Promising approaches for the treatment and prevention of viral respiratory illnesses

Evaluation of the FPMC respiratory panel for detection of respiratory tract pathogens in nasopharyngeal swab and sputum specimens

OBJECTIVES

The performance of the new Respiratory Pathogen panel (fluorescent probe melting curve, FPMC) for the qualitative detection of 12 organisms (chlamydia pneumoniae, mycoplasma pneumoniae, adenovirus, influenza A virus, influenza B virus, parainfluenza virus, rhinovirus, etc.) was assessed.

METHODS

Prospectively collected nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) and sputum specimens (n = 635) were detected by using the FPMC panel, with the Sanger sequencing method as the comparative method.

RESULTS

The overall percent concordance between the FPMC analysis method and the Sanger sequencing method was 100% and 99.66% for NPS and sputum specimens, respectively. The FPMC testified an overall positive percent concordance of 100% for both NPS and sputum specimens. The FPMC analysis method also testified an overall negative percent concordance of 100% and 99.38% for NPS and sputum specimens, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The FPMC analysis method is a stable and accurate assay for rapid, comprehensive detecting for respiratory pathogens.

Tuning into miRNAs: A comprehensive analysis of their impact on diagnosis, and progression in asthma

Asthma is a diverse inflammatory illness affecting the respiratory passages, leading to breathing challenges, bouts of coughing and wheezing, and, in severe instances, significant deterioration in quality of life. Epigenetic regulation, which involves the control of gene expression through processes such as post-transcriptional modulation of microRNAs (miRNAs), plays a role in the evolution of various asthma subtypes. In immune-mediated diseases, miRNAs play a regulatory role in the behavior of cells that form the airway structure and those responsible for defense mechanisms in the bronchi and lungs. They control various cellular processes such as survival, growth, proliferation, and the production of chemokines and immune mediators. miRNAs possess chemical and biological characteristics that qualify them as suitable biomarkers for diseases. They allow for the categorization of patients to optimize drug selection, thus streamlining clinical management and decreasing both the economic burden and the necessity for critical care related to the disease. This study provides a concise overview of the functions of miRNAs in asthma and elucidates their regulatory effects on the underlying processes of the disease. We provide a detailed account of the present status of miRNAs as biomarkers for categorizing asthma, identifying specific asthma subtypes, and selecting appropriate treatment options.

Respiratory eukaryotic virome expansion and bacteriophage deficiency characterize childhood asthma

Asthma development and exacerbation is linked to respiratory virus infections. There is limited information regarding the presence of viruses during non-exacerbation/infection periods. We investigated the nasopharyngeal/nasal virome during a period of asymptomatic state, in a subset of 21 healthy and 35 asthmatic preschool children from the Predicta cohort. Using metagenomics, we described the virome ecology and the cross-species interactions within the microbiome. The virome was dominated by eukaryotic viruses, while prokaryotic viruses (bacteriophages) were independently observed with low abundance. Rhinovirus B species consistently dominated the virome in asthma. Anelloviridae were the most abundant and rich family in both health and asthma. However, their richness and alpha diversity were increased in asthma, along with the co-occurrence of different Anellovirus genera. Bacteriophages were richer and more diverse in healthy individuals. Unsupervised clustering identified three virome profiles that were correlated to asthma severity and control and were independent of treatment, suggesting a link between the respiratory virome and asthma. Finally, we observed different cross-species ecological associations in the healthy versus the asthmatic virus-bacterial interactome, and an expanded interactome of eukaryotic viruses in asthma. Upper respiratory virome "dysbiosis" appears to be a novel feature of pre-school asthma during asymptomatic/non-infectious states and merits further investigation.

Quinones as Promising Compounds against Respiratory Viruses: A Review

Respiratory viruses represent a world public health problem, giving rise to annual seasonal epidemics and several pandemics caused by some of these viruses, including the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2, which continues to date. Some antiviral drugs have been licensed for the treatment of influenza, but they cause side effects and lead to resistant viral strains. Likewise, aerosolized ribavirin is the only drug approved for the therapy of infections by the respiratory syncytial virus, but it possesses various limitations. On the other hand, no specific drugs are licensed to treat other viral respiratory diseases. In this sense, natural products and their derivatives have appeared as promising alternatives in searching for new compounds with antiviral activity. Besides their chemical properties, quinones have demonstrated interesting biological activities, including activity against respiratory viruses. This review summarizes the activity against respiratory viruses and their molecular targets by the different types of quinones (both natural and synthetic). Thus, the present work offers a general overview of the importance of quinones as an option for the future pharmacological treatment of viral respiratory infections, subject to additional studies that support their effectiveness and safety.

Advances and Highlights of miRNAs in Asthma: Biomarkers for Diagnosis and Treatment

Asthma is a heterogeneous inflammatory disease of the airways that causes breathing difficulties, episodes of cough and wheezing, and in more severe cases can greatly diminish quality of life. Epigenetic regulation, including post-transcriptional mediation of microRNAs (miRNAs), is one of the mechanisms behind the development of the range of asthma phenotypes and endotypes. As in every other immune-mediated disease, miRNAs regulate the behavior of cells that shape the airway structure as well as those in charge of the defense mechanisms in the bronchi and lungs, controlling cell survival, growth, proliferation, and the ability of cells to synthesize and secrete chemokines and immune mediators. More importantly, miRNAs are molecules with chemical and biological properties that make them appropriate biomarkers for disease, enabling stratification of patients for optimal drug selection and thereby simplifying clinical management and reducing both the economic burden and need for critical care associated with the disease. In this review, we summarize the roles of miRNAs in asthma and describe how they regulate the mechanisms of the disease. We further describe the current state of miRNAs as biomarkers for asthma phenotyping, endotyping, and treatment selection.

