Betanin attenuates paraquat-induced liver toxicity through a mitochondrial pathway

Protective impact of Betanin against noise and scrotal hyperthermia on testicular toxicity in Wistar rat: Role of apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation

The heat exposure and white noise can induce damage on reproductive organs. The main objective of this study is to observe, if betanin administration could ameliorate oxidative stress, apoptosis and inflammation in testis of rodents following noise and scrotal hyperthermia exposure. Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups; control, betanin, noise, hyperthermia and two treatment groups. Scrotal hyperthermia model was performed by heat exposure of rat testicular (43 °C) for 15 min and 3 times per weeks for 14 days. Noise induction model was done following exposure of rats with 100-dB noise level for 14 days and 8 h daily similar to real exposure condition in human. Betanin was administrated at the sub-effective dose (15 mg/kg) by gavage route for 4 weeks (5 times a week) to male rats. The animals were euthanized and testis were dissected and stored at -80 °C. Then, the oxidative stress biomarkers (MDA and GSH), apoptosis (cytochrome c & Annexin V), and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α & IL-6) were measured by the real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of testis collected samples. The data output demonstrates the impact of noise and hyperthermia in testicular toxicity induction by mitigating oxidative damage, apoptosis and inflammatory mediators. Following treatment with 15 mg/kg per day of betanin, lipid peroxidation and GSH content have been modulated, and TNF-α and IL-6 gene expression has been declined. Our results revealed that in Wistar rats, betanin displays protective effects against noise and scrotal hyperthermia-induced acute testicular toxicity through the inhibition of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation.

Reactive oxygen species impair Na+ transport and renal components of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system after paraquat poisoning

Paraquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridyl dichloride) is an herbicide widely used worldwide and officially banned in Brazil in 2020. Kidney lesions frequently occur, leading to acute kidney injury (AKI) due to exacerbated reactive O2 species (ROS) production. However, the consequences of ROS exposure on ionic transport and the regulator local renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) still need to be elucidated at a molecular level. This study evaluated how ROS acutely influences Na+-transporting ATPases and the renal RAAS. Adult male Wistar rats received paraquat (20 mg/kg; ip). After 24 h, we observed body weight loss and elevation of urinary flow and serum creatinine. In the renal cortex, paraquat increased ROS levels, NADPH oxidase and (Na++K+)ATPase activities, angiotensin II-type 1 receptors, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6. In the medulla, paraquat increased ROS levels and NADPH oxidase activity but inhibited (Na++K+)ATPase. Paraquat induced opposite effects on the ouabain-resistant Na+-ATPase in the cortex (decrease) and medulla (increase). These alterations, except for increased serum creatinine and renal levels of TNF-α and interleukin-6, were prevented by 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl (tempol; 1 mmol/L in drinking water), a stable antioxidant. In summary, after paraquat poisoning, ROS production culminated with impaired medullary function, urinary fluid loss, and disruption of Na+-transporting ATPases and angiotensin II signaling.

Targeted inhibition of transforming growth factor-β type I receptor by AZ12601011 improves paraquat poisoning-induced multiple organ fibrosis

Paraquat (PQ) causes fatal poisoning that leads to systemic multiple organ fibrosis, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 plays a critical role in this process. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of AZ12601011 (a small molecular inhibitor of TGFβRI) on PQ-induced multiple organ fibrosis. We established a mouse model of PQ in vivo and used PQ-treated lung epithelial cell (A549) and renal tubular epithelial cells (TECs) in vitro. Haematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining revealed that AZ12601011 ameliorated pulmonary, hepatic, and renal fibrosis, consistent with the decrease in the levels of fibrotic indicators, alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen-1, in the lungs and kidneys of PQ-treated mice. In vitro data showed that AZ12601011 suppressed the induction of α-SMA and collagen-1 in PQ-treated A549 cells and TECs. In addition, AZ12601011 inhibited the release of inflammatory factors, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor-α. Mechanistically, TGF-β and TGFβRI levels were significantly upregulated in the lungs and kidneys of PQ-treated mice. Cellular thermal shift assay and western blotting revealed that AZ12601011 directly bound with TGFβRI and blocked the activation of Smad3 downstream. In conclusion, our findings revealed that AZ12601011 attenuated PQ-induced multiple organ fibrosis by blocking the TGF-β/Smad3 signalling pathway, suggesting its potential for PQ poisoning treatment.

Pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and recent advances in Eugenol's potential benefits against natural and chemical noxious agents: A mechanistic review

The active biological phytochemicals, crucial compounds employed in creating hundreds of medications, are derived from valuable and medicinally significant plants. These phytochemicals offer excellent protection from various illnesses, including inflammatory disorders and chronic conditions caused by oxidative stress. A phenolic monoterpenoid known as eugenol (EUG), it is typically found in the essential oils of many plant species from the Myristicaceae, Myrtaceae, Lamiaceae, and Lauraceae families. One of the main ingredients of clove oil (Syzygium aromaticum (L.), Myrtaceae), it has several applications in industry, including flavoring food, pharmaceutics, dentistry, agriculture, and cosmeceuticals. Due to its excellent potential for avoiding many chronic illnesses, it has lately attracted attention. EUG has been classified as a nonmutant, generally acknowledged as a safe (GRAS) chemical by the World Health Organization (WHO). According to the existing research, EUG possesses notable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and apoptosis-promoting properties, which have lately gained attention for its ability to control chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial malfunction and dramatically impact human wellness. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the scientific evidence from the most significant research studies that have been published regarding the protective role and detoxifying effects of EUG against a wide range of toxins, including biological and chemical toxins, as well as different drugs and pesticides that produce a variety of toxicities, throughout view of the possible advantages of EUG.

Betalains Alleviate Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Fatigue and Improve Sports Performance: an Update on Recent Advancement

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Beetroot juice is a popular natural food supplement commonly consumed for its health and ergogenic benefits. It contains an abundance of phytochemical compounds, which have been shown to enhance sports endurance and recovery. Among them, nitrate is well-studied and known for improving performance during exercise. On the other hand, betalains, the bioactive pigment, have shown various biological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hypertensive, which may improve exercise performance and post-exercise recovery. Additionally, free radical scavenging activities of betalains could increase nitric oxide availability in the blood, thereby improving blood flow and oxygen supply during strenuous exercise. This review article provides a critical discussion of the non-pathological conditions induced by prolonged or strenuous exercise and betalains' potential in reducing such conditions including muscle damage, inflammation, and fatigue. Additionally, the real-time application of betalains as an ergogenic compound in competitive athletes has been discussed. Finally, future directions and conclusions on the potential of betalains as a natural ergogenic aid in sport endurance are outlined.

RECENT FINDINGS

Betalains in beetroot are the major water-soluble nitrogen-containing pigment possessing high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fatigue activities. Betalain supplementation could alleviate exercise-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and fatigue in competitive athletes. Betalains have the potential to become a natural ergogenic aid or nutraceutical compound for sports people during exercise and competitive performance.

