenomena. Here, we suggest a new framework called the Simulation-Adaptation Theory of Hypnosis (SATH). SATH expands the predictive coding framework by focusing on (a) redundancy elimination in generative models using intrinsically generated prediction errors, (b) adaptation due to amplified or prolonged neural activity, and (c) using internally generated predictions as a venue for learning new associations. The core of our treatise is that simulating proprioceptive, interoceptive, and exteroceptive signals, along with the top-down attenuation of the precision of sensory prediction errors due to neural adaptation, can explain objective and subjective hypnotic phenomena. Based on these postulations, we offer mechanistic explanations for critical categories of direct verbal suggestions, including (1) direct-ideomotor, (2) challenge-ideomotor, (3) perceptual, and (4) cognitive suggestions. Notably, we argue that besides explaining objective responses, SATH accounts for the subjective effects of suggestions, i.e., the change in the sense of agency and reality. Finally, we discuss individual differences in hypnotizability and how SATH accommodates them. We believe that SATH is exhaustive and parsimonious in its scope, can explain a wide range of hypnotic phenomena without contradiction, and provides a host of testable predictions for future research.

Creativity and consciousness in motion: The roundtrip of "mindful" and "mindless" processes in embodied creativity

In this opinion paper, we make a journey across different accounts of creativity that emphasize either the mindful, conscious and cognitive expression of creativity, or its mindless, unconscious and sensorimotor expression. We try to go beyond dichotomy, putting creativity in motion and outlining its embodied and enactive features. Based on the assumption that no creative act is purely conscious or purely unconscious, our discussion on creativity relies on the distinction of three types of creativity that complementarily contribute to the creative process through shifts in the activation of their substrates in the brain: the deliberate, spontaneous and flow types of creativity. The latter is a hybrid and embodied type, in which movement and physical activity meet creativity. We then focus on the most fascinating contribution of unconscious processes and mind wandering to spontaneous and flow modes of creativity, exploring what happens when the individual apparently takes a break from a deliberate and effortful search for solutions and the creative process progresses through an incubation phase. This phase and the overall creative process can be facilitated by physical activity which, depending on its features and context, can disengage the cognitive control network and free the mind from filters that constrain cognitive processes or, conversely, can engage attentional control on sensorimotor and cognitive task components in a mindful way. Lastly, we focus on the unique features of the outer natural environment of physical activity and of the inner environment during mindful movements that can restore capacities and boost creativity.

Resveratrol Reduces Neuroinflammation and Hippocampal Microglia Activation and Protects Against Impairment of Memory and Anxiety-Like Behavior in Experimental Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by motor and postural impairments. However, early brain injury can promote deleterious effects on the hippocampus, impairing memory. This study aims to investigate the effects of resveratrol treatment on memory, anxiety-like behavior, and neuroinflammation markers in rats with CP. Male Wistar rats were subjected to perinatal anoxia (P0-P1) and sensory-motor restriction (P2-P28). They were treated with resveratrol (10 mg/kg, 0.1 ml/100 g) or saline from P3-P21, being divided into four experimental groups: CS (n = 15), CR (n = 15), CPS (n = 15), and CPR (n = 15). They were evaluated in the tests of novel object recognition (NORT), T-Maze, Light-Dark Box (LDB), and Elevated Plus Maze (EPM). Compared to the CS group, the CPS group has demonstrated a reduced discrimination index on the NORT (p < 0.0001) and alternation on the T-Maze (p < 0.01). In addition, the CPS group showed an increase in permanence time on the dark side in LDB (p < 0.0001) and on the close arms of the EPM (p < 0.001). The CPR group demonstrated an increase in the object discrimination index (p < 0.001), on the alternation (p < 0.001), on the permanence time on the light side (p < 0.0001), and on the open arms (p < 0.001). The CPR group showed a reduction in gene expression of IL-6 (p = 0.0175) and TNF-α (p = 0.0007) and an increase in Creb-1 levels (p = 0.0020). The CPS group showed an increase in the activated microglia and a reduction in cell proliferation in the hippocampus, while CPR animals showed a reduction of activated microglia and an increase in cell proliferation. These results demonstrate promising effects of resveratrol in cerebral palsy behavior impairment through reduced neuroinflammation in the hippocampus.