Vaccines for the common cold

BACKGROUND

The common cold is a spontaneously remitting infection of the upper respiratory tract, characterised by a runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing, cough, malaise, sore throat, and fever (usually < 37.8 ºC). Whilst the common cold is generally not harmful, it is a cause of economic burden due to school and work absenteeism. In the United States, economic loss due to the common cold is estimated at more than USD 40 billion per year, including an estimate of 70 million workdays missed by employees, 189 million school days missed by children, and 126 million workdays missed by parents caring for children with a cold. Additionally, data from Europe show that the total cost per episode may be up to EUR 1102. There is also a large expenditure due to inappropriate antimicrobial prescription. Vaccine development for the common cold has been difficult due to antigenic variability of the common cold viruses; even bacteria can act as infective agents. Uncertainty remains regarding the efficacy and safety of interventions for preventing the common cold in healthy people, thus we performed an update of this Cochrane Review, which was first published in 2011 and updated in 2013 and 2017.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the clinical effectiveness and safety of vaccines for preventing the common cold in healthy people.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (April 2022), MEDLINE (1948 to April 2022), Embase (1974 to April 2022), CINAHL (1981 to April 2022), and LILACS (1982 to April 2022). We also searched three trials registers for ongoing studies, and four websites for additional trials (April 2022). We did not impose any language or date restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of any virus vaccine compared with placebo to prevent the common cold in healthy people.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used Cochrane's Screen4Me workflow to assess the initial search results. Four review authors independently performed title and abstract screening to identify potentially relevant studies. We retrieved the full-text articles for those studies deemed potentially relevant, and the review authors independently screened the full-text reports for inclusion in the review, recording reasons for exclusion of the excluded studies. Any disagreements were resolved by discussion or by consulting a third review author when needed. Two review authors independently collected data on a data extraction form, resolving any disagreements by consensus or by involving a third review author. We double-checked data transferred into Review Manager 5 software. Three review authors independently assessed risk of bias using RoB 1 tool as outlined in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. We carried out statistical analysis using Review Manager 5. We did not conduct a meta-analysis, and we did not assess publication bias. We used GRADEpro GDT software to assess the certainty of the evidence and to create a summary of findings table.  MAIN RESULTS: We did not identify any new RCTs for inclusion in this update. This review includes one RCT conducted in 1965 with an overall high risk of bias. The RCT included 2307 healthy young men in a military facility, all of whom were included in the analyses, and compared the effect of three adenovirus vaccines (live, inactivated type 4, and inactivated type 4 and 7) against a placebo (injection of physiological saline or gelatin capsule). There were 13 (1.14%) events in 1139 participants in the vaccine group, and 14 (1.19%) events in 1168 participants in the placebo group. Overall, we do not know if there is a difference between the adenovirus vaccine and placebo in reducing the incidence of the common cold (risk ratio 0.95, 95% confidence interval 0.45 to 2.02; very low-certainty evidence). Furthermore, no difference in adverse events when comparing live vaccine preparation with placebo was reported. We downgraded the certainty of the evidence to very low due to unclear risk of bias, indirectness because the population of this study was only young men, and imprecision because confidence intervals were wide and the number of events was low. The included study did not assess vaccine-related or all-cause mortality.  AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: This Cochrane Review was based on one study with very low-certainty evidence, which showed that there may be no difference between the adenovirus vaccine and placebo in reducing the incidence of the common cold. We identified a need for well-designed, adequately powered RCTs to investigate vaccines for the common cold in healthy people. Future trials on interventions for preventing the common cold should assess a variety of virus vaccines for this condition, and should measure such outcomes as common cold incidence, vaccine safety, and mortality (all-cause and related to the vaccine).

Natural Alternatives and the Common Cold and Influenza

The use of complementary and integrative medicine has increased . It is estimated that one-third of the population of the United States uses some form of alternative medicine. Physicians should consider integrative medicine therapies . Alternative medical therapies for the common cold and influenza include herbal supplements, dietary supplements, diet, and other adjunct therapies. However, it is important to research and study these therapies. Therefore, communication with patients and other health care providers is important. This will ensure effective and positive patient care experiences. Further randomized clinical trials are necessary to further establish the role of various alternative options.

Advances in the Prophylaxis of Respiratory Infections by the Nasal and the Oromucosal Route: Relevance to the Fight with the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

In this time of COVID-19 pandemic, the strategies for prevention of the infection are a primary concern. Looking more globally on the subject and acknowledging the high degree of misuse of protective face masks from the population, we focused this review on alternative pharmaceutical developments eligible for self-defense against respiratory infections. In particular, the attention herein is directed to the nasal and oromucosal formulations intended to boost the local immunity, neutralize or mechanically “trap” the pathogens at the site of entry (nose or mouth). The current work presents a critical review of the contemporary methods of immune- and chemoprophylaxis and their suitability and applicability in topical mucosal dosage forms for SARS-CoV-2 prophylaxis.

Management of acute upper respiratory tract infection: the role of early intervention

INTRODUCTION

Upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) is an illness caused by an acute infection by viruses or bacteria of the nose, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx. Most URTIs are short, mild, and self-limiting, but some can lead to serious complications, resulting in heavy social and economic burden on individuals and society.

AREAS COVERED

This article presents the management guidelines and consensus established through the Delphi method during an expert roundtable conducted in November 2020 and results of a targeted literature review.

EXPERT OPINION

The current acute URTI management strategies aim toward symptom alleviation and prevention of URTI virus transmission. The effectiveness of these strategies is highly increased with early intervention, administered prior to the peaking of viral shedding. This reduces the chances of developing a full-blown acute URTI, decreases symptom severity, and reduces viral transmission. Mucoadhesive gel nasal sprays have shown promising results for early intervention of acute URTI. They act by creating a barrier that can trap virus particles, thereby preventing invasion of the mucosa by the virus. Additionally, they deliver broad spectrum activity that is effective against a wide variety of pathogens that cause acute URTI. Acute URTI warrants greater attention and proactive management in reducing its burden.