The Antioxidant Activity of Betanin protects MRC-5 cells Against Cadmium Induced Toxicity

Cadmium (Cd) can induce both acute and chronic effects in the lungs depending on the time and the exposure route. Betanin is a component derived from the roots of red beets and it is well-known for its antioxidant and anti-apoptosis effects. The current study aimed to survey the protective effects of betanin on cell toxicity induced by Cd. Different concentration of Cd alone and in combination with betanin was assessed in MRC-5 cells. The viability and oxidative stress were measured using resazurin and DCF-DA methods respectively. Apoptotic cells were assessed by PI staining of the fragmented DNA and western blot analysis detected the activation of caspase 3 and PARP proteins. Cd exposure for 24 h declined viability and increased ROS production in MRC-5 cells compared to the control group (p < 0.001). Also, Cd (35 μM) elevated DNA fragmentation (p < 0.05), and the level of caspase 3-cleaved and cleaved PARP proteins in MRC-5 cells (p < 0.001). Co-treatment of cells with betanin for 24 h significantly enhanced viability in concentrations of 1.25 and 2.5 μM (p < 0.001) and 5 μM (p < 0.05) and declined ROS generation (1.25 and 5 μM p < 0.001, and 2.5 μM p < 0.01). As well as, betanin reduced DNA fragmentation (p < 0.01), and the markers of apoptosis (p < 0.001) compared to the Cd-treated group. In conclusion, betanin protects lung cells against Cd-induced toxicity through antioxidant activity and inhibition of apoptosis.

Combining Conventional Organic Solvent Extraction, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction, and Chromatographic Techniques to Obtain Pure Betanin from Beetroot for Clinical Purposes

Red beetroot extract (E162) is a natural colorant that owes its color to betanin, its major red pigment. Betanin displays remarkable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and chemoprotective properties mediated by its structure and influence on gene expression. However, the betanin employed in most preclinical assays is a beetroot extract diluted in dextrin, not pure betanin, as no isolated compound is commercially available. This makes its use inaccurate concerning product content estimates and biological effect assessments. Herein, a combination of conventional extraction under orbital shaking and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to purify betanin by semi-preparative HPLC was performed. The employed methodology extracts betalains at over a 90% yield, achieving 1.74 ± 0.01 mg of pure betanin/g beetroot, a 41% yield from beetroot contents increasing to 50 %, considering the betalains pool. The purified betanin exhibited an 85% purity degree against 32 or 72% of a commercial standard evaluated by LC-MS or HPLC methods, respectively. The identity of purified betanin was confirmed by UV-Vis, LC-MS, and 1H NMR. The combination of a conventional extraction, UAE, and semi-preparative HPLC allowed for betanin purification with a high yield, superior purity, and almost three times more antioxidant power compared to commercial betanin, being, therefore, more suitable for clinical purposes.

Effect of Betanin, the Major Pigment of Red Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.), on the Activity of Recombinant Human Cytochrome P450 Enzymes

Most of the currently available drugs are derived from natural sources, but they are used only after extensive chemical modifications to improve their safety and efficacy. Natural products are used in health supplements and cosmetic preparations and have been used as auxiliary drugs or alternative medicines. When used in combination with conventional drugs, these herbal products are known to alter their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, reducing their therapeutic effects. Moreover, herb-drug interactions (HDIs) may have serious side effects, which is one of the major concerns in health practice. It is postulated that HDIs affect the pathways regulating cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs). Betanin, the chief pigment of red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.), has various types of pharmacological activity, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer effects. However, the potential risk of HDIs for betanin has not yet been studied. Thus, we aimed to predict more specific HDIs by evaluating the effects of betanin on CYPs (CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4), the major phase I metabolic enzymes, using fluorescence-/luminescence-based assays. Our results showed that betanin inhibited CYP3A4 activity in a dose-dependent manner (IC50 = 20.97 µΜ). Moreover, betanin acted as a competitive inhibitor of CYP3A4, as confirmed by evaluating Lineweaver-Burk plots (Ki value = 19.48 µΜ). However, no significant inhibitory effects were observed on other CYPs. Furthermore, betanin had no significant effect on CYP1A2, CYP2B6, or CYP2C9 induction in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, betanin acted as a competitive inhibitor of CYP3A4, and thus it should be used cautiously with other drugs that require metabolic enzymes as substrates. Additional in vivo studies and clinical trials are needed to further elucidate the HDIs of betanin.

Anticancer properties of red beetroot hydro-alcoholic extract and its main constituent; betanin on colorectal cancer cell lines

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer worldwide. Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) contains Betanin as its major betacyanin, possessing wide proapoptotic effects. This study aimed to investigate the anticancer and pro-papoptotic effects of beetroot hydro-alcoholic extract (BHE) and betanin, on colorectal cancer cell lines. BHE and betanin were used to treat Caco-2 and HT-29 colorectal cancer cells. MTT assay, DAPI staining, and FACS-flow cytometry tests were used to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) and apoptosis-inducing evaluations. Intended genes were assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The IC50 for HT-29 and Caco-2 cell lines were 92 μg/mL, 107 μg/mL for BHE, and 64 μg/mL, 90 μg/mL for betanin at 48 h, respectively. BHE and betanin significantly inhibited the growth of both cancer cell lines time and dose-dependently. DAPI staining and flow cytometry results revealed significant apoptosis symptoms in treated cancerous cell lines. The expression level of proapoptotic genes (BAD, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, and Fas-R) in treated HT-29 and Caco-2 cells was higher than in untreated and normal cells. In contrast, the anti-apoptotic gene (Bcl-2) was significantly downregulated. BHE and betanin effectively inhibited cancer cell proliferation and induced apoptosis via the modification of effective genes.

Traversing through the cell signaling pathways of neuroprotection by betanin: therapeutic relevance to Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease

Modulation of cell signaling pathways is the key area of research towards the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Altered Nrf2-Keap1-ARE (Nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1-Antioxidant responsive element) and SIRT1 (Sirtuin 1) cell signaling pathways are considered to play major role in the etiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Strikingly, betanin, a betanidin 5-O-β-D-glucoside compound is reported to show commendable anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects in several disease studies including AD and PD. The present review discusses the pre-clinical studies demonstrating the neuroprotective effects of betanin by virtue of its potential to ameliorate oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, abnormal protein aggregation and cell death. It highlights the direct linkage between the neuroprotective abilities of betanin and upregulation of the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE and SIRT1 signaling pathways. The review further hypothesizes the involvement of the betanin-Nrf2-ARE route in the inhibition of beta-amyloid aggregation through beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), one of the pivotal hallmarks of AD. The present review hereby for the first time elaborately discusses the reported neuroprotective abilities of betanin and decodes the Nrf2 and SIRT1 modulating potential of betanin as a primary mechanism of action behind, hence highlighting it as a novel drug candidate for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in the near future.

Protective Actions of α-Tocopherol on Cell Membrane Lipids of Paraquat-Stressed Human Astrocytes Using Microarray Technology, MALDI-MS and Lipidomic Analysis

Cellular senescence is one of the main contributors to some neurodegenerative disorders. The early detection of senescent cells or their related effects is a key aspect in treating disease progression. In this functional deterioration, oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation play an important role. Endogenous antioxidant compounds, such as α-tocopherol (vitamin E), can mitigate these undesirable effects, particularly lipid peroxidation, by blocking the reaction between free radicals and unsaturated fatty acid. While the antioxidant actions of α-tocopherol have been studied in various systems, monitoring the specific effects on cell membrane lipids at scales compatible with large screenings has not yet been accomplished. Understanding the changes responsible for this protection against one of the consequences of senescence is therefore necessary. Thus, the goal of this study was to determinate the changes in the lipid environment of a Paraquat-treated human astrocytic cell line, as a cellular oxidative stress model, and the specific actions of the antioxidant, α-tocopherol, using cell membrane microarray technology, MALDI-MS and lipidomic analysis. The stress induced by Paraquat exposure significantly decreased cell viability and triggered membrane lipid changes, such as an increase in certain species of ceramides that are lipid mediators of apoptotic pathways. The pre-treatment of cells with α-tocopherol mitigated these effects, enhancing cell viability and modulating the lipid profile in Paraquat-treated astrocytes. These results demonstrate the lipid modulation effects of α-tocopherol against Paraquat-promoted oxidative stress and validate a novel analytical high-throughput method combining cell cultures, microarray technology, MALDI-MS and multivariate analysis to study antioxidant compounds against cellular senescence.