Well-designed manufacturing work improves some cognitive abilities in individuals with cognitive impairments

Introduction

Employment is recognized as a fundamental human right, which correlates with better physical and mental health. Importantly, well-designed work, which considers the physical, social, and psychological impacts of work, can serve to enhance the cognitive abilities of workers. Although often overlooked, work for individuals with disabilities, including cognitive impairments, is equally important for their physical and mental well-being. What has not been established, however, is whether well-designed work can also enhance the cognitive abilities of individuals with cognitive impairments.

Methods

Using a longitudinal study design, we investigated the impact of well-designed work on the cognitive abilities of 60 participants (operators) at the AMIPI Foundation factories, which employ individuals with cognitive impairments to produce electrical cables and harnesses for the automobile industry. The same operators were assessed at three different time points: upon hiring (n = 60), and after working in the factory for 1 year (n = 41, since 19 left the factory) and 2 years (n = 28, since 13 more left the factory). We used five cognitive tests evaluating: (1) finger and manual dexterity, bimanual dexterity, and procedural memory using the Purdue Pegboard; (2) sustained and selective attention using the Symbol Cancellation Task; (3) short- and long-term declarative verbal memory and long-term verbal recognition memory using Rey's Audio-Verbal Learning Test; (4) short- and long-term visual recognition memory using the Continuous Visual Memory Test; and (5) abstract reasoning using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices.

Results

We observed improvements in procedural memory, sustained and selective attention, and short- and long-term visual recognition memory after working in the factory for 1 or 2 years. We did not observe improvements in finger or manual dexterity or bimanual dexterity, nor short- or long-term declarative verbal memory or verbal recognition memory, nor abstract reasoning.

Discussion

We conclude that, in addition to improving physical and mental well-being, well-designed manufacturing work can serve as a training intervention improving some types of cognitive functioning in individuals with cognitive impairments.

Longitudinal prediction of primary school children's COVID-related future anxiety in the second year of the pandemic in Germany

Although research has confirmed that the first COVID-19-related lockdown has increased stress and mental health problems in children, less is known about the longer-term effects of the pandemic on children's COVID-related future anxiety (CRFA). Because of CRFA's potentially debilitating effects, risk and resilience factors against this anxiety were investigated. To this end, n = 140 children (49% female) in 3rd and 4th grade classrooms in Germany were asked to perform a working memory task and to self-report about their CRFA and emotion regulation in December 2020 and in May 2021. More maladaptive emotion regulation in December 2020 contributed to the explanation of a high CRFA score in May 2021, whereas a better performance on working memory updating contributed a lower CRFA score later when controls were in place. These results were confirmed when children's CRFA in December 2020 was included in the prediction of their later CRFA. They suggest that maladaptive strategies of emotion regulation, such as rumination, may explain higher or increasing levels of CRFA, whereas efficient working memory updating may be an indicator of processing information in a way which shields children from CRFA-related thoughts. The concepts underlying these variables should be included in prevention and intervention efforts.

The Effectiveness of Dance Interventions on Psychological and Cognitive Health Outcomes Compared with Other Forms of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Physical activity is known to improve psychological and cognitive outcomes. Learning dance sequences may challenge cognition, partnered or group dance may benefit social interactions, and the artistic aspect may improve psychological wellbeing. Dance is an equally effective form of physical activity compared with other structured physical activities to improve physical health, but it is unclear how effective dance could be for psychological and cognitive outcome measures.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review the literature on the effectiveness of structured dance interventions, compared with structured exercise programmes, on psychological and cognitive outcomes across the lifespan.

METHODS

Eight databases were searched from earliest records to July 2022. Studies investigating a dance intervention lasting ≥ 4 weeks, including psychological and/or cognitive health outcomes, and having a structured exercise comparison group were included. Screening and data extraction were performed by two independent reviewers at all stages. All reviewer disagreements were resolved by the primary author. Where appropriate, meta-analysis was performed, or an effect size estimate generated.

RESULTS

Of 21,737 records identified, 27 studies met the inclusion criteria. Total sample size of included studies was 1392 (944 females, 418 males, 30 unreported). Dance was equally as effective as other physical activity interventions in improving quality of life for people with Parkinson's disease [mean difference 3.09; 95% confidence interval (CI) - 2.13 to 8.30; p = 0.25], reducing anxiety (standardised mean difference 2.26; 95% CI - 2.37 to 6.90; p = 0.34), and improving depressive symptoms (standardised mean difference 0.78; 95% CI - 0.92 to 2.48; p = 0.37). Preliminary evidence found dance to be superior to other physical activity interventions to improve motivation, aspects of memory, and social cognition and to reduce distress. Preliminary evidence found dance to be inferior to other physical activity interventions to improve stress, self-efficacy and language fluency.

