Sexting and the Definition Issue

Risk Factors for Non-Consensual Sexting Among Adolescents and Emerging Adults: An Extension of the Routine Activity Theory Perspective

Adolescence and emerging adulthood are developmental phases in which the exploration of one's own sexuality takes on a high priority, which can increase the risk of risky sexual behavior. Due to technological advances, (non-consensual) sexting has increased among young people and has become an integral part of their sexual socialization. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to examine non-consensual sexting (both victimization and perpetration) among adolescents and emerging adults and to identify potential risk factors associated with non-consensual sexting using routine activity theory. The sample consisted of a total of 3514 adolescents aged 10-17 years (43% males; 57% females) and 3674 emerging adults aged 18-25 years (23% males; 77% females) from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. The results showed that both male adolescents and emerging adults were at higher risk for experiencing non-consensual sexting victimization. Personal factors such as gender, age, social bond, and routine cell phone activity predicted the risk of becoming a victim of non-consensual sexting in adolescents. For emerging adults, gender, social connection to friends, and routine cell phone use predicted the risk of becoming a victim of non-consensual sexting. Relationship status and routine cell phone activity predicted the forwarding of other sexts for both age groups. According to international scientific research and the findings of this particular study, we can conclude that the study of personal factors and routine variables helps understand non-consensual sexting among youth but is also essential in planning educational resources and preventive activities.

A Latent Profile Analysis of the Consensual and Non-Consensual Sexting Experiences among Canadian Adolescents

Different patterns of sexting behaviors were examined to provide a more nuanced understanding of the context in which sexting occurs among adolescents. Participants were 1,000 Canadian adolescents (50.2% girls) between 12 and 18 years (Mage = 15.21, SD = 2.00) who completed measures of sexting, cyber bullying and victimization, problematic social media use, self-regulation, and demographics. Contrary to our hypotheses, three latent profiles of sexting represented the frequency of sexting rather than whether the sexting was consensual versus non-consensual or with a partner versus non-partner. Participants in the moderate and high sexting profiles representing one fifth of youth, reported less self-regulation, experienced more cyber victimization, and engaged in more cyber bullying and problematic social media use than those in the no/low sexting profile. Our findings support the normalcy approach to education, which considers some sexting among healthy developmental behaviors.

Nonconsensual Sexting: Are the Moral Processes the Same If Boys or Girls Appear in the Forwarded Content?

Sexting is a form of intimate communication available in today's digital society consisting of exchanging erotic-sexual content online. However, doing it without the consent of the person appearing in the content is becoming a normalized form of cyberviolence among adolescents. To advance our understanding of this phenomenon, further research is needed on its facilitating factors, which may include those related to its potential moral dimension and online disinhibition. This study aims to analyze, according to gender and age, the relationship between nonconsensual forwarding of erotic-sexual content, differentiating between the type of content and the gender of the person appearing in it, moral disengagement, and toxic online disinhibition. A total of 1,611 adolescents (47.9 percent girls) aged 12-15 years (M = 13.4; SD = 1.0) participated in the study. Moral disengagement and toxic disinhibition have been shown to facilitate nonconsensual forwarding of erotic-sexual content, but their relevance varies depending on the type of content, and whether girls or boys appear in it. Facilitating factors for nonconsensual forwarding of content featuring boys include age, the diffusion of the consequences, and toxic online disinhibition. For girls, identifying with the male gender and cognitive restructuring were the main facilitators. These findings represent an original advance in the field of study by discriminating between the type of content forwarded and the gender of the person who appears in it. The differences found contribute toward explaining the processes that lead to making immoral decisions when sexting and help lay the foundations for designing psychoeducational programs in the future.

Sexting in Young Adults: A Normative Sexual Behavior

With the advancement of technology, sexting has become more prominent in high school and university samples. The current study examined the rates and characteristics of sexting among an online sample of 2,828 young adults aged 18-30, primarily from the U.S. and Canada. We found that most participants sext (81%), sext often (most report ≥ 11 sexts), and start young (most by 16-17 years of age). Common reasons for sexting echoed reasons for participating in other normative sexual behaviors, including that it was sexually arousing, they were asked and wanted to reciprocate, or they wanted to flirt. Sexual coercion was a gendered phenomenon, with 1 in 10 cisgender women and 1 in 50 cisgender men reporting having sent a sext due to being threatened. The body parts captured in cisgender men's sexts were more diverse, whereas cisgender women focused on their chest, underwear/genitalia, and stomach. Sexual orientation was also found to be a relevant factor, with different patterns in sexting experiences emerging across identities. The current study adds to the mounting evidence that sexting is a normative sexual behavior. Sexual education programs should provide youth with information on consent and safe sexting practices rather than follow an abstinence approach.