Betalains: colours for human health

In the last years, the use of natural phytochemical compounds as protective agents in the prevention and treatment of obesity and the related-metabolic syndrome has gained much attention worldwide. Different studies have shown health benefits for many vegetables such Opuntia ficus-indica and Beta vulgaris and their pigments collectively referred as betalains. Betalains exert antioxidative, anti-inflammation, lipid lowering, antidiabetic and anti-obesity effects. This review summarizes findings in the literature and highlights the therapeutic potential of betalains and their natural source as valid alternative for supplementation in obesity-related disorders treatment. Further research is needed to establish the mechanisms through which these natural pigments exert their beneficial effects and to translate the promising findings from animal models to humans.

Histological alterations, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response in the liver of swamp eel (Monopterus albus) acutely exposed to copper

Copper (Cu) is widely used as an essential trace element in diets as well as a therapeutic chemical. However, excessive Cu has deleterious effects on organisms, including teleosts. Although numerous toxic effects of Cu have been reported, the effects of Cu exposure on the swamp eel (Monopterus albus) as well as the underlying mechanisms have not yet been elucidated. In this study, swamp eels were acutely exposed to 100, 200, and 400 μg/L of Cu for 96 h to evaluate liver histopathology, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dissolution of hepatocyte membrane, vacuolar degeneration, and inflammatory cell infiltration were detected in the livers of the Cu-treated swamp eels, especially in the 400 μg Cu/L group. Cu-induced hepatic dysfunction was further verified by the elevated activities of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) and glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) and transcript levels of GOT and GPT genes. In addition, Cu exposure decreased the activities of total superoxide dismutase T-SOD and catalase (CAT) and the contents of glutathione (GSH) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and increased the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA). Cu exposure also significantly decreased the transcript levels of glutathione synthetase (GSS) and increased the transcript levels of SOD1, SOD2, CAT, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) genes. Furthermore, pro-inflammatory genes such as interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and IL-8 were significantly upregulated. These results indicate that Cu induces oxidative stress and inflammatory response and causes pathological changes in the liver of the swamp eel.

Reduction of doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity and mitochondrial damage by betanin in rat isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an anticancer drug which is used for treatment of several types of cancers. But the clinical use of doxorubicin is limited because of its cardiotoxicity and cardiomyopathy. Mitochondrial-dependent oxidative stress and cardiac inflammation appear to be involved in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. Betanin as a bioactive compound in Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) displays anti-radical, antioxidant gene regulatory and cardioprotective activities. In this current study, we investigated the protective effect of betanin on doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity and mitochondrial-dependent oxidative stress in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria. Isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria were treated with three concentrations of betanin (1, 5 and 10 µM) and doxorubicin (3.5 µM) for 6 h. The parameters of cellular and mitochondrial toxicity were analyzed using biochemical and flow cytometric methods. Our results showed a significant toxicity in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria in presence of doxorubicin which was related to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), increase in oxidation of GSH to GSSG, lysosomal/mitochondrial damages and mitochondrial swelling. While betanin pretreatment reverted doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria. These results suggest that betanin elicited a typical protective effect on doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. It is possible that betanin could be used as a useful adjuvant in combination with doxorubicin chemotherapy for reduction of cardiotoxicity and cardiomyopathy.

Paraquat-induced acute kidney and liver injury: Case report of a survivor from Bangladesh

Despite high fatality following paraquat ingestion, a few percentages of patients survive even after organ damage appears. We need to focus more on careful clinical and laboratory monitoring. Early diagnosis and Supportive therapy are crucial.

The anti-diabetic effects of betanin in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats through modulating AMPK/SIRT1/NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

In the last few years, the effects of bioactive food components have received much attention because of their beneficial effects including decreasing inflammation, scavenging free radicals, and regulating cell signaling pathways. Betanin as a potent antioxidant has been previously reported to exhibit anti diabetic effects. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of betanin on glycemic control, lipid profile, hepatic function tests, as well as the gene expression levels of 5′ adenosine monophosphate‑activated protein kinase (AMPK), sirtuin-1 (SIRT1), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF‑κB) in streptozocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats.

Methods

Diabetes was induced in male Sprague–Dawley rats by intraperitoneal administration of STZ. Different doses of betanin (10, 20 and 40 mg/kg.b.w) was administered to diabetic rats for 28 days. Fasting blood glucose and serum insulin were measured. The histopathology of liver and pancreas tissue evaluated. Real-time PCR was performed to assess gene expression levels.

Results

Treatment of diabetic rats with betanin (10 and 20 mg/kg.b.w) reduced FBG levels compared to the control diabetic rats (P < 0.001). Betanin at the dose of 20 mg/kg.b.w was most effective in increasing serum insulin levels (P < 0.001) improving glucose tolerance test (GTT) as well as improvement in lipid profile and liver enzymes levels. According to histopathologic assay, different damages induced by STZ to liver and pancreas tissues was largely eliminated by treatment with 10 and 20 mg/kg.b.w of betanin. Betanin also significantly upregulated the AMPK and SIRT1 and downregulated the NF-κB mRNA expression compared to the diabetic control rats (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Betanin could modulate AMPK/SIRT1/NF-κB signaling pathway and this may be one of its anti-diabetic molecular mechanisms.

Betanin Prevents Experimental Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Progression by Modulating the TLR4/NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 Pathways

Betanin, a bioactive ingredient mostly isolated from beetroots, exhibits a protective effect against cardiovascular diseases. However, its effects on abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) have not been elucidated. In this study, an AAA model was constructed by infusion of porcine pancreatic elastase in C57BL/6 mice. Mice were then administered with betanin or saline intragastrically once daily for 14 d. Our results showed that treatment with betanin remarkably limited AAA enlargement and mitigated the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the adventitia. The increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) was also significantly alleviated following betanin treatment. Furthermore, betanin suppressed the activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling in the aortic wall, and downregulated the levels of tissue-reactive oxygen species as well as circulating 8-isoprostane by stimulating the nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway. Taken together, these data suggest that betanin may attenuate AAA progression and may be used as a therapeutic drug against AAA.

The protective effect of betanin and copper on spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury

Context: Both copper and betanin have been implicated as having significant bioactivity against ischemic damage in a variety of experimental and clinical settings. The aim of this study is to investigate whether betanin and copper have any protective effect on spinal cord in an ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) model in rats.Design: Spraque-Dawley rats were used in four groups: Sham group (n = 7), control group (laparotomy and cross-clamping of aorta, n = 7), betanin treatment group (dosage of 100 mg/kg of betanin administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) 60 min before laparotomy, n = 7), copper sulfate treatment group (administered copper sulfate i.p. at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg/day for 7 days before laparotomy, n = 7). Malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were measured. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) dUTP Nick-End Labeling (TUNEL) assay was also performed to evaluate apoptosis.Setting: Kafkas University, Faculty of Medicine, Kars, Turkey.Results: I/R injury was successfully demonstrated with the surgical model. Betanin and copper treatment significantly decreased MDA levels, MPO activity and the number of apoptotic cells in the spinal cord. Betanin and copper treatment significantly increased GSH levels. Copper treatment significantly increased SOD activity, whereas betanin was not as effective. Apoptotic cells were significantly decreased in both treatment groups.Conclusion: I/R injury of the spinal cord can be successfully demonstrated by aortic clamping in this surgical model. Betanin/Copper sulphate has ameliorative effects against operative I/R injury. Low toxicity of those agents makes them ideal targets for clinical research for this purpose.