CONCLUSION

Undertaking structured dance of any genre is generally equally and occasionally more effective than other types of structured exercise for improving a range of psychological and cognitive outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO: CRD42018099637.

Multiple group membership and executive function in a socioeconomically diverse sample

Belonging to multiple groups is an important feature of our social lives. However, it is largely unknown if it is related to individual differences in cognitive performance. Given that changing self-identities linked to each group requires cognitive operations on knowledge bases associated with each group, the extent to which people belong to multiple groups may be related to individual differences in cognitive performance. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to test if multiple group membership is related to executive function task performance. A socioeconomically diverse sample of 395 individuals in Indonesia participated in this study. Our results show that multiple group membership was positively related to the 3-back working memory performance. However, we also found that this relationship was significant only among participants with high (not median or low) SES. We also observed that Contact diversity was negatively related to working memory performance among participants with low SES. Our results show that the complexity of our social lives is related to individual differences in executive function performance, although this seems to be constrained by SES.

Mindfulness Through Storytelling for Mental Health of Primary School Children: Impact on Acceptability and Its Associations with Personality

Purpose

Acceptability of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) in primary school settings seems to represent a critical factor influencing the intervention effects on children's mental health. This study aims at assessing the acceptability of an MBP delivered through the technique of storytelling, as well as identifying which participants' personality characteristics can influence it.

Participants and Methods

Italian children in grades 3-to-5 (n = 147, 47.6% girls) participated in a 24-session MBP, which included 225 minutes of formal mindfulness practices and was delivered by the pupils' school teachers. Children's personality traits were assessed with the junior Temperament and Character Inventory (jTCI), while their subjective experiences and acceptability of the program were investigated using a survey containing open-ended and closed-ended questions.

Results

Program acceptability was 2.9 ± 0.7 on a 0-4 scale. Higher jTCI scores of persistence, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence were related to higher ratings in liking the program, finding it useful and engaging themselves in it. Moreover, 57.8% of the children generalized the mindfulness practices in daily life and 93.9% of them declared they would recommend the program to their friends/parents. Five main themes emerged from children's answers on what they learned: "help for difficulties (emotional, mental, and physical)", "calm, relax, tranquility", "resilience, positiveness, personal growth", "self-exploration, interoception", and "attention, concentration, and here-and-now".

Conclusion

Program acceptability was generally higher than in similar programs in the literature, and children reported personal gains in various areas related to psychological well-being. The study also suggests which children's personality traits should be considered when proposing an MBP in order to improve its acceptability and utility.

Assessing the mediating relationships between psychological factors in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognitive disengagement syndrome

This study aims to investigate the predictive and mediating relationships between emotion dysregulation, internalizing disorders, family functionality, loneliness preference, and executive functions (EF) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cognitive disengagement syndrome (ADHD + CDS). This study included 176 children and adolescents (92 boys, 84 girls) who were diagnosed with ADHD + CDS according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the Fifth Edition criteria by a fellowship-trained child and adolescent psychiatrist, between ages 8 -12 (M = 10, SD = 1.52) with a convenience sampling method. The solitude scale for children, difficulties in emotion dysregulation scale, Child Behavior Checklist, Barkley Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale, Family assessment device, and CNS Vital Signs test were used. The results showed that difficulty in emotion regulation, preference for loneliness, internalizing disorders and CDS symptom severity did not have a mediating effect between family functionality and EF. Still, emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between EF and internalizing disorders by itself and through loneliness preference. Also, preference for loneliness and emotion dysregulation had a mediating effect between family functionality and internalizing disorders. Finally, it was found that the effect of emotion regulation difficulty, loneliness preference, and internalizing disorders had a mediating role between CDS symptom severity and family functionality. In conclusion, the information obtained from this study on the etiology of CDS may guide future studies.