"Snapping, sharing and receiving blame": A systematic review on psychosocial factors of victim blaming in non-consensual pornography

Non-consensual pornography has become a growing concern, with potentially negative consequences for the victims. Victims of revenge porn are more likely to be blamed, and understanding why and how blame is attributed toward victims of non-consensual pornography is crucial to support them and reduce the negative consequences. This study aimed to explore and synthesize the existing evidence on victim blaming in non-consensual pornography and the underlying psychosocial factors within the context of attribution framework. A comprehensive systematic review was conducted across four databases namely PubMed, ProQuest, Google Scholar, and Scopus for English-language studies published from April 2012 to June 2022. Data from the selected studies were extracted and collated into the review matrix. Among the 22 full-text reviews, 10 records that met the eligibility criteria were included in the final review. Two themes namely "Culture and morality" and "gendered differences in attributions of blame" were derived from a thematic synthesis of 10 studies and reflected the psychosocial underpinnings of victim blaming. The review highlighted how cultural narratives and perceived immorality play a major role in how attributions are placed on self or others for victim blaming in "non-consensual pornography." Blame attributions emerging from gender stereotyping and gendered responsibilization within cultural and societal contexts were found to impact self-blame and compound victimization in non-consensual pornography. The study findings implicated that recognizing psychosocial underpinnings of victim blame attribution in revenge porn would allow for evolving suitable legislative and policy responses for designing effective educative and preventative strategies.

Estimating the Prevalence and Identifying the Correlates of Sexting Behaviors Among Cambodian Male Adolescents

Male youths are more likely to experience peer pressure that encourages them to engage in risky behaviors than female youths, and this pressure can lead to an increased risk of sexting among male youths. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of and factors associated with sexting among Cambodian male youths. The correlational cross-sectional study design was utilized. This study surveyed 647 Cambodian male youths aged 15 to 24 years. The measurement included sending or receiving messages (sexts) that contain sexually explicit messages, images, or videos, and affecting factors to sexting. Around 32.5% of participants sent sexts, and 38.9% received them. Open relationships, pornographic website use, perception of friends' sexual activity, frequent thoughts about sex, higher sexual sensation-seeking tendencies, positive attitudes toward sex, and sexual experience were associated with increased likelihood of sending and receiving sexts. Based on the findings of this study, by offering suitable education, guidance, and intervention programs, we can effectively mitigate the adverse repercussions of sexting while fostering healthy sexual behaviors among youths.

Sexting Among Australian Adolescents: Risk and Protective Factors

Although consensual sending of sexts between adolescents is considered developmentally appropriate, it may also entail a range of negative consequences. Current sexting research lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework identifying a range of risk and protective factors underpinning adolescent consensual sending of sexts across individual, interpersonal, and distal levels. Further, there is a lack of systematic evaluation of how the importance of these factors may vary across adolescent age. This study investigated the utility of the Social Development Model to predict a range of risk and protective factors across individual, family, peer, school, and community-level factors. The sample included 1302 teenagers from Victoria, Australia (M_age = 14.54, SD = 1.14, 50.8% girls). Results indicated that 146 (11.7%) participants sent a sext (76 boys and 70 girls). Logistic regression analyses revealed that the Social Development Model accounted for 45.8% of variance in sexting, with greater likelihood of sending sexts being associated with older age, prior sexual activity, school sector, physical activity, lifetime substance use, greater depressive symptoms, sensation seeking, and perceived substance availability in the community. Multigroup analyses revealed that lifetime substance use was associated with a greater likelihood of sending sexts among younger teens. Among older adolescents, adaptive coping was associated with reduced engagement in sexting, while higher parental overcontrol and family conflict increased the odds of sending sexts. Overall, sexting is associated with a range of modifiable factors potentially amenable to intervention.