Emerging nanotechnology role in the development of innovative solutions against COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 outbreak is creating severe impressions on all facets of the global community. Despite strong measures worldwide to try and re-achieve normalcy, the ability of SARS-CoV-2 to survive sturdy ecological settings may contribute to its rapid spread. Scientists from different aspects of life are working together to develop effective treatment strategies against SARS-CoV-2. Apart from using clinical devices for patient recovery, the key focus is on developing antiviral drugs and vaccines. Given the physical size of the SARS-CoV-2 pathogen and with the vaccine delivery platform currently undergoing clinical trials, the link between nanotechnology is clear, and previous antiviral research using nanomaterials confirms this link. Nanotechnology based products can effectively suppress various pathogens, including viruses, regardless of drug resistance, biological structure, or physiology. Thus, nanotechnology is opening up new dimensions for developing new strategies for diagnosing, preventing, treating COVID-19 and other viral ailments. This article describes the application of nanotechnology against the COVID-19 virus in terms of therapeutic purposes and vaccine development through the invention of nanomaterial based substances such as sanitizers (handwashing agents and surface disinfectants), masks and gowns, amongst other personal protective equipment, diagnostic tools, and nanocarrier systems, as well as the drawbacks and challenges of nanotechnology that need to be addressed.

Drug delivery to the pediatric upper airway

Pediatric upper airway disorders are frequently life-threatening and require precise assessment and intervention. Targeting these pathologies remains a challenge for clinicians due to the high complexity of pediatric upper airway anatomy and numerous potential etiologies; the most common treatments include systemic delivery of high dose steroids and antibiotics or complex and invasive surgeries. Furthermore, the majority of innovative airway management technologies are only designed and tested for adults, limiting their widespread implementation in the pediatric population. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the most recent challenges of managing common pediatric upper airway disorders, describe the limitations of current clinical treatments, and elaborate on how to circumvent those limitations via local controlled drug delivery. Furthermore, we propose future advancements in the field of drug-eluting technologies to improve pediatric upper airway management outcomes.

Boosting nitric oxide in stress and respiratory infection: Potential relevance for asthma and COVID-19

Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous signaling molecule that is critical for supporting a plethora of processes in biological organisms. Among these, its role in the innate immune system as a first line of defense against pathogens has received less attention. In asthma, levels of exhaled NO have been utilized as a window into airway inflammation caused by allergic processes. However, respiratory infections count among the most important triggers of disease exacerbations. Among the multitude of factors that affect NO levels are psychological processes. In particular, longer lasting states of psychological stress and depression have been shown to attenuate NO production. The novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has caused a pandemic, and with that, sustained levels of psychological stress globally, also adversely affects NO signaling. We review evidence on the role of NO in respiratory infection, including COVID-19, and stress, and argue that boosting NO bioavailability may be beneficial in protection from infections, thus benefitting individuals who suffer from stress in asthma or SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Role of G2-S16 Polyanionic Carbosilane Dendrimer in the Prevention of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection In Vitro and In Vivo in Mice

The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes respiratory infection and bronchiolitis, requiring hospitalization mainly in infants. The interaction between RSV, envelope glycoproteins G and F, and cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG) is required for binding and entry into the host cells. A G2-S16 polyanionic carbosilane dendrimer was identified as a possible RSV inhibitor. We speculated that the G2-S16 dendrimer adheres to the host cell-surface HSPG, acts through binding to HS receptors, and prevents further RSV infection. The G2-S16 dendrimer was non-toxic when applied intranasally to Balb/c mice, and interestingly enough, this G2-S16 dendrimer inhibits 85% RSV. Therefore, our G2-S16 dendrimer could be a candidate for developing a new possible therapy against RSV infection.

The role of natural products in the prevention and treatment of pulmonary fibrosis: a review

Pulmonary fibrosis is an incurable end-stage lung disease and remains a global public health problem. Although there have been some breakthroughs in understanding the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis, effective intervention methods are still limited. Natural products have the advantages of multiple biological activities and high levels of safety, which are important factors for preventing and treating pulmonary fibrosis. In this review, we summarized the mechanisms and health benefits of natural products against pulmonary fibrosis. These natural products target oxidative stress, inflammatory injury, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), fibroblast activation, extracellular matrix accumulation and metabolic regulation, and the mechanisms involve the NF-κB, TGF-β1/Smad, PI3K/Akt, p38 MAPK, Nrf2-Nox4, and AMPK signaling pathways. We hope to provide new ideas for pulmonary fibrosis prevention and treatment strategies.

Seaweed Sulfated Polysaccharides against Respiratory Viral Infections

Respiratory viral infections have been a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite massive advancements in the virology field, no specific treatment exists for most respiratory viral infections. Approved therapies against respiratory viruses rely almost exclusively on synthetic drugs that have potential side effects, restricting their use. This review aims to present natural marine sulfated polysaccharides possessing promising antiviral activity against respiratory viruses that could be a safe alternative to synthetic broad-spectrum antiviral drugs. The antiviral properties of marine sulfated polysaccharides are presented according to their mechanism of action on different types and strains of respiratory viruses, and the potential limits of their use are discussed.

A review on the cleavage priming of the spike protein on coronavirus by angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 and furin

The widespread antigenic changes lead to the emergence of a new type of coronavirus (CoV) called as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV-2 that is immunologically different from the previous circulating species. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2) is one of the most important receptors on the cell membrane of the host cells (HCs) which its interaction with spike protein (SP) with a furin-cleavage site results in the SARS-CoV-2 invasion. Hence, in this review, we presented an overview on the interaction of ACE-2 and furin with SP. As several kinds of CoVs, from various genera, have at their S1/S2 binding site a preserved site, we further surveyed the role of furin cleavage site (FCS) on the life cycle of the CoV. Furthermore, we discussed that the small molecular inhibitors can limit the interaction of ACE-2 and furin with SP and can be used as potential therapeutic platforms to combat the spreading CoV epidemic. Finally, some ongoing challenges and future prospects for the development of potential drugs to promote targeting specific activities of the CoV were reviewed. In conclusion, this review may pave the way for providing useful information about different compounds involved in improving the effectiveness of CoV vaccine or drugs with minimum toxicity against human health.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Burden of preschool wheeze and progression to asthma in the UK: Population-based cohort 2007 to 2017

BACKGROUND

Wheeze is one of the most common symptoms of preschool children (age 1-5 years), yet we have little understanding of the burden in the United Kingdom.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to determine prevalence and pattern of physician-confirmed preschool wheeze, related health care utilization, and factors associated with progression to school-age asthma.