Physical training improves inhibitory control in children aged 7-12 years: An fNIRS study

Physical exercise plays a crucial role in the development of cognition and brain functions in children. Inhibitory control is an advanced cognition that affects children's life and learning. In the current study, the relationship between physical training and inhibitory control was explored. In total, 80 children were randomly but equally assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent physical training (volleyball) for 60 min, thrice a week for 12 weeks. In contrast, the control group did not undergo any training and continued with their daily routines. The flanker task and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) were employed to investigate the effects of 12-week physical training on inhibitory control and changes in the oxy-Hb concentration in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during the task. The behavioral results revealed that the experimental group performed better on the flanker task (e.g., shorter response time [F(1,74) = 18.420, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.199] and higher accuracy [F(1,74) = 15.00, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.169] than the control group. The oxy-Hb concentration in the right dorsolateral PFC (R-DLPFC) was higher and the activation level of this region was higher during the flanker task [F(1,74) = 6.216, p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.077]. Moreover, the McNemar test revealed improved cognitive performance in response time or accuracy and R-DLPFC activation induced by physical exercise coincided significantly (χ2 = 5.49, p < 0.05; χ2 = 6.081, p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the R-DLPFC is likely the neural substrate for improved cognitive performance elicited by 12-week physical training.

Experience-dependent neurodevelopment of self-regulation in adolescence

Adolescence is a period of rapid biobehavioral change, characterized in part by increased neural maturation and sensitivity to one's environment. In this review, we aim to demonstrate that self-regulation skills are tuned by adolescents' social, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. We discuss adjacent literatures that demonstrate the importance of experience-dependent learning for adolescent development: environmental contextual influences and training paradigms that aim to improve regulation skills. We first highlight changes in prominent limbic and cortical regions-like the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex-as well as structural and functional connectivity between these areas that are associated with adolescents' regulation skills. Next, we consider how puberty, the hallmark developmental milestone in adolescence, helps instantiate these biobehavioral adaptations. We then survey the existing literature demonstrating the ways in which cultural, socioeconomic, and interpersonal contexts drive behavioral and neural adaptation for self-regulation. Finally, we highlight promising results from regulation training paradigms that suggest training may be especially efficacious for adolescent samples. In our conclusion, we highlight some exciting frontiers in human self-regulation research as well as recommendations for improving the methodological implementation of developmental neuroimaging studies and training paradigms.

Resistance exercising on unstable surface leads to Pupil Dilation

BACKGROUND

Chronic resistance training and acute resistance exercises improve physical performance and can enhance cognitive performance. However, there is still uncertainty about the mechanism(s) responsible for cognitive improvement following resistance training and exercise. Recent findings suggest that resistance exercise has metabolic as well as cognitive demands, which potentially activate similar neural circuitry associated with higher-order cognitive function tasks. Exercising on unstable devices increases the coordinative and metabolic demands and thus may further increase cognitive activation during resistance exercise. The measurement of pupil diameter could provide indications of cognitive activation and arousal during resistance exercise. Pupil dilation is linked to the activity in multiple neuromodulatory systems (e.g., activation of the locus coeruleus and the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (LC-NE system)), which are involved in supporting processes for executive control. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the cognitive activation measured by pupil diameter during an acute bout of resistance exercise on stable and unstable surfaces.

METHODS

18 participants (23.5 ± 1.5 years; 10 females) performed ten kettlebell squats in a preferred repetition velocity in stable and unstable (BOSU® Balance Trainer) ground conditions. Pupil diameter was recorded with eye tracking glasses (SMI ETG) during standing (baseline) and during squatting. Raw pupil data were cleaned of artifacts (missing values were linearly interpolated) and subjected to a subtractive baseline correction. A student t-test was used to compare mean pupil diameter between ground conditions.

RESULTS

The mean pupil diameter was significantly greater during squats in the unstable condition than in the stable condition, t (17) = -2.63, p =.018, Cohen's dZ = -0.62; stable: 0.49 ± 0.32 mm; unstable: 0.61 ± 0.25 mm).

CONCLUSION

As indicated by pupil dilation, the use of unstable devices can increase the cognitive activation and effort during acute bouts of resistance exercise. Since pupil dilation is only an indirect method, further investigations are necessary to describe causes and effects of neuromodulatory system activity during resistance exercise. Resistance training with and without surface instability can be recommended to people of all ages as a physically and cognitively challenging training program contributing to the preservation of both physical and cognitive functioning.

Comparative efficacy of physical activity types on executive functions in children and adolescents: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

This study investigates the impact of various physical activity (PA) types on executive functions (EFs) in children and adolescents.

DESIGN

A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.