Adolescent experiences of sexting: A systematic review of the qualitative literature, and recommendations for practice

INTRODUCTION

Sexting among adolescents continues to garner interest across disciplines due to its prevalence in the lives of young people and the potential for extremely negative outcomes associated with the behavior. The present review aimed to integrate the existing qualitative research on adolescent sexting experiences, to provide empirically-supported recommendations for professionals working with adolescents.

METHODS

A search of four databases relating to adolescent experiences of sexting was conducted, resulting in the inclusion of 28 studies in the review. Quality appraisal of these studies was completed in line with the Critical Appraisal Skills Profile qualitative checklist.

RESULTS

Major themes in the qualitative studies were synthesized to generate recommendations for professionals. These recommendations are categorized as (a) "proactive" (enhancing positive and contextualized education and attempting to mitigate the likelihood of young people having negative experiences with sexting), (b) "responsive" (management of disclosures of distressing experiences with sexting, including image-based sexual abuse [IBSA]), and (iii) "clinical" (increasing awareness among clinicians of pertinent issues concerning intervention with young people who are engaging in sexting, or who have been victimized by IBSA).

CONCLUSIONS

The qualitative literature was found to provide rich insight into adolescent experiences of sexting, thus allowing for the generation of evidence-based recommendations which are consistent with young peoples' own interests and preferences. Limitations in the existing literature base were discussed (e.g., lack of specificity in methodological reporting), and suggestions were given for future research (including the need to explore sexting experiences of LGBTQ + adolescents in more depth).

Sexting among British adults: a qualitative analysis of sexting as emotion work governed by 'feeling rules'

Sexting has generated considerable public and professional interest with concerns centring on young people, and potential harms to mental and sexual health. Little research thus far has explored the practice among adults and none has focused on the cultural norms relating to the emotional experience of sexting across different ages and genders. We conducted 40 semi-structured interviews with a diverse sample of adults aged 18-59 years in Britain on the role of digital technologies in participants' sexual lives. In this paper, we draw on the accounts of 34 people with experience of sexting. We identified three main themes in participants' accounts related to the emotional aspects of sexting: (1) trust, (2) desire/intimacy and (3) shame. Under each theme, we identified motivations, 'feeling rules', and examples of 'emotion work' relating to the self, the other and the dyad. We conclude that there are shared cultural norms that constitute what appropriate sexting should feel like. Interventions aiming to minimise harms arising from sexting need to build on commonly held cultural conventions regarding the 'rules of the game' concerning feelings as well as behaviours.

Victim Blaming and Non-Consensual Forwarding of Sexts Among Late Adolescents and Young Adults

This study explored late adolescents' and young adults' willingness to engage in non-consensual forwarding of sexts (NCFS) and its relation to victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims. The study further examined important determinants in the development of victim blaming beliefs (e.g., perceived victim blaming of peers). An online survey was conducted among 1343 Belgian respondents of which 78.4% were female (M_age = 21.62 years, SD = 3.57 years). Structural equation modeling showed that victim blaming beliefs (i.e., responsibility-based and characteristic-based) were related to willingness to engage in NCFS, which was related to NCFS, regardless of the victim's sex. Further, victim blaming beliefs in the context of NCFS were shaped by parents' and peers' perceived victim blaming, and respondents' high levels of narcissism and low levels of empathy. Surprisingly, pornography use was negatively correlated with characteristic-based victim blaming beliefs. Additionally, males and late adolescents appeared to hold more victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims in comparison with females and young adults. Lastly, the willingness to engage in NCFS was more strongly related to responsibility-based victim blaming (not characteristic-based victim blaming) if the victim was male. The findings demonstrate how victim blaming encourages NCFS and emphasize that educational programs should avoid victim-focused strategies.

Sexting Behaviors Before and During COVID-19 in Italian and Colombian Young Adults

Introduction

Recent research highlight increasing at-risk online sexual activities and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic among young adults. Specifically, sexting refers to exchanging sexually suggestive messages, photos, and videos through technological devices, and it can be placed on a continuum from safer to riskier behavior. This study aims to improve our knowledge about sexting behaviors in Italian and Colombian young adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

A survey online was filled in by all recruited participants through a snowball sampling procedure (from December 2019 to June 2021) both in Italy and Colombia, resulting in a total of 2931 participants (2051 from Italy and 880 from Colombia) aged 18 to 35 years old (Mage = 23.85; SDage = 3.63; 67.6% girls).