Effect of paraquat on cytotoxicity involved in oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction: A review of mechanisms and ecological implications

Paraquat (PQ) is a cheap and an effective herbicide, which is widely being used worldwide to remove weeds in cultivated crop fields. However, it can cause soil and water pollution, and pose serious harm to the environment and organisms. Several countries have started to limit or prohibit the use of PQ because of the increasing number of human deaths. Its toxicity can damage the organisms with a multi-target mechanism, which has not been fully understood yet. That is why it is hard to treat as well. The current research on PQ focuses on its targeted organ, the lungs, in which PQ mostly trigger pulmonary fibrosis. While there is a lack of systematic research, there are few studies published discussing its toxic effects at systematic level. This review summarizes the major damages caused by PQ in different organisms and partial mechanisms by which it causes these damages. For this purpose, we consulted several research articles that studied the toxicity of PQ in various tissues. We also listed some drugs that can be used to alleviate the toxicity of PQ. However, at present, the effectiveness of these drugs is still being explored in animal experiments and the study of their mechanism will also help in understanding the poisoning mechanism of PQ, which will ultimately lead to effective treatment in future.

Immediate and late systemic and lung effects of inhaled paraquat in rats

The immediate and the late effects of inhaled Paraquat (PQ) on systemic and lung inflammation and oxidative stress were investigated. Rats were exposed to saline (control group) and two doses of inhaled PQ (27 and 54 mg/m³) and studied variables were measured: 1) one day after the end of PQ exposure as "immediate condition", 2) 16 days after the end of PQ exposure as "late condition". Total and differential white blood cells (WBC) counts, lipid peroxidation and nitrite were increased but thiol, superoxide dismutase and catalase in the blood and BALF as well as methacholine EC50 was reduced in both conditions in the animals exposed to PQ compared to control groups (p < 0. 05 to p < 0.001). Most studied parameters in the immediate condition were significantly higher than the late condition (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). Systemic and lung inflammation and oxidative stress due to inhaled PQ in both the immediate and the late conditions were shown. Although most measured parameters in the immediate condition were higher, all variables were significantly different with the control group even in late condition, indicating a long-term effect of inhaled PQ toxicity, which may help in a more effective treatment of PQ poising in the future.

Current Knowledge on Beetroot Bioactive Compounds: Role of Nitrate and Betalains in Health and Disease

An increase in the prevalence of noncommunicable chronic diseases has been occurring in recent decades. Among the deaths resulting from these conditions, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) stand out as the main contributors. In this regard, dietary patterns featuring a high content of vegetables and fruits, such as the Mediterranean and the DASH diets, are considered beneficial, and thus have been extensively studied. This has resulted in growing interest in vegetable-derived ingredients and food-supplements that may have potential therapeutic properties. Among these supplements, beetroot juice, which is obtained from the root vegetable Beta vulgaris, has gained much attention. Although a significant part of the interest in beetroot juice is due to its nitrate (NO₃^-) content, which has demonstrated bioactivity in the cardiovascular system, other ingredients with potential beneficial properties such as polyphenols, pigments and organic acids are also present. In this context, the aim of this review article is to analyze the current knowledge regarding the benefits related to the consumption of beetroot and derived food-supplements. Therefore, this article focuses on nitrate and betalains, which are considered to be the major bioactive compounds present in beetroot, and thus in the derived dietary supplements.

Biological Properties and Applications of Betalains

Betalains are water-soluble pigments present in vacuoles of plants of the order Caryophyllales and in mushrooms of the genera Amanita, Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus. Betalamic acid is a constituent of all betalains. The type of betalamic acid substituent determines the class of betalains. The betacyanins (reddish to violet) contain a cyclo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (cyclo-DOPA) residue while the betaxanthins (yellow to orange) contain different amino acid or amine residues. The most common betacyanin is betanin (Beetroot Red), present in red beets Beta vulgaris, which is a glucoside of betanidin. The structure of this comprehensive review is as follows: Occurrence of Betalains; Structure of Betalains; Spectroscopic and Fluorescent Properties; Stability; Antioxidant Activity; Bioavailability, Health Benefits; Betalains as Food Colorants; Food Safety of Betalains; Other Applications of Betalains; and Environmental Role and Fate of Betalains.

Ameliorative effect of betanin on experimental cisplatin-induced liver injury; the novel impact of miRNA-34a on the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway

The anticancer agent, cisplatin (CIS), is associated with hepatotoxic effects related to activation of oxidative stress and inflammation pathways. CIS-induced oxidative DNA damage reduces sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) activity, which in turn, modulates the activity of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α). Moreover, microRNA-34a (miRNA-34a) was shown to hinder both SIRT1 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activity. Thus, targeting such a pathway can alleviate CIS-induced hepatotoxicity. Betanin (BET) is a natural red glycoside food dye obtained from beets, which is reported to exhibit antioxidant function. However, its role in CIS-induced liver injury and the molecular mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the ameliorative effect of BET on CIS-induced acute hepatotoxicity through the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway and illustrate the impact of miRNA-34a. Seventy-two rats were divided into six equal groups: (1) Control, (2) BET, (3) CIS, (4) CIS/BET, (5) CIS/EX527, and (6) CIS/BET/EX527. CIS-induced liver injury was evidenced by deregulated BAX and BCL2 levels, decreased levels of AMP-activated protein kinase and PGC-1α expression, and decreased SIRT1 activity. Consequently, reduced levels of Nrf2 and the expression of associated heme oxygenase-1 and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit were observed. Intriguingly, BET succeeded in reducing the CIS-induced liver injury through reducing miRNA-34a expression and enhancing the SIRT1/PGC-1α pathway. These findings coincide with the molecular docking results and the histopathological picture. In conclusion, the current research provided novel findings of the BET ameliorative effect on CIS-induced liver injury through modulating miRNA-34a expression and the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling cascade.

Evaluation of the hepatoprotective effects of curcumin and nanocurcumin against paraquat-induced liver injury in rats: Modulation of oxidative stress and Nrf2 pathway

Paraquat (PQ) is a widely used herbicide all over the world, which is highly toxic for animals and humans. Its cytotoxicity is based on reactive radical generation. The aim of this study is to evaluate and compare the hepatoprotective effects of curcumin and nanocurcumin against liver damage caused by sub-acute exposure with PQ via modulation of oxidative stress and genes expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Rats were exposed to PQ (5 mg/kg/day, orally) + curcumin or nanocurcumin (100 mg/kg/day, orally) for 7 days. Then rats were anesthetized and serum and liver samples were collected. Next, serum enzymatic activities, liver histopathology, oxidative stress, and expression of genes involved in Nrf2 signaling pathway were assessed by biochemical and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods, hematoxylin and eosin staining, and real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis. PQ significantly increased malondialdehyde, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase levels, and Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 gene expression and also decreased total antioxidant capacity, total thiol group levels, Glutathione S-transferases, heme oxygenase 1, Nrf2, and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 genes expression, causing histological damages to liver tissue. These changes were significantly modulated by curcumin and nanocurcumin treatments. Our findings showed that nanocurcumin had better hepatoprotective effect than curcumin in liver damage after PQ exposure most likely through modulation of oxidative stress and genes expression of Nrf2 pathway.