METHODS

We searched databases such as PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science up to April 2023, including randomized controlled trials involving 6 distinct PA types for healthy children and adolescents. The Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to assess the risk of bias, and a random-effects model in STATA 17.0 was used to calculate standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Ball Games emerged as the most effective modality for improving updating accuracy, securing a SUCRA score of 94.4 %, and for reducing inhibition reaction time, with a SUCRA score of 94.8 %. Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity led in improving inhibition accuracy with a SUCRA score of 71.7 %. Dance excelled in improving update accuracy and reducing shifting reaction time, with SUCRA scores of 86.6 % and 99.5 %, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PA has a significant benefit in EFs in children and adolescents, however the size of the effect varies by type of PA. Ball Games emerged as the most efficacious modality for enhancing updating accuracy and for expediting inhibition reaction time. Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity proved to be the preeminent strategy for improving inhibition accuracy. Dance was distinguished as the optimal approach for improving updating accuracy and reducing shifting reaction time.

The effects of musical instrument training on fluid intelligence and executive functions in healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Intervention studiescombiningcognitive and motor demands have reported far-transfer cognitive benefits in healthy ageing. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of music and rhythm intervention on cognition in older adulthood. Inclusion criteria specified: 1) musical instrument training; 2) healthy, musically-naïve adults (≥60 years); 3) control group; 4) measure of executive function. Ovid, PubMed, Scopus and the Cochrane Library online databases were searched in August 2023. Data from thirteen studies were analysed (N = 502 participants). Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool (RoB 2; Sterne et al., 2019). Random effects models revealed: a low effect on inhibition (d = 0.27,p = .0335); a low-moderate effect on switching (d = -0.39, p = .0021); a low-moderate effect on verbal category switching (d =0.39,p = .0166); and a moderate effect on processing speed (d = 0.47,p < .0001). No effect was found for selective visual attention, working memory, or verbal memory. With regards to overall bias, three studies were rated as "high", nine studies were rated as having "some concerns" and one was rated "low". The meta-analysis suggests that learning to play a musical instrument enhances attention inhibition, switching and processing speed in ageing.

Physical activity intervention improves executive function and language development during early childhood: The active early learning cluster randomized controlled trial

This study aimed to determine the effects of the Active Early Learning (AEL) childcare center-based physical activity intervention on early childhood executive function and expressive vocabulary via a randomized controlled trial. Three-hundred-and-fourteen preschool children (134 girls) aged 3-5 years from 15 childcare centers were randomly assigned to the intervention (8 centers; n = 170 children) or control group (7 centers, n = 144 children) in May 2019. Participants were mostly Australian (85%) and from slightly higher areas of socio-economic status than the Australian average. There was an AEL intervention effect on inhibition (β = 0.5, p = .033, d = 0.29) and expressive vocabulary (β = 1.97, p = .001, d = 0.24). Integration of the AEL physical activity intervention into the daily childcare routine was effective in enhancing children's executive function and expressive language development.

Far Transfer Effects of Trainings on Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis

Executive Functions are a set of interrelated, top-down processes essential for adaptive goal-directed behaviour, frequently impaired across different neurodevelopmental disorders with variable degrees of severity. Many executive-function-training studies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders have focused on near effects, investigating post-treatment improvements on directly trained processes, while enhancements of skills not directly trained, defined as far effects, are less considered, albeit these could be extremely relevant for reducing the negative impact of a disorder's core symptomatology. This systematic review and metanalysis aims to investigate the far effect outcomes after EF training in children with different types of neurodevelopmental disorders. 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, while 15 studies were selected in the metanalysis. An overall statistically significant effect size was found in the majority of far effect outcome measures considered in the studies. In particular, trainings on executive functions determine significant far effects on daily life functioning (0.46, 95% CI: [0.05-0.87]) and clinical symptoms (0.33, 95% CI: [0.15-0.51]). Despite a high variability of the results, intensity, frequency and the laboratory/life contexts dimension seem to be the most influential variables in determining far effects. This systematic review and metanalysis highlights the need to measure far effects of executive function training in neurodevelopmental disorders, selecting treatments not only on directly targeted processes, but also according to far impacts on the functional weakness of the disorder.