METHODS

We used nationally representative primary and secondary care electronic medical records between 2007 and 2017 to identify preschool children with wheeze. Factors associated with asthma progression were identified in a nested cohort of children with follow-up from age 1 to 2 years, until at least age 8 years.

RESULTS

From 1,021,624 preschool children, 69,261 were identified with wheeze. Prevalence of preschool wheeze was 7.7% in 2017. Wheeze events were lowest in August and highest in late-autumn/early-winter. During median follow-up of 2 years (interquartile range, 1.2-4.0 years), 15.8% attended an emergency department, and 13.9% had a hospital admission, for a respiratory disorder. The nested cohort with prolonged follow-up identified 15,085 children; 35.5% progressed to asthma between age 5 and 8 years. Of children with preschool wheeze, without an asthma diagnosis, 34.9% were prescribed inhaled corticosteroids and 15.6% oral corticosteroids. The factors most strongly associated with progression to asthma were wheeze frequency and severity, atopy, prematurity, maternal asthma severity, and first reported wheeze event occurring in September.

CONCLUSIONS

Preschool wheeze causes considerable health care burden, and a large number of children are prescribed asthma medication and have unplanned secondary care visits. Multiple factors influence progression to asthma, including first wheeze event occurring in September.

Effects of select dietary supplements on the prevention and treatment of viral respiratory tract infections: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Introduction: Viral respiratory tract infections (RTIs) have been recognized as a global public health burden. Despite current theories about their effectiveness, the true benefits of dietary supplements on the prevention and treatment of viral RTIs remain elusive, due to contradictory reports. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of dietary supplements on the prevention and treatment of viral RTIs.Areas covered: We systematically searched databases of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar through 4 March 2020, to identify randomized controlled trials that evaluated the effects of consuming selected dietary supplements on the prevention or treatment of viral RTIs.Expert opinion: Thirty-nine randomized controlled trials (n = 16,797 participants) were eligible and included. Namely, vitamin D supplementation appeared to improve viral RTIs across cohorts particulate in those with vitamin D deficiency. Among the evaluated dietary supplements, specific lactobacillus strains were used most commonly with selected prebiotics that showed potentially positive effects on the prevention and treatment of viral RTIs. Further, ginseng extract supplementation may effectively prevent viral RTIs as adjuvant therapy. However, longitudinal research is required to confirm these observations and address the optimal dose, duration, and safety of dietary supplements being publicly recommended.

Efficacy and safety of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine for treatment of COVID-19 patients-a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

The coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused significant morbidity and mortality worldwide and an effective treatment is needed. Chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) have shown in vitro antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 which causes the disease, but the evidence from in vivo studies so far has been inconclusive.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of CQ and HCQ in the treatment of COVID-19.

DATA SOURCES

We systematically searched the PubMed, Embase, MEDLINE, Cochrane CENTRAL, CINAHL, Scopus, Joanna Briggs Institute Database, ClinicalTrials.gov, and Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR) for all articles published between 01 January 2020 to 15 September 2020 on CQ/HCQ and COVID-19 using a predefined search protocol; without any language restrictions. A search of grey literature repositories (New York Academy of Medicine Grey Literature and Open Grey), and pre-publication server deposits (medRxIV and bioRxIV) was also performed.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomized clinical trials (RCT) which compared CQ/HCQ to standard supportive therapy in treating COVID-19 were included.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Data were extracted from original publications by four independent reviewers. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration's assessment tool. Data were meta-analyzed using a random-effect models. Results are reported according to PRISMA guidelines. Main Outcome(s) and Measure(s): The primary prespecified efficacy outcome was all-cause mortality. The primary safety outcome was any adverse effect attributed to use of CQ/HCQ.

RESULTS

Eight RCTs were included and pooled in the mortality meta-analysis (6,592 unique participants; mean age = 59.4 years; 42% women). CQ/HCQ did not show any mortality benefit when compared to standard supportive therapy (Pooled Relative Risk [RR] 1.07; 95% CI = 0.97-1.18; I2 statistic = 0.00%). Sensitivity and sub-group analyses showed similar findings. Any adverse event was significantly higher in patients randomized to CQ/HCQ (RR = 2.51; 95% CI = 1.53-4.12; n = 1,818 patients), but the risk of developing severe adverse event was not statistically significant (RR = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.53-1.86; n = 6,456 patients).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Evidence from currently published RCTs do not demonstrate any added benefit for the use of CQ or HCQ in the treatment of COVID-19 patients.

Dissociation of the respiratory syncytial virus F protein-specific human IgG, IgA and IgM response

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is one of the most important causes of severe respiratory tract infections in early childhood. The only prophylactic protection is the neutralizing antibody, palivizumab, which targets a conformational epitope of the RSV fusion (F) protein. The F protein is generated as a F0 precursor containing two furin cleavage sites allowing excision of the P27 fragment and then gives rise to a fusion-competent version consisting of the N-terminal F2 subunit and the a C-terminal F1 subunits linked by two disulphide bonds. To investigate natural human F-specific antibody responses, F2 conferring the species-specificity of RSV, was expressed in Escherichia coli. Furthermore, the F0 protein, comprising both subunits F2 and F1, was expressed as palivizumab-reactive glycoprotein in baculovirus-infected insect cells. Six overlapping F2-derived peptides lacking secondary structure were synthesized. The analysis of IgG, IgA and IgM responses of adult subjects to native versions and denatured forms of F2 and F0 and to unfolded F2-derived peptides revealed that mainly non-conformational F epitopes, some of which represented cryptic epitopes which are not exposed on the proteins were recognized. Furthermore, we found a dissociation of IgG, IgA and IgM antibody responses to F epitopes with F2 being a major target for the F-specific IgM response. The scattered and dissociated immune response to F may explain why the natural RSV-specific antibody response is only partially protective underlining the need for vaccines focusing human antibody responses towards neutralizing RSV epitopes.