Hylocereus polyrhizus Peel Extract Retards Alcoholic Liver Disease Progression by Modulating Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Responses in C57BL/6 Mice

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) has become a health problem as alcohol consumption has increased annually. Hepatic lipid accumulation, oxidative stress, and inflammation are important factors in the progression of ALD. Red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus (Weber) Britt. & Rose) peel is rich in polyphenols and betanins, which possess antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of red pitaya peel extract (PPE) on ALD and explore the associated mechanisms. C57BL/6 J mice were administered an ethanol liquid diet for 11 weeks with or without two different doses of PPE (500 and 1000 mg/kg BW). PPE treatment significantly ameliorated liver injury and hepatic fat accumulation, and it improved hepatic lipid metabolism via increases in AMPK and PPAR-α protein expression and a decrease in SREBP-1 expression. In addition, PPE inhibited CYP2E1 and Nrf2 protein expression, reduced endotoxin levels in the serum, and decreased TLR4 and MyD88 expression and inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and IL-1β levels in the liver. In conclusion, these findings suggest that PPE may prevent the progression of ALD by modulating lipid metabolism and reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory responses.

The Protective Effect of Aspirin Eugenol Ester on Paraquat-Induced Acute Liver Injury Rats

Aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. The study was conducted to evaluate the protective effect of AEE on paraquat-induced acute liver injury (ALI) in rats. AEE was against ALI by decreasing alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels in blood, increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase levels, and decreasing malondialdehyde levels in blood and liver. A total of 32 metabolites were identified as biomarkers by using metabolite analysis of liver homogenate based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, which belonged to purine metabolism, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, phenylalanine metabolism, histidine metabolism, pantothenate, and CoA biosynthesis, ether lipid metabolism, beta-Alanine metabolism, lysine degradation, cysteine, and methionine metabolism. Western blotting analyses showed that Bax, cytochrome C, caspase-3, caspase-9, and apoptosis-inducing factor expression levels were obviously decreased, whereas Bcl-2 expression levels obviously increased after AEE treatment. AEE exhibited protective effects on PQ-induced ALI, and the underlying mechanism is correlated with antioxidants that regulate amino acid, phospholipid and energy metabolism metabolic pathway disorders and alleviate liver mitochondria apoptosis.

Toxicological impacts of herbicide paraquat dichloride on histological profile (gills, liver, and kidney) of freshwater fish Channa punctatus (Bloch)

Paraquat dichloride is a broad-spectrum herbicide used worldwide. It is very fast acting and used to kill a wide range of grasses and broad-leaved weeds. Paraquat dichloride gets run off to aquatic water bodies, and its presence has been reported by various researchers, where its effect is certain on aquatic organisms. Fish are vulnerable to aquatic pollutants as they are in direct contact with their environment. Therefore, our study was designed to evaluate the effects of herbicide paraquat dichloride on histology of vital organs (gills, liver, and kidney) of the fresh water fish Channa punctatus (Bloch). Toxicity effects are evaluated under static renewal test conditions, and histological alterations were detected microscopically. Fish were exposed to acute dose (96hLC_50/2 = 32.93 mg/L) for 96 h of paraquat dichloride. Simultaneous control was also maintained. Principal histopathological alterations in gills during acute exposure showed curling of secondary lamellae, aneurysm, gill bridging, and enlargement of the cartilaginous core. The tissue damages like melanomacrophage centers, pyknotic nucleus, large sinusoidal congestion, and cell fusion are some histological alterations observed in the liver after acute exposure. The changes in histoarchitecture observed in the kidney include an increase in Bowman's space, necrosis of glomeruli, and damage to collecting duct at acute exposure. The histopathological changes were more prominent with the duration of exposure in the experimental groups. The present study demonstrated that the vital organs exhibited significant damage, among all gill histology specifically got altered being directly exposed to paraquat dichloride. Paraquat dichloride exposure affects the histology of gills, liver, and kidney, thus impairing the vital functions like respiration, excretion, and metabolic regulation which in turn will affect the fish health and is a serious threat. Histopathological alteration in gills, liver, and kidney can be regarded as sensitive biomarkers of paraquat dichloride toxicological manifestations and thus can be utilized for ecotoxicological biomonitoring of aquatic bodies. Graphical abstract.

Aspirin Eugenol Ester Attenuates Paraquat-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress

Aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) is a new potential drug with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant stress pharmacological activity. Paraquat (PQ) is an effective and commercially important herbicide that is widely used worldwide. However, paraquat is highly toxic and can cause various complications and acute organ damage, such as liver, kidney and lung damage. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether AEE has a protective effect on hepatotoxicity induced by PQ in vivo and in vitro. Cell viability, apoptosis rate, mitochondrial function and intracellular oxidative stress were detected to evaluate the protective effect of AEE on PQ-induced BRL-3A (normal rat hepatocytes) cytotoxicity in vitro. In vivo, AEE pretreatment could attenuate oxidative stress and histopathological changes in rat liver induced by PQ. The results showed that AEE could reduce the hepatotoxicity induced by PQ in vivo and in vitro. AEE reduced PQ-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibitingoxidative stress and maintaining mitochondrial function. This study proved that AEE is an effective antioxidant and can reduce the hepatotoxicity of PQ.

Betanin as a multipath oxidative stress and inflammation modulator: a beetroot pigment with protective effects on cardiovascular disease pathogenesis

Oxidative stress is a common physiopathological condition enrolled in risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Individuals in such a redox imbalance status present endothelial dysfunctions and inflammation, reaching the onset of heart disease. Phytochemicals are able to attenuate the main mechanisms of oxidative stress and inflammation and should be considered as supportive therapies to manage risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a rich source of bioactive compounds, including betanin (betanidin-5-O-β-glucoside), a pigment displaying the potential to alleviate oxidative stress and inflammantion, as previously demonstrated in preclinical trials. Betanin resists gastrointestinal digestion, is absorbed by the epithelial cells of intestinal mucosa and reaches the plasma in its active form. Betanin displays free-radical scavenger ability through hydrogen or electron donation, preserving lipid structures and LDL particles while inducing the transcription of antioxidant genes through the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 and, simultaneously, suppressing the pro-inflammatory nuclear factor kappa-B pathways. This review discusses the anti-radical and gene regulatory cardioprotective activities of betanin in the pathophysiology of endothelial damage and atherogenesis, the main conditions for cardiovascular disease. In addition, betanin influences on these multipath cellular signals and aiding in reducing cardiovascular disorders is proposed.

Hydrogen Sulfide Plays an Important Role by Influencing NLRP3 inflammasome

Inflammasome is a complex composed of several proteins and an important part of the natural immune system. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is composed of NLRP3, apoptosis associated speck like protein (ASC) and pro-caspase-1. It plays an important role in many diseases. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is an important signaling molecule that regulates many physiological and pathological processes. Recent studies indicated that H₂S played anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory roles in many diseases through influencing NLRP3 inflammasome, but its mechanism was not fully understood. This article reviewed the progress about the effects of H₂S on NLRP3 inflammasome and its mechanisms involved in recent years to provide theoretical basis for in-depth study.