Results

Italian youth were more engaged in risky sexting than Colombian participants, while Colombians indicated being more engaged in non-consensual sexting than Italians. Sexual minority people reported more sharing their own sexts, higher levels of sexting under pressure, and 3.2 times more risky sexting than exclusively heterosexual counterparts. During the pandemic period, participants sent their own sexts 1.5 times more and were less involved in non-consensual sexting than in the pre-pandemic era.

Conclusions

The present research could help understand better the cultural dynamics underlying the differences in sexting behaviors, suggesting the relevance of investigating how sexting behaviors and online at-risk activities have changed since the pandemic started.

Policy Implications

Results provide implications for educational and prevention programs to improve young people's awareness of sexting behaviors.

What are the predictors of sexting behavior among adolescents? The positive youth development approach

INTRODUCTION

Research supporting adolescent sexual health and empowerment is needed. The study investigates sexting among adolescents using the resources that characterized the Positive Youth Development Approach (PYD) and considering the impact of parental monitoring. The study aims to describe sexting among three different groups of adolescents (i.e., Non Sexters [NS], Passive Sexters [PS], and Active Sexters [AS]) considering age and sex (first aim). It also seeks to identify predictors among the PYD's resources and parental monitoring that explain the probability of falling into the sexter or the non sexter groups (second aim) as well as the probability of falling into the active or the passive sexter groups (third aim).

METHOD

The national representative sample was composed of 1866 Italian adolescents: 980 girls and 886 boys aged between 13 and 19 years old (M = 16.26; SD = 1.49). Participants completed a questionnaire that measured sexting behavior, PYD resources, and parental monitoring scales. Chi-squared and multivariate logistic regressions were performed.

RESULTS

Almost half of the participants (46.0%) were NS, 36.2% were PS, and 17.8% were AS. Results show that sex, age, Connection, and Child Disclosure are significant predictors of sexting behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlighted that sexting can be seen as a relational activity that adolescents use to establish connections as part as their sexual exploration. A parenting approach that promotes disclosure may help adolescents explore safely their sexuality and be accountable. Results also indicate that parents need to build educational alliances with schools to promote sexual health and empowerment among teenagers while preventing risk of harm.

Motivations, Behaviors and Expectancies of Sexting: The Role of Defensive Strategies and Social Media Addiction in a Sample of Adolescents

Adolescents and young adults engage in sexting behaviors. Research has mainly emphasized the relationship between motivations and sexting behaviors, with little attention paid to sexting expectations and the potential role of coping strategies. This study aims to explore the measure of emotional-behavioral functioning with the Youth/Adult Self Report (based on the subject's age), the use of defensive strategies measured with the Response Evaluation Measure (REM-71), social media addiction with the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and all dimensions of sexting: motivations, behavior and expectations measured with the Sexting Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ), Sexting Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ) and Sexpectancies Questionnaire (SQ), respectively. N = 209 adolescents and young adults were recruited from high schools and universities in Rome to complete the self-report questionnaires. Results show that males tend to have higher expectations of sexting than females. We also found that expectations play a role in determining sexting behaviors and motivations. Our hypotheses on social media addiction and sexting were confirmed, while the relationship between the defensive strategies and sexting was not significant as expected. Further studies on this topic are desirable in the future.

Parents, teens and screens during COVID-19 containment: An exploratory study

OBJECTIVE

One of the main concerns of parents is the amount of screen time of their teenagers, and most of them try to set rules about it. The objective of this exploratory study was to compare whether parents' rules changed during confinement and whether these changes were successful.

METHODS

We studied a group of parents (N = 47) of 13-year-olds in Switzerland surveyed before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

RESULTS

Most parents (83%) indicated that screen-time rules for their teens had changed during containment, mainly to be less strict. Although only a minority of parents were successful in defining screen-time spaces or schedules for their teenagers, almost three out of four were successful when they encouraged non-screen-based activities.

CONCLUSIONS

This exploratory study reveals that, during containment, parents decided to be less strict with their teens' screen-time use even though it remained their main worry. However, it also suggests that when activities non-involving screens are proposed, teens are likely to participate. These results seem to indicate that reducing screen time is not a matter of imposing restrictions but, rather, of proposing alternatives. Finally, further research is warranted to assess whether these changes in screen-time use are exceptional or here to stay.