Community-acquired Respiratory Viruses Are a Risk Factor for Chronic Lung Allograft Dysfunction

Background

The relationship between community-acquired respiratory viruses (CARVs) and chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD) in lung transplant recipients is still controversial.

Methods

We performed a prospective cohort study (2009–2014) in all consecutive adult patients (≥18 years) undergoing lung transplantation in the Hospital Universitari Vall d’Hebron (Barcelona, Spain). We systematically collected nasopharyngeal swabs from asymptomatic patients during seasonal changes, from patients with upper respiratory tract infectious disease, lower respiratory tract infectious disease (LRTID), or acute rejection. Nasopharyngeal swabs were analyzed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Primary outcome was to evaluate the potential association of CARVs and development of CLAD. Time-dependent Cox regression models were performed to identify the independent risk factors for CLAD.

Results

Overall, 98 patients (67 bilateral lung transplant recipients; 63.3% male; mean age, 49.9 years) were included. Mean postoperative follow-up was 3.4 years (interquartile range [IQR], 2.5–4.0 years). Thirty-eight lung transplant recipients (38.8%) developed CLAD, in a median time of 20.4 months (IQR, 12–30.4 months). In time-controlled multivariate analysis, CARV-LRTID (hazard ratio [HR], 3.00 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.52–5.91]; P = .002), acute rejection (HR, 2.97 [95% CI, 1.51–5.83]; P = .002), and cytomegalovirus pneumonitis (HR, 3.76 [95% CI, 1.23–11.49]; P = .02) were independent risk factors associated with developing CLAD.

Conclusions

Lung transplant recipients with CARVs in the lower respiratory tract are at increased risk to develop CLAD.

How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Opportunities and urgent need

Incidents of viral outbreaks have increased at an alarming rate over the past decades. The most recent human coronavirus known as COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) has already spread around the world and shown R0 values from 2.2 to 2.68. However, the ratio between mortality and number of infections seems to be lower in this case in comparison to other human coronaviruses (such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)). These outbreaks have tested the limits of healthcare systems and have posed serious questions about management using conventional therapies and diagnostic tools. In this regard, the use of nanotechnology offers new opportunities for the development of novel strategies in terms of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 and other viral infections. In this review, we discuss the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 virus management by the development of nano-based materials, such as disinfectants, personal protective equipment, diagnostic systems and nanocarrier systems, for treatments and vaccine development, as well as the challenges and drawbacks that need addressing.

Rhinovirus Species-Specific Antibodies Differentially Reflect Clinical Outcomes in Health and Asthma

Rationale: Rhinoviruses (RVs) are major triggers of common cold and acute asthma exacerbations. RV species A, B, and C may have distinct clinical impact; however, little is known regarding RV species-specific antibody responses in health and asthma.Objectives: To describe and compare total and RV species-specific antibody levels in healthy children and children with asthma, away from an acute event.Methods: Serum samples from 163 preschool children with mild to moderate asthma and 72 healthy control subjects from the multinational Predicta cohort were analyzed using the recently developed PreDicta RV antibody chip.Measurements and Main Results: RV antibody levels varied, with RV-C and RV-A being higher than RV-B in both groups. Compared with control subjects, asthma was characterized by significantly higher levels of antibodies to RV-A and RV-C, but not RV-B. RV antibody levels positively correlated with the number of common colds over the previous year in healthy children, and wheeze episodes in children with asthma. Antibody levels also positively correlated with asthma severity but not with current asthma control.Conclusions: The variable humoral response to RV species in both groups suggests a differential infectivity pattern between RV species. In healthy preschoolers, RV antibodies accumulate with colds. In asthma, RV-A and RV-C antibodies are much higher and further increase with disease severity and wheeze episodes. Higher antibody levels in asthma may be caused by a compromised innate immune response, leading to increased exposure of the adaptive immune response to the virus. Importantly, there is no apparent protection with increasing levels of antibodies.

Natural products and their derivatives against coronavirus: A review of the non-clinical and pre-clinical data

Several corona viral infections have created serious threats in the last couple of decades claiming the death of thousands of human beings. Recently, corona viral epidemic raised the issue of developing effective antiviral agents at the earliest to prevent further losses. Natural products have always played a crucial role in drug development process against various diseases, which resulted in screening of such agents to combat emergent mutants of corona virus. This review focuses on those natural compounds that showed promising results against corona viruses. Although inhibition of viral replication is often considered as a general mechanism for antiviral activity of most of the natural products, studies have shown that some natural products can interact with key viral proteins that are associated with virulence. In this context, some of the natural products have antiviral activity in the nanomolar concentration (e.g., lycorine, homoharringtonine, silvestrol, ouabain, tylophorine, and 7-methoxycryptopleurine) and could be leads for further drug development on their own or as a template for drug design. In addition, a good number of natural products with anti-corona virus activity are the major constituents of some common dietary supplements, which can be exploited to improve the immunity of the general population in certain epidemics.

Rhinovirus C Is Associated With Severe Wheezing and Febrile Respiratory Illness in Young Children

BACKGROUND

Rhinovirus is the most common virus causing respiratory tract illnesses in children. Rhinoviruses are classified into species A, B and C. We examined the associations between different rhinovirus species and respiratory illness severity.

METHODS

This is a retrospective observational cohort study on confirmed rhinovirus infections in 134 children 3-23 months of age, who were enrolled in 2 prospective studies on bronchiolitis and acute otitis media, respectively, conducted simultaneously in Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland, between September 2007 and December 2008.

RESULTS

Rhinovirus C is the most prevalent species in our study, and it was associated with severe wheezing and febrile illness. We also noted that history of atopic eczema was associated with wheezing.

CONCLUSIONS

Our understanding of rhinovirus C as the most pathogenic rhinovirus species was fortified. Existing research supports the idea that atopic characteristics are associated with the severity of the rhinovirus C-induced illness.

Lower respiratory tract infection in the community: associations between viral aetiology and illness course

OBJECTIVES

This study determined associations between respiratory viruses and subsequent illness course in primary care adult patients presenting with acute cough and/or suspected lower respiratory tract infection.