Beet root (Beta vulgaris) protects lipopolysaccharide and alcohol-induced liver damage in rat

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of beet root (Beta vulgaris var. rubra) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and alcohol induced liver damage. Beta vulgaris ethanol extract (BVEE) showed good antioxidant activity in the contents of polyphenol and flavonoid compounds, and the electron-donating ability and ABTS⁺ radical scavenging activity. As for anti-inflammatory effect in RAW 264.7 cells, inhibition rate of nitric oxide production was increased in dose dependent manner. In hepatotoxicity model induced by LPS and alcohol in rat, BVEE significantly decreased serum AST, ALT and γ-GTP concentrations in a dose-dependent manner. The histopathological changes after H&E staining showed that fat accumulation and inflammatory cell infiltration were decreased by BVEE. The collagen fibers around the central lobule observed by Masson's trichrome staining were also decreased by BVEE. In addition, as for the immunohistochemical staining and Transmission electron microscopy, BVEE improved morphological characteristics of damaged liver lesion. The increased mRNA expressions of NF-κB, MAPK1, MAPK3, CYP2E1, and α-SMA were significantly decreased in BVEE treated group. These results indicated that BVEE would have protective effects in hepatotoxicity by altering various indicators related to the liver damage induced by LPS or alcohol.

Hepatoprotective role of berberine against paraquat-induced liver toxicity in rat

Paraquat (PQ) is a herbicide agent commonly used in agricultural applications. Hepatotoxicity is among clinical complications associated with PQ intoxication. Oxidative stress and its subsequent events are major mechanisms identified in PQ-induced liver toxicity. Berberine (BBR) is a natural antioxidant widely investigated for its hepatoprotective effects. The present study designed to evaluate the potential cytoprotective properties of BBR against PQ-induced cytotoxicity in primary cultured rat hepatocytes and in vivo test of liver function enzymes. Cellular and biochemical parameters including lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), cell viability, ROS formation, glutathione (GSH) content, and mitochondrial membrane potential in the PQ-treated hepatocytes were measured, and the mentioned markers were evaluated in the presence of BBR. BBR treatment caused significant decrease in PQ-induced cell death, ROS formation, and LDH release. On the other hand, it was found that BBR inhibits cellular glutathione depletion in PQ-treated hepatocytes. Also, BBR treatment significantly diminished PQ-induced the liver function enzyme elevation. These data mention the potential hepatoprotective effect of BBR with therapeutic capability against PQ-induced liver damage.

Hydrogen Sulfide Protects against Paraquat-Induced Acute Liver Injury in Rats by Regulating Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Function, and Inflammation

In addition to the lung, the liver is considered another major target for paraquat (PQ) poisoning. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has been demonstrated to be effective in the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of exogenous H₂S against PQ-induced acute liver injury. The acute liver injury model was established by a single intraperitoneal injection of PQ, evidenced by histological alteration and elevated serum aminotransferase levels. Different doses of NaHS were administered intraperitoneally one hour before exposure to PQ. Analysis of the data shows that exogenous H₂S attenuated the PQ-induced liver injury and oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner. H₂S significantly suppressed reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and the elevation of malondialdehyde content while it increased the ratio of GSH/GSSG and levels of antioxidant enzymes including SOD, GSH-Px, HO-1, and NQO-1. When hepatocytes were subjected to PQ-induced oxidative stress, H₂S markedly enhanced nuclear translocation of Nrf2 via S-sulfhydration of Keap1 and resulted in the increase in IDH2 activity by regulating S-sulfhydration of SIRT3. In addition, H₂S significantly suppressed NLRP3 inflammasome activation and subsequent IL-1β excretion in PQ-induced acute liver injury. Moreover, H₂S cannot reverse the decrease in SIRT3 and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome caused by PQ in Nrf2-knockdown hepatocytes. In summary, H₂S attenuated the PQ-induced acute liver injury by enhancing antioxidative capability, regulating mitochondrial function, and suppressing ROS-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The antioxidative effect of H₂S in PQ-induced liver injury can at least partly be attributed to the promotion of Nrf2-driven antioxidant enzymes via Keap1 S-sulfhydration and regulation of SIRT3/IDH2 signaling via Nrf2-dependent SIRT3 gene transcription as well as SIRT3 S-sulfhydration. Thus, H₂S supplementation can form the basis for a promising novel therapeutic strategy for PQ-induced acute liver injury.

Betanin Attenuates Oxidative Stress Induced by 6-OHDA in PC12 Cells via SAPK/JNK and PI3 K Pathways

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder which accompanied with cognitive decline, chorei form moves and behavioral difficulties. Oxidative stress which promote the apoptotic cell death are responsible for neurodegeneration in Parkinson. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the protective effects of betanin against toxicity and oxidative damage induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in PC12 cells as an appropriate model of Parkinson's cell damage. PC12 cells pretreated with betanin (1-200 µM) for 24 h, and exposed to either 6-OHDA (100 µM) or H₂O₂ (150 µM) for 24 h. Cell survival and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production analyzed by resazurin and DCF-DA assay. The anti-apoptotic effects of betanin in PC12 cells were studied using flow cytometry of PI stained cells. Also, western blot analysis of survivin, Cyt c, Phospho SAPK/JNK, SAPK/JNK, Phospho-PI3 kinase P85, PI3 kinase P85 was performed for detection of apoptosis. Betanin (1-200 µM) significantly decreased the 6-OHDA and H₂O₂ cytotoxicity also attenuated the ROS level. Cell apoptosis significantly increased after 6-OHDA (100 µM) treatment, compared to the control. However, pretreatment with betanin (20 and 50 µM), protected against apoptosis. Western blot analysis of PC12 cells showed that 100 µM 6-OHDA could increase the proteins involved in apoptosis signaling and betanin (20 and 50 µM), could decrease the apoptosis. The results show that betanin has antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects and may have the ability to prevent or delay the progress of neural death in Parkinson's disease.

Paraquat exposure delays late-stage Leydig cell differentiation in rats during puberty

Paraquat is a fast and non-selective herbicide that is widely used in crop cultivation and conservation tillage systems. Animal experiments have shown that paraquat decreases sperm quality and testicular organ coefficient, but its effects on the development of Leydig cells remain unclear. The objective of the current study was to investigate the effects of paraquat exposure on the Leydig cell development in rats during puberty. Twenty-eight male 35-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups: 0, 0.5, 2.0, and 8 mg kg^-1 d^-1 paraquat. Paraquat was gavaged for 10 d. Adult Leydig cells were isolated and treated with paraquat for 24 h. Paraquat in vivo significantly decreased body and testis weights at 8 mg kg^-1 and lowered serum testosterone levels at 2 and 8 mg kg^-1 without affecting the levels of serum luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone. Paraquat did not alter Leydig cell number and PCNA labeling index. Real-time PCR showed that paraquat down-regulated the expression of Lhcgr, Scarb1, Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1, and Hsd17b3 genes and their proteins at 2 or 8 mg kg^-1, while it up-regulated the expression of Srd5a1 at 8 mg kg^-1. Paraquat increased ROS and decreased testosterone production by Leydig cells at 1 and 10 μM after in vitro 24-h exposure. Vitamin E (40 μg/ml) reversed paraquat-induced ROS and suppression of testosterone synthesis in vitro. In conclusion, paraquat directly delays Leydig cell differentiation to block testosterone synthesis via down-regulating the expression of critical testosterone synthesis-related genes and up-regulating the expression of testosterone metabolic enzyme (Srd5a1) gene and possibly via increasing ROS production.