Sexual Modesty in Sexual Expression and Experience: A Scoping Review, 2000 - 2021

Sexual modesty is the social, cultural, interpersonal, and psychological systems - defined by the tenets of Script Theory - that regulate individuals' sexual expression and experience at the social, legal, and interpersonal boundaries of acceptable/not-acceptable, private/public, and personal/social. Almost all aspects of sexual expression and experience are touched by the pervasive modesty standards for sexual communication, sexual display, sexual relations, and sexual behaviors. Sexual modesty influences an array of sexual and reproductive health outcomes. Many aspects of sexual modesty are enforced by legal as well as social, cultural, and religious proscriptions, including social shaming and ostracism as well as corporal and capital punishments. The purpose of this paper is to summarize a diverse literature related to sexual modesty from the years 2000 to 2021 in order to clarify its role in sexual health and sexual wellbeing and to identify directions for new research.

Technology-Mediated Sexual Interactions, Social Anxiety, and Sexual Wellbeing: A Scoping Review

Technology-mediated sexual interactions (TMSI) are interpersonal exchanges via technology of self-created sexual material, including photos, videos, and auditory or text messages. There is little research on the factors that predict both TMSI experiences and their sexual wellbeing outcomes. Social anxiety is anxiety experienced in response to social or performance situations. From a cognitive–behavioural perspective, people higher in social anxiety may avoid TMSI, preventing positive or negative consequences. They also may use TMSI to avoid the anxiety caused by in-person sexual interactions, benefiting from access to sexual interactions while perpetuating anxiety about them. The purpose of this scoping review was to explore the role of social anxiety in TMSI and its sexual wellbeing outcomes. We executed a comprehensive search strategy across eight academic databases and searched reference lists of included articles. We included 19 articles written in English or French that had a human sample and were published between 1991 and 2021 and evaluated connections between social anxiety constructs (e.g., shyness, anxiety) and TMSI-related experiences (e.g., sexting, internet sex addiction). The pattern of results suggested that social anxiety constructs may predict some but not all forms of TMSI. Future research from a cognitive–behavioural perspective will expand knowledge on social anxiety, TMSI, and its sexual wellbeing outcomes.

Prevalence of Sexting among Greek University Students: A Matter of Relationships?

The study examines sexting among 3,171 Greek university students in the context of different relationship types (i.e. romantic partners, friends, strangers). Participants completed an anonymous online survey, assessing sexting during the last year along with demographic and relationship status information. Sexting was a common practice among participants, with the use of mobile phones and the Messenger application to exchange sexts. Sexting was more common among males and non-heterosexuals. Participants aged 25 and above were more likely to exchange sexts with strangers than those aged between 18 and 24. Romantic partners reported exchanging sexts more often than strangers. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that non-heterosexual males in a long-distance romantic relationship were more likely to participate in sexting, and that non-heterosexual older males who have been single for the last year were more likely to exchange sexual or provocative messages with strangers. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications.

Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting ("revenge porn") among adolescents

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study is to develop a new measure of victimization and perpetration of two frequent forms of image-based sexual abuse, namely sextortion (i.e., the threat of distributing sexual images to pressure the victim into doing something) and nonconsensual sexting (i.e., distributing sexual images of someone without the consent of the victim). Additional aims were to analyze the prevalence of these forms of victimization and perpetration and to examine their temporal stability over a 1-year period.

METHODS

The sample was made up of 1820 Spanish adolescents (mean age = 13.38, SD = 1.42; 929 girls, 878 boys, 3 nonbinary, and 10 did not indicate gender) who completed self-report instruments on image-based sexual abuse and related variables (e.g., cyberbullying victimization).

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis supported a structure composed of the four hypothesized factors: sextortion victimization and perpetration, and nonconsensual sexting victimization and perpetration. Higher sexting, cyberbullying victimization, and symptoms of depression and anxiety had stronger associations with image-based sexual victimization than with perpetration, which showed evidence of concurrent validity. Prevalence was 2.6% and 0.7% for sextortion victimization and perpetration, respectively, and 3.4% and 4.9% for nonconsensual sexting victimization and perpetration, respectively. Temporal stability over 1 year was .26 for sextortion victimization, .19 for nonconsensual sexting victimization, .33 for nonconsensual sexting perpetration (all ps < .001), and nonsignificant for sextortion perpetration. The stability of nonconsensual sexting victimization was significantly higher for girls compared to boys, whereas nonconsensual sexting perpetration was more stable over 1 year for boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies must advance the analysis of the predictors and consequences of image-based sexual abuse among adolescents to better prevent this problem. Prevalence of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting is not negligible, and these problems should be particularly addressed in prevention programs.