METHODS

A prospective European primary care study recruited adults with symptoms of lower respiratory tract infection between November 2007 and April 2010. Real-time in-house polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to test for six common respiratory viruses. In this secondary analysis, symptom severity (scored 1 = no problem, 2 = mild, 3 = moderate, 4 = severe) and symptom duration were compared between groups with different viral aetiologies using regression and Cox proportional hazard models, respectively. Additionally, associations between baseline viral load (cycle threshold (Ct) value) and illness course were assessed.

RESULTS

The PCR tested positive for a common respiratory virus in 1354 of the 2957 (45.8%) included patients. The overall mean symptom score at presentation was 2.09 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.07-2.11) and the median duration until resolution of moderately bad or severe symptoms was 8.70 days (interquartile range 4.50-11.00). Patients with influenza virus, human metapneumovirus (hMPV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), coronavirus (CoV) or rhinovirus had a significantly higher symptom score than patients with no virus isolated (0.07-0.25 points or 2.3-8.3% higher symptom score). Time to symptom resolution was longer in RSV infections (adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) 0.80, 95% CI 0.65-0.96) and hMPV infections (AHR 0.77, 95% CI 0.62-0.94) than in infections with no virus isolated. Overall, baseline viral load was associated with symptom severity (difference 0.11, 95% CI 0.06-0.16 per 10 cycles decrease in Ct value), but not with symptom duration.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy, working adults from the general community presenting at the general practitioner with acute cough and/or suspected lower respiratory tract infection other than influenza impose an illness burden comparable to influenza. Hence, the public health focus for viral respiratory tract infections should be broadened.

MicroRNAs in Asthma and Respiratory Infections: Identifying Common Pathways

MicroRNAs (miRs) are single-stranded RNAs of 18-25 nucleotides. These molecules regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level; several of these are differentially expressed in asthma as well as in viral acute respiratory infections (ARIs), the main triggers of acute asthma exacerbations. In recent years, miRs have been studied in order to discover drug targets as well as biomarkers for diagnosis, disease severity and prognosis. We describe recent findings on miR expression and function in asthma and their role in the regulation of viral ARIs, according to cell tissue specificity and asthma severity. By combining the above information, we identify miRs that may be important in virus-induced asthma exacerbations. This is the first attempt to link miR profiles of asthmatic patients and ARI-induced miRs, addressing the question of whether there might be a specific miR deficit in asthmatic subjects that make them more susceptible and/or reactive to infection.

Respiratory Viral Pathogens☆

Respiratory viruses are responsible for a variety of clinical syndromes including the common cold, acute otitis media, laryngitis, sinusitis, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, influenza-like illness, and exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Diagnosis of respiratory viral infections is primarily clinical and is further supported by laboratory techniques such as antigen detection, serology, and nucleic acid detection. Preventive strategies are based on avoidance of risk factors and, in case of influenza, vaccination. Treatment modalities include over-the-counter and non-specific remedies along with a small number of specific antiviral medications such as the influenza neuraminidase inhibitors or palivizumab against respiratory syncytial virus.

Non-interventional observational study broadens positive benefit-risk assessment of an immunomodulating herbal remedy in the common cold

Background: The unique extract of a mixture of Baptisiae tinctoriae radix, Echinaceae pallidae/purpureae radix and Thujae occidentalis herba alleviates the typical symptoms of the common cold and shortens the duration of the disease. Purpose: The risk-benefit ratio of a concentrated formulation of this herbal extract was investigated under everyday conditions. Study design: Pharmacy-based, non-interventional, multicenter, open, uncontrolled study registered at DRKS00011068. Methods: For 10 days, patients completed a diary questionnaire rating the severity of each common cold symptom on a 10-point scale. For evaluation, symptoms were combined into the scores "overall severity", "rhinitis", "bronchitis" and "general symptoms". Cox models were used to evaluate the influence of covariates on the time of stable improvement. Results: In total 955 patients (12 to 90 years) were analyzed; 85% assessed the efficacy as good or very good. Response (improvement of the overall severity by at least 50%) was reached at median day 5 (95% CI_median 5-5). General symptoms abated faster than the other complaints. The percentage of predominantly moderate or severe symptoms to predominantly mild or absent symptoms reversed on day 3.9 (interpolation). Results of adolescents and adults did not differ (p = .6013; HR = 0.918). Concomitant medication did not boost the effect of the herbal remedy. Early start of treatment of the cold accelerated the recovery (p = .0486; HR = 0.814). Thirty-four cases of adverse events were self-recorded in the diaries; none of them were serious. The tolerability was assessed as "good or very good" by 98% of the patients. Conclusion: The benefit-risk assessment of this herbal extract clearly remains positive. This non-interventional study accords with and shows transferability of the results of previous placebo-controlled studies with this extract in a real-life setting.

Cryo-EM structure of pleconaril-resistant rhinovirus-B5 complexed to the antiviral OBR-5-340 reveals unexpected binding site

Viral inhibitors, such as pleconaril and vapendavir, target conserved regions in the capsids of rhinoviruses (RVs) and enteroviruses (EVs) by binding to a hydrophobic pocket in viral capsid protein 1 (VP1). In resistant RVs and EVs, bulky residues in this pocket prevent their binding. However, recently developed pyrazolopyrimidines inhibit pleconaril-resistant RVs and EVs, and computational modeling has suggested that they also bind to the hydrophobic pocket in VP1. We studied the mechanism of inhibition of pleconaril-resistant RVs using RV-B5 (1 of the 7 naturally pleconaril-resistant rhinoviruses) and OBR-5-340, a bioavailable pyrazolopyrimidine with proven in vivo activity, and determined the 3D-structure of the protein-ligand complex to 3.6 Å with cryoelectron microscopy. Our data indicate that, similar to other capsid binders, OBR-5-340 induces thermostability and inhibits viral adsorption and uncoating. However, we found that OBR-5-340 attaches closer to the entrance of the pocket than most other capsid binders, whose viral complexes have been studied so far, showing only marginal overlaps of the attachment sites. Comparing the experimentally determined 3D structure with the control, RV-B5 incubated with solvent only and determined to 3.2 Å, revealed no gross conformational changes upon OBR-5-340 binding. The pocket of the naturally OBR-5-340-resistant RV-A89 likewise incubated with OBR-5-340 and solved to 2.9 Å was empty. Pyrazolopyrimidines have a rigid molecular scaffold and may thus be less affected by a loss of entropy upon binding. They interact with less-conserved regions than known capsid binders. Overall, pyrazolopyrimidines could be more suitable for the development of new, broadly active inhibitors.