Therapeutic potential of Origanum vulgare leaf hydroethanolic extract against renal oxidative stress and nephrotoxicity induced by paraquat in rats

Objective:

Paraquat is a herbicide with potent toxicity in humans and animals. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Origanum vulgare (O. vulgare) leaf extract on the acute nephrotoxicity and renal oxidative stress caused by paraquat.

Materials and Methods:

We randomly assigned forty male rats into five groups (G1-G5). The G1 was used as control; G2 only received paraquat (25 mg/kg body weight (bw)/day, po); and G3, G4 and G5 received 25 mg/kg b.w/day oral doses of paraquat and O. vulgare hydroethanolic leaf extract (200, 400, 800 mg/kg bw/day, po, respectively). After 2 weeks, superoxide dismutase (SOD), renal catalase (CAT), vitamin C levels, histopathological changes, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) gene expression as well as serum levels of urea, creatinine (Cr), and protein carbonyl (PC) were determined.

Results:

In G2, oral administration of paraquat significantly increased (p<0.05) serum Cr, urea, PC, and renal TNF-α gene expression relative to those of the control group. Renal catalase, superoxide dismutase, and vitamin C levels were decreased significantly (p<0.05) in G2 as compared to G1. Administration of O. vulgare leaf extract not only increased the renal vitamin C, CAT, and SOD but also decreased the renal TNF-α gene expression, malondialdehyde (MDA), serum urea and creatinine in paraquat-induced nephrotoxicity in rats.

Conclusion:

Our results show that O. vulgare leaf extract has protective effects against nephrotoxicity induced by paraquat in rats. It seems that the nephroprotective effects of O. vulgare extract may be related to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

8-Formylophiopogonanone B Antagonizes Paraquat-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Suppressing Oxidative Stress

Flavonoids are some of the most important natural products with a variety of physiological activities. 8-Formylophiopogonanone B (8-FOB) is a naturally existing homoisoflavonoid in Ophiopogon japonicus. Paraquat (PQ) has been widely used as a potent herbicide and has high toxicity in humans. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether 8-FOB could protect against PQ-induced hepatotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. We first tested the protective effects of 8-FOB on PQ-induced cytotoxicity in L02 cells by determining cell viability, intracellular oxidative stress levels, mitochondrial function, and apoptosis in vitro. To verify the protective effects of 8-FOB, we pretreated mice with 8-FOB and assessed liver function, hepatic oxidative stress, and histopathological changes after PQ administration. Our results revealed that 8-FOB could antagonize PQ-induced hepatotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. The antagonistic effects could be attributed to suppressing oxidative stress, preserving mitochondrial function, and inhibiting apoptosis. The present study is the first to document that 8-FOB, a homoisoflavonoid compound, is an effective antioxidant for antagonizing PQ-induced hepatotoxicity.

Hepatoprotective effects of red beetroot-based beverages against CCl4 -induced hepatic stress in Sprague Dawley rats

Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is considered important to improve hepatic health but its use is primarily limited to fresh salads in Pakistan. This study was aimed at exploring prophylactic role of red beetroot-based beverages against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄ )-induced hepatic stress. Purposely, red beetroot-based beverages (8 ml/kg b.w. per day) were administered to normal and hepatotoxicity-induced rats for 8 weeks. The biochemical analyses revealed significantly higher levels of superoxide dismutase (25%-28%), catalase (21%-24%), and hepatic enzymes (15%-19%) alongside reduced lipid peroxidation (27%-32%) in liver tissues of hepatotoxicity-induced rats treated with beetroot-based beverages compared to control. Similarly, hepatic injury was reduced by 19%-26% as indicated by concentrations of serum hepatic health biomarkers. Moreover, histological architecture of hepatocytes also portrayed promising effects of beetroot-based beverages to preserve hepatocellular portfolio. It was concluded that red beetroot-based beverages considerably assuage negative impacts of hepatic stress. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Functional foods and nutraceuticals are considered vital in controlling the oxidative stress-mediated metabolic disorders as safer alternatives to pharmaceutical agents. The current research explored the protective effects of red beetroot-based beverages which can be utilized as an effective approach to prevent liver injuries. Also, the outcomes of this research endorsed the defensive role of these beverages against oxidative stress-induced hepatic stress, so dietary supplementation of such products can be synchronized in clinical practices to alleviate oxidative stress. However, there is a need to further explore the safety aspects of such products in their long-term usage before implementing this module in humans for disease prevention/cure.

Protective Effects of Betanin against Oxidative Stress in a Peripheral Artery Vasospasm Model in Rat

Objective: The aim of this study is to determine protective/modulatory effects of betanin in a femoral artery vasospasm model in rats. Materials and Methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups. Group 1: sham (n = 7), group 2: vasospasm model only (n = 7), group 3: postoperative betanin treatment in the vasospasm model (n = 7). 100 mg/kg betanin was administered orally to group 3 for 7 days, postoperatively. Peripheral blood malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured for the quantification of oxidative stress, lumen diameter and wall thickness of femoral artery segments were determined to assess vasodilator effects of betanin. Results: Femoral artery vasospasm formation significantly increased both MDA (13.54 ± 3.09 mmol/mL) and NO levels (0.61 ± 0.06 µmol/mL) relative to the sham (9.07 ± 1.09 and 0.48 ± 0.1, respectively). Upon betanin administration, both MDA and NO approached baseline levels (9.95 ± 0.92 and 0.5 ± 0.06, respectively). Pathological examination of lumen diameter and wall thickness of the femoral arteries also revealed that betanin administration resulted in significant increase in lumen diameter when compared to vasospasm group (614.15 ± 245.77 versus 117.40 ± 46.19 µm) and decrease in wall thickness (64.68 ± 14.13 versus 96.73 ± 9.20 µm). Conclusion: Betanin was shown to have protective effect against oxidative stress in a peripheral artery vasospasm model in rats. It may also have a role in mitigating maladaptive changes in arterial structure, as shown in pathological examination.

Paraquat exposure delays stem/progenitor Leydig cell regeneration in the adult rat testis

Paraquat, a widely used nonselective herbicide, is a serious hazard to human health. However, the effects of paraquat on the male reproductive system remain unclear. In this study, adult male Sprague Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected ethane dimethane sulfonate (EDS, 75 mg/kg) to initiate a regeneration of Leydig cells. EDS-treated rats were orally exposed to paraquat (0.5, 2, 8 mg/kg/day) from post-EDS day 17 to day 28 and effects of paraquat on Leydig and Sertoli cell functions on post-EDS day 35 and day 56 were investigated. Paraquat significantly decreased serum testosterone levels at 2 and 8 mg/kg. Paraquat lowered Leydig cell Hsd17b3, Srd5a1, and Hsd11b1 mRNA levels but increased Hsd3b1 on post-EDS day 35. Paraquat lowered Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1, and Hsd11b1 but increased Srd5a1 on post-EDS day 56. However, paraquat did not alter Leydig cell number and PCNA labeling index. Epididymal staining showed that few sperms were observed in paraquat-treated rats. Primary culture of adult Leydig cells showed that paraquat diminished testosterone output and induced reactive oxygen species generation at 1 and 10 μM and apoptosis rate at 10 μM. In conclusion, a short-term exposure to paraquat delays Leydig cell regeneration from stem/progenitor Leydig cells, causing low production of testosterone and an arrest of spermatogenesis.