Personal Cell Phones among Children: Parental Perception of Content-Related Threats and Attempts to Control Them in a Lithuanian Sample

Background and Objectives: Various content-related threats such as provocative content, disinformation, cyberbullying, or sexual and commercial messages might reach children by phone and have a negative effect on their health. Amongst parents who are able to control it, we aimed to assess parental attitudes towards the use of mobile phones among children and control measures taken. Materials and Methods: A total number of 619 parents of primary school children from a middle-sized town in Lithuania participated in this study. Parents anonymously filled out our original questionnaire. Distribution of the respondents was assessed according to control measures taken, threat awareness, and sociodemographic factors. Results: Most of the respondents (79.8%) thought that personal mobile phones might be harmful to children’s health, 99.5% of the parents used at least one control measure. Further, 91.9% of the respondents did not think that children might receive messages from strangers. Respectively, 85.5% and 95.2% of the parents thought that children do not receive offensive or sexual content messages. Many parents (25.5%) helped their children register to social networks. Parents with lower education and parents of younger children had lower awareness of threats (p < 0.05). Fathers, higher educated, single, and unemployed parents indicated application of fewer control measures (p < 0.05). Other sociodemographic factors were not related with threat awareness or control measures taken (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Nearly all parents of primary school children take measures in order to control their children’s usage of mobile phones but most of them underestimate content-related threats brought by mobile phones.

Image-based Abuse: Debate and Reflections on the "Iveco Case" in Spain on Twitter

The instance of image-based abuse that ended in the victim's suicide, known as the "Iveco case," had an unprecedented social impact in Spain in 2019. This case provoked a great social reaction and became particularly viral on social networks such as Twitter. The present research investigates how this case has been dealt with through Twitter discourse. In particular, this study aimed to identify the main elements that could explain how people engaged with the problem of nonconsensual sharing of sexually explicit images in general, and with this case in particular. In total, 1,895 tweets with the word "Iveco" written in Spain were selected by streaming API, and their content was analyzed by lexical analysis using Iramuteq software (Reinert method). This software carries out an automatic lexical classification cluster analysis that groups the most significant words and text segments according to their co-occurrence. The results revealed that, on Twitter, it was stressed that the victim was a married woman with children who had practiced sexting. However, in response to this initial description, many voices also emerged that labelled this image-based abuse as gender-based online violence. Criticism was aimed at both the passivity of the company, and the attitude of hundreds of thousands of people who share the sexting video by WhatsApp groups without permission. Consequently, several feminist mobilizations emerged, framing this case within a sexist and patriarchal society and asking for accountability. However, in contrast, countermovements such as the #NotAllMen also emerged.

A Cross-Cultural Examination of the Sexting Motives and Attitudes: Bosnia and Herzegovina vs. Croatia

Many sexting studies conducted in the Western cultures have shown that the percentage is higher in less traditional cultures. However, the generalizability of this phenomenon to non-Western cultures has not been extensively researched. The purpose of this study is to examine and explain cross-cultural differences in sexting behavior among subjects from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. A mixed methods approach was used. The first, qualitative phase included focus groups with two groups of high school students from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia ( $N=57$ ), aged 15 to 19. In the second, quantitative phase, questionnaires were sent to 440 young adults with an average age of 21 years ( $\text{SD}=3.8$ ). From the interviews with the young people, nonconsensual sexting was perceived as less beneficial. Sexting was viewed as a double standard. The quantitative study revealed gender and country differences in attitudes toward sexting and motives for sexting. Positive attitudes toward sexting were found to predict different forms of sexting motives in both samples. In the sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina, age was found to predict sexting with instrumental motives and body image reinforcement motives. Gender, on the other hand, was found to be predictive of instrumental sexting motives in the Croatian sample and body image reinforcement sexting motives in the Bosnia and Herzegovina sample. This study illustrates the value of cross-cultural approaches combined with mixed methods as a design to study sexting behavior.

Support for