Epitope mapping of antibodies induced with a conserved rhinovirus protein generating protective anti-rhinovirus immunity

Human rhinovirus (RV) infections are the principle cause of common colds and precipitate asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations. Currently there is no vaccine for RV which is largely due to the existence of ∼160 serotypes/strains. We demonstrated previously that immunising mice with highly conserved VP4 and VP2 regions of the RV polyprotein (RV-A16 VP0) generated cross-reactive immunity to RV in vivo. The current study investigated and mapped the epitopes of RV-A16 VP0 that are targets for antibodies in serum samples from VP0 immunisation and RV challenge studies in mice. Recombinant capsid proteins, peptide pools and individual peptides spanning the immunogen sequence (RV-A16 VP0) were assessed for IgG binding sites to identify epitopes. We found that peptide pools covering the C-terminus of VP4, the N-terminus of VP2 and the neutralising NIm-II site within VP2 were bound by serum IgG from immunised mice. The NIm-II site peptide pool blocked IgG binding to the immunogen RV-A16 VP0 and individual peptides within the pool binding IgG were further mapped. Thus, we have identified immunodominant epitopes of RV vaccine candidate RV-A16 VP0, noting that strong IgG binding antibodies were observed that target a key neutralising epitope that is highly variable amongst RV serotypes.

Nanoparticle-Based Vaccines Against Respiratory Viruses

The respiratory mucosa is the primary portal of entry for numerous viruses such as the respiratory syncytial virus, the influenza virus and the parainfluenza virus. These pathogens initially infect the upper respiratory tract and then reach the lower respiratory tract, leading to diseases. Vaccination is an affordable way to control the pathogenicity of viruses and constitutes the strategy of choice to fight against infections, including those leading to pulmonary diseases. Conventional vaccines based on live-attenuated pathogens present a risk of reversion to pathogenic virulence while inactivated pathogen vaccines often lead to a weak immune response. Subunit vaccines were developed to overcome these issues. However, these vaccines may suffer from a limited immunogenicity and, in most cases, the protection induced is only partial. A new generation of vaccines based on nanoparticles has shown great potential to address most of the limitations of conventional and subunit vaccines. This is due to recent advances in chemical and biological engineering, which allow the design of nanoparticles with a precise control over the size, shape, functionality and surface properties, leading to enhanced antigen presentation and strong immunogenicity. This short review provides an overview of the advantages associated with the use of nanoparticles as vaccine delivery platforms to immunize against respiratory viruses and highlights relevant examples demonstrating their potential as safe, effective and affordable vaccines.

Beetroot juice supplementation for the prevention of cold symptoms associated with stress: A proof-of-concept study

OBJECTIVES

Psychological stress has been linked to common cold symptoms. Nitric oxide (NO) is part of the first line of epithelial defense against pathogens, and beetroot juice is a source of dietary nitrate that increases NO availability. We therefore tested whether beetroot juice protects against cold symptoms in a period of sustained acute stress.

DESIGN

Seventy-six students, 16 of these with asthma, were randomly assigned to seven daily doses of beetroot juice or no supplementation control during their final exams.

METHODS

Participants completed stress ratings, a cold symptom questionnaire, and exhaled NO measurements at a low-stress period and two periods during their final exams, with one questionnaire follow-up assessment seven days after finals.

RESULTS

Beetroot juice was associated with reduced symptoms of cold and sickness during and following finals. Those with asthma showed the greatest benefits. Higher exhaled NO was concurrently and prospectively associated with reduced symptomatology.

CONCLUSION

Beetroot juice during periods of psychological stress protects against cold symptoms. Preliminary evidence suggests particular benefits in asthma, which could translate into reduced asthma exacerbations due to respiratory infections. Clinical Trial ID: NCT03159273.

Bronchiolitis needs a revisit: Distinguishing between virus entities and their treatments

Current data indicate that the “bronchiolitis” diagnosis comprises more than one condition. Clinically, pathophysiologically, and even genetically three main clusters of patients can be identified among children suffering from severe bronchiolitis (or first wheezing episode): (a) respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)‐induced bronchiolitis, characterized by young age of the patient, mechanical obstruction of the airways due to mucus and cell debris, and increased risk of recurrent wheezing. For this illness, an effective prophylactic RSV‐specific monoclonal antibody is available; (b) rhinovirus‐induced wheezing, associated with atopic predisposition of the patient and high risk of subsequent asthma development, which may, however, be reversed with systemic corticosteroids in those with severe illness; and (c) wheeze due to other viruses, characteristically likely to be less frequent and severe. Clinically, it is important to distinguish between these partially overlapping patient groups as they are likely to respond to different treatments. It appears that the first episode of severe bronchiolitis in under 2‐year‐old children is a critical event and an important opportunity for designing secondary prevention strategies for asthma. As data have shown bronchiolitis cannot simply be diagnosed using a certain cutoff age, but instead, as we suggest, using the viral etiology as the differentiating factor.

Exacerbations of chronic respiratory diseases

Respiratory viral infections including human rhinovirus (RV) infection have been identified as the most important environmental trigger of exacerbations of chronic lung diseases. While well established as the most common viral infections associated with exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, RVs and other respiratory viruses are also now thought to be important in triggering exacerbations of cystic fibrosis and the interstitial lung diseases. Here, we summarize the epidemiological evidence the supports respiratory viruses including RV as triggers of exacerbations of chronic lung diseases. We propose that certain characteristics of RVs may explain why they are the most common trigger of exacerbations of chronic lung diseases. We further highlight the latest mechanistic evidence supporting how and why common respiratory viral infections may enhance and promote disease triggering exacerbation events, through their interactions with the host immune system, and may be affected by ongoing treatments. We also provide a commentary on how new treatments may better manage the disease burden associated with respiratory viral infections and the exacerbation events that they trigger.