Impact of chronic physical activity on individuals' creativity

There is growing evidence to suggest that physical activity positively influences cognitive processes. A similar trend is seen in the literature examining the relationship between acute physical activity and creativity. Nevertheless, certain questions persist: Does engaging in physical activity over an extended period (chronic) influence creativity? If it does, what is the duration of this impact? The present study uses Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT) to examine whether chronic physical activity for 6 weeks can improve individual creativity vis-à-vis a control group that performs regular class activity without any physical activity. It also assesses whether the effect of chronic physical activity on creativity endures after 2 weeks of ceasing the interventions. The study involves 49 school students who were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control conditions. Their creativity, operationalized as divergent thinking is measured using the Alternate Uses Task. The measurements are taken before the intervention, again 6 weeks later, and once more, after 2 weeks of cessation of interventions. The results indicate that after 6 weeks of engaging in physical activity, the participants showed improvements in both the fluency and originality components of divergent thinking when compared to the control group. Furthermore, the results demonstrate a lingering effect of physical activity on the originality component of divergent thinking. The findings lend some support to the strength model of self-control. The implications for research and practice are further discussed in the study.

Effectiveness of teleneuropsychological rehabilitation: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVE

The effectiveness of neuropsychological rehabilitation is supported by the evidence found in previous reviews, but there is a lack of research regarding the effectiveness of remotely conducted neuropsychological rehabilitation. This review aimed to identify and evaluate the results of studies investigating the effectiveness of teleneuropsychological rehabilitation.

METHODS

Relevant articles were extracted from electronic databases and filtered to include studies published in 2016 or later to focus on recent practices. Data were synthesized narratively.

RESULTS

A total of 14 randomized controlled studies were included in the synthesis (9 for children/adolescents, 5 for adults). The most common type of intervention was computerized cognitive training with regular remote contact with the therapist (seven studies). Regarding children and adolescents, the evidence for the effectiveness was found only for these types of interventions with improvements in cognitive outcomes. The results regarding the family-centered interventions were mixed with improvements only found in psychosocial outcomes. No support was found for the effectiveness of interventions combining cognitive and motor training. Regarding adults, all included studies offered support for the effectiveness, at least to some extent. There were improvements particularly in trained cognitive functions. Long-term effects of the interventions with generalization to global functioning remained somewhat unclear.

CONCLUSION

Remote interventions focused on computerized cognitive training are promising methods within teleneuropsychological rehabilitation. However, their impact on long-term meaningful, everyday functioning remained unclear. More research is needed to reliably assess the effectiveness of teleneuropsychological interventions, especially with more comprehensive approaches.

Lived Experiences of Cognitive Dysfunction in Fibromyalgia: How Patients Discuss Their Experiences and Suggestions for Patient Education

Cognitive dysfunction (CD) is a common, impairing symptom experienced by persons with fibromyalgia (FM). This study explored how individuals with FM describe their experience of CD in an online peer support environment. Posts referencing cognitive symptoms were extracted from two Facebook FM peer support groups at two timepoints. Using inductive Thematic Analysis, key discussion themes were identified and compared across groups and time. Four themes represented the way members described their cognitive experiences in FM: understanding and describing CD experiences, distrust of cognitive abilities, choosing between pain and medication side effects, and misunderstanding and judgement from others. Two themes represented the impact of CD on members' lives: impaired social interaction and loss of identity. Group members described broad impairments in daily functioning that significantly and negatively impacted their quality of life, indicating CD symptoms may play a more prominent role in the FM experience than previously understood. An infographic is included to aid patient education and help facilitate patient-provider discussions of CD symptoms.

The relation between effortful control and executive function training in preschoolers

In recent years, the question of whether executive function (EF) is malleable has been widely documented. Despite using the same training tasks, transfer effects remain uncertain. Researchers suggested that the inconsistency might be attributed to individual differences in temperamental traits. In the current study, we investigated how effortful control, a temperamental trait, would affect EF training outcomes in children. Based on parent rating, 79 6-year-old preschoolers were identified as having higher or lower effort control and were assigned to three conditions: working memory (WM) training, inhibitory control (IC) training, and a business-as-usual control group. Children completed assessments at baseline, 1 week after intervention (posttest), and 3 months after intervention (follow-up). As compared with the control group, the WM and IC training groups showed improvement in both trained tasks and nontrained measures. At baseline, children with higher effortful control scores showed greater WM capacity and better IC. Furthermore, effortful control was positively correlated with training gain in both training groups, with children with higher effortful control benefitting more through training. In the WM training group, effortful control was positively correlated with near transfer on WM outcomes both immediately and longitudinally. At posttest, the WM and IC training groups showed a positive correlation between effortful control and fluid intelligence performance. Our results underscore the importance of individual differences in training benefits, in particular the role of effortful control, and further illustrate the potential avenues for designing more effective individualized cognitive training programs to foster learning and optimize children's development.