Short-Term Betanin Intake Reduces Oxidative Stress in Wistar Rats

Oxidative stress is a common condition described in risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Betanin, a bioactive pigment from red beetroot demonstrates anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the short-term intake of betanin against oxidative stress in a rodent model, a common condition described in several risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress was induced in Wistar rats by a hyperlipidemic diet for 60 days, followed by betanin administration (20 mg·kg-1) through oral gavage for 20 days. Plasma biochemical parameters and antioxidant enzyme activities were evaluated. Lipid peroxidation and histopathological changes were determined in the liver. The hyperlipidemic diet caused hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and increases in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels. Oxidative stress status was confirmed by reduction of antioxidant enzyme activities, increased lipid peroxidation, and liver damage. Purified betanin regulated glucose levels, insulin, and insulin resistance. Hepatic damage was reversed as evidenced by the reduction in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels and confirmed by histological analyses. Betanin reduced hepatic malondialdehyde and increased superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities. Short-term betanin intake modulated biochemical parameters, reversed hepatic tissue damage, and attenuated oxidative stress in Wistar rats.

Ameliorative effects of N-acetyl cysteine on diclofenac-induced renal injury in male rats based on serum biochemical parameters, oxidative biomarkers, and histopathological study

Diclofenac (DIC) can cause nephrotoxicity in humans. In this study, we evaluated the protective effects of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) on DIC-induced nephrotoxicity. Rats were assigned to four groups. Group 1 was control group; group 2 administrated with DIC only; group 3 administrated with DIC plus NAC and group 4 was treated with DIC and silymarin. Then, the oxidative biomarkers in serum and kidney were evaluated. In group 2, DIC caused a remarkable elevation (p < 0.05) in the levels of serum uric acid, TNF-α, creatinine, urea, GOT, and GPT, protein carbonyl, malondialdehyde (MDA), and renal TNF-α gene expression, relative to control group. In treated groups with NAC and silymarin, a noticeable reduction (p < 0.05) was seen in mentioned levels of biochemical parameters. NAC showed that it could reduce the abnormality of biochemical parameters and histopathological changes which is induced by DIC. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) has a potential to ameliorate renal histopathological changes and improving renal activity of antioxidant enzymes in nephrotoxicity by diclofenac. Also, NAC has a potential to reduce inflammatory gene expression in the diclofenac-induced nephrotoxicity. Additionally, NAC can be considered as an antioxidant which reduces renal MDA and serum protein carbonyl due to nephrotoxicity by diclofenac.

Industrial, Biocide, and Cosmetic Chemical Inducers of Cholestasis

A frequent side effect of many drugs includes the occurrence of cholestatic liver toxicity. Over the past couple of decades, drug-induced cholestasis has gained considerable attention, resulting in a plethora of data regarding its prevalence and mechanistic basis. Likewise, several food additives and dietary supplements have been reported to cause cholestatic liver insults in the past few years. The induction of cholestatic hepatotoxicity by other types of chemicals, in particular synthetic compounds, such as industrial chemicals, biocides, and cosmetic ingredients, has been much less documented. Such information can be found in occasional clinical case reports of accidental intake or suicide attempts as well as in basic and translational study reports on mechanisms or testing of new therapeutics in cholestatic animal models. This paper focuses on such nonpharmaceutical and nondietary synthetic chemical inducers of cholestatic liver injury, in particular alpha-naphthylisocyanate, 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine, methylenedianiline, paraquat, tartrazine, triclosan, 2-octynoic acid, and 2-nonynoic acid. Most of these cholestatic compounds act by similar mechanisms. This could open perspectives for the prediction of cholestatic potential of chemicals.

Chlorogenic acid prevents paraquat-induced apoptosis via Sirt1-mediated regulation of redox and mitochondrial function

Paraquat (PQ) is a widely used agro-chemical in agriculture and highly toxic to humans. Although the mechanism of PQ poisoning is not clear, it has been well documented that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and apoptosis play pivotal roles. Alternatively, chlorogenic acid (CA) is a biologically active dietary polyphenol, playing several therapeutic roles. However, it is not known whether CA has protective effect on PQ-induced apoptosis. Here, we investigated the effect of CA in preventing PQ-induced apoptosis and explored the underlying mechanisms. A549 cells were pretreated with 100 µM CA for 24 h and then exposed to 160 µM PQ for 24 h. We found that CA was effective in preventing PQ-induced apoptotic features, including the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria to cytoplasm, the cleavages of caspase 3 and caspase 9, and the increases in levels of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and intracellular calcium ions. CA alleviated ROS production and prevented the reduction of antioxidant capacity in cells exposed to PQ by increasing NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) and glutathione levels. In addition, CA also attenuated PQ-induced alterations of mitochondrial structure and function (such as the decreases in membrane potential and adenosine triphosphate level), and the impaired autophagic flux was improved by CA. Down-regulation of sirtuin 1 (Sirt1) by short hairpin RNA reversed the protective effects of CA. Thus, CA may be viewed as a potential drug to treat PQ-induced lung epithelial cell apoptosis and other disorders with similar pathologic mechanisms.

Protective and anti-inflammatory effects of hydroalcoholic leaf extract of Origanum vulgare on oxidative stress, TNF-α gene expression and liver histological changes in paraquat-induced hepatotoxicity in rats

CONTEXT

Toxicity with paraquat can lead to serious damages to the liver.

OBJECTIVE

The study investigates the protective effects of Origanum vulgare leaf extract against paraquat liver damage.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Rats were divided into six groups. Group 1, the control group; group 2, rats that received paraquat only; group 3, rats that received paraquat plus silymarin; and groups 4, 5, and 6 were treated with paraquat and O. vulgare leaf extract. Then, the serum and tissue parameters of the oxidative stress were examined.

RESULTS

In group 2, paraquat caused a remarkable increase in the level of serum ALT, AST, ALP, lipid profiles, and liver TNF-α gene expression compared to group 1. The groups which received O. vulgare leaf extract exhibited significant ameliorations in abnormalities of paraquat-induced liver damage and serum biochemical parameters.

CONCLUSION

O. vulgare leaf extract has inhibitory effects on paraquat-induced liver damage due to its antioxidant properties.

Action of corilagin on hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus is the world's most common endocrine disease involving metabolic disorders of carbohydrate, protein and fat. This study was undertaken to investigate the anti-diabetic activity of corilagin, a member of polyphenolic tannins used against hyperglycemia and many other diseases in well-known animal models. Diabetes was induced chemically by intraperitoneal administration of Streptozotocin (40 mg/kg bw) to albino Wistar rats. Diabetic rats showed significant increase in the levels of fasting blood glucose, glycated haemoglobin, total cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and a significant decrease in the level of body weight, plasma insulin, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, antioxidant activities, viz. superoxide dismutase, catalase and reduced glutathione when compared to controls. However, after 30 days of oral administration of corilagin (10 and 20 mg/kg bw/day) to these diabetic rats evoked significant alterations in the above mentioned parameters. The effect of corilagin was compared with the standard drug, glibenclamide (0.1 mg/kg body weight/day). Thus, the present study suggests that the corilagin acts as a natural, effective therapeutic agent to regulate diabetes, by exhibiting antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant properties in STZ induced diabetic rats.