Development and characterization of DNAzyme candidates demonstrating significant efficiency against human rhinoviruses

BACKGROUND

Infections with human rhinoviruses (RVs) are responsible for millions of common cold episodes and the majority of asthma exacerbations, especially in childhood. No drugs specifically targeting RVs are available.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to identify specific anti-RV molecules based on DNAzyme technology as candidates to a clinical study.

METHODS

A total of 226 candidate DNAzymes were designed against 2 regions of RV RNA genome identified to be sufficiently highly conserved between virus strains (ie, the 5'-untranslated region and cis-acting replication element) by using 3 test strains: RVA1, RVA16, and RVA29. All DNAzymes were screened for their cleavage efficiency against in vitro-expressed viral RNA. Those showing any catalytic activity were subjected to bioinformatic analysis of their reverse complementarity to 322 published RV genomic sequences. Further molecular optimization was conducted for the most promising candidates. Cytotoxic and off-target effects were excluded in HEK293 cell-based systems. Antiviral efficiency was analyzed in infected human bronchial BEAS-2B cells and ex vivo-cultured human sinonasal tissue.

RESULTS

Screening phase-generated DNAzymes characterized by either good catalytic activity or by high RV strain coverage but no single molecule represented a satisfactory combination of those 2 features. Modifications in length of the binding domains of 2 lead candidates, Dua-01(-L12R9) and Dua-02(-L10R11), improved their cleavage efficiency to an excellent level, with no loss in eminent strain coverage (about 98%). Both DNAzymes showed highly favorable cytotoxic/off-target profiles. Subsequent testing of Dua-01-L12R9 in BEAS-2B cells and sinonasal tissue demonstrated its significant antiviral efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

Effective and specific management of RV infections with Dua-01-L12R9 might be useful in preventing asthma exacerbations, which should be verified by clinical trials.

Betamethasone prevents human rhinovirus- and cigarette smoke- induced loss of respiratory epithelial barrier function

The respiratory epithelium is a barrier against pathogens and allergens and a target for therapy in respiratory allergy, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We investigated barrier-damaging factors and protective factors by real-time measurement of respiratory cell barrier integrity. Barrier integrity to cigarette smoke extract (CSE), house dust mite (HDM) extract, interferon-γ (IFN-γ) or human rhinovirus (HRV) infection alone or in combination was assessed. Corticosteroids, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and nasal mucus proteins were tested for their ability to prevent loss of barrier integrity. Real-time impedance-based measurement revealed different patterns of CSE-, HDM-, IFN-γ- and HRV-induced damage. When per se non-damaging concentrations of harmful factors were combined, a synergetic effect was observed only for CSE and HDM. Betamethasone prevented the damaging effect of HRV and CSE, but not damage caused by HDM or IFN-γ. Real-time impedance-based measurement of respiratory epithelial barrier function is useful to study factors, which are harmful or protective. The identification of a synergetic damaging effect of CSE and HDM as well as the finding that Betamethasone protects against HRV- and CSE-induced damage may be important for asthma and COPD.

Microbiome Research Is Becoming the Key to Better Understanding Health and Nutrition

The human microbiome has emerged as the crucial moderator in the interactions between food and our body. It is increasingly recognised that the microbiome can change our mind and health status, or switch on a wide range of diseases including cancer, cardio-metabolic diseases, allergies, and obesity. The causes of diseases are often only partially understood. However, nutrients, metabolites, and microbes are increasingly regarded as key players, even where the complete disease mechanisms remain unclear. The key to progress in the future will be to use and exploit additional, newly emerging disciplines such as metagenomics to complement patient information and to bring our understanding of diseases and the interrelation and effects of nutritional molecules to the next level. The EU has already funded 216 projects under the 7th Framework Programme and Horizon 2020 programmes to promote metagenomics and to advance our knowledge of microbes. This support started with the catalysing MetaHIT project that has produced a catalogue of gut microbes, and has arrived now at the very multi-disciplinary SYSCID action looking at how the microbiome is driving its resilience potential and our health. Together, these projects involve an investment of more than €498 M. However, in Horizon 2020, the new EU Health and Food Work Programmes for 2018–2020 go even further by setting new goals to find applications and to generate more knowledge on the microbiome, nutrition, various hosts of microbes, and their relation to health and disease. The big vision is to modulate health and diseases via the microbiome and nutrition, while at the same time other factors such as omics, molecular signatures, and lifestyle are constant. In this way, microbiome and nutrition research is moving from an isolated and despised offside position to a beacon of hope with a lot of potential and possibilities.

Verdinexor Targeting of CRM1 is a Promising Therapeutic Approach against RSV and Influenza Viruses

Two primary causes of respiratory tract infections are respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza viruses, both of which remain major public health concerns. There are a limited number of antiviral drugs available for the treatment of RSV and influenza, each having limited effectiveness and each driving selective pressure for the emergence of drug-resistant viruses. Novel broad-spectrum antivirals are needed to circumvent problems with current disease intervention strategies, while improving the cytokine-induced immunopathology associated with RSV and influenza infections. In this review, we examine the use of Verdinexor (KPT-335, a novel orally bioavailable drug that functions as a selective inhibitor of nuclear export, SINE), as an antiviral with multifaceted therapeutic potential. KPT-335 works to (1) block CRM1 (i.e., Chromosome Region Maintenance 1; exportin 1 or XPO1) mediated export of viral proteins critical for RSV and influenza pathogenesis; and (2) repress nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation, thus reducing cytokine production and eliminating virus-associated immunopathology. The repurposing of SINE compounds as antivirals shows promise not only against RSV and influenza virus but also against other viruses that exploit the nucleus as part of their viral life cycle.