Effect of conscious conflict on the subliminal perception of table tennis players: from the electrophysiological evidence of ERP

Table tennis athletes possess a strong ability to identify subliminal stimuli and perform better (faster response time and lower error rate) than non-athletes in the subliminal priming experiment when the prime is congruent with the target stimulus. However, whether athletes perform equally well in the presence of interference stimuli around the target stimulus remains unknown. Effect of conflicts triggered by consciously perceived flanker stimuli on the subliminal perception were assessed using an experimental paradigm featuring flankers and a masked prime. Both the athlete and non-athlete groups exhibited a significant priming effect when target and flanker were congruent. The athlete group also showed a considerable priming effect under an incongruent condition, although the priming effect size was reduced. However, the priming effect of the non-athlete group disappeared with incongruent flankers. Event-related potentials revealed that the interaction between subliminal processing and suprathreshold conflict could be displayed in the early stage of perceptual and attention processing (P1 event-related potential component).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11571-022-09883-2.

The relationships among executive functions, self-regulation, and physical exercise in children with autism spectrum disorder

LAY ABSTRACT

This study examined the impacts of two types of physical exercises (two-wheel cycling vs stationary cycling) on cognition and self-regulation among 64 children with autism spectrum disorder. It also explored the role of social, emotional, and physical needs of an individual in the relationship between exercise, cognition, and self-regulation. Results showed that participants in the two-wheel cycling group showed significant improvements in their cognition and that the two exercise groups also enhanced their self-regulation. Moreover, this study also revealed that the social need is crucial in mediating the relationship between exercise and self-regulation. This study strengthens the notion that cognitively engaging exercise is more beneficial than the non-cognitively engaging exercise in enhancing cognition in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Effects of 12-week aerobic exercise with different frequencies on executive function in preschool children: a cluster randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effects of a 12-week aerobic exercise program with different frequencies on executive functions (EFs) in preschool children.

METHOD

Four kindergartens, comprising 126 preschool children in Shanghai, were enrolled in this 12-week cluster randomized controlled trial with a 12-week follow-up period. Kindergartens were allocated to high-frequency (three times a week) or low-frequency (once a week) exercise groups using stratified block randomization. Three core sub-EFs, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, were assessed at baseline, post-intervention, and the 12-week follow-up.

RESULTS

Compared to baseline, both groups showed significant improvements in inhibition and working memory after the intervention and at the 12-week follow-up. However, only the high-frequency exercise group demonstrated a significant improvement in cognitive flexibility after the follow-up period. Nonetheless, there were no significant differences in the core sub-functions of EFs between the two groups at the end of the intervention or the follow-up periods.

CONCLUSION

A 12-week aerobic exercise of three times a week was insufficient to significantly improve EFs in preschool children compared to once a week. Future studies are needed to examine the dose-response relationship of aerobic exercise on EFs and to verify the effects of different exercise modalities on EFs in preschool children.

Associations between Gross and Fine Motor Skills, Physical Activity, Executive Function, and Academic Achievement: Longitudinal Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

Accumulating evidence from behavioral studies and neuroscience suggests that motor and cognitive development are intrinsically intertwined. To explore the underlying mechanisms of this motor-cognition link, our study examined the longitudinal relationship of early motor skills and physical activity with later cognitive skills. The sample was 3188 children from the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study, followed at 9 months and 5, 7, and 11 years. Early motor skills were examined at 9 months. Children's daily physical activity level was measured using accelerometers at 7 years and a questionnaire was conducted at 11 years. Cognitive skills, including executive function and academic achievement, were measured at age 11. The results suggest that gross motor skills were positively associated with spatial working memory, whereas fine motor skills were predictive of good English and science outcomes. Moderate-to-vigorous activity was found to be negatively associated with English performance, although self-reported activity frequency was positively linked to math. Our results highlight the significant role of both gross and fine motor skills in cognitive development. This study also elucidates the limitations of using activity intensity to assess the impact of motor activity on children's cognitive development, suggesting that attention to the effects of specific types of physical activity would better elucidate the motor/cognition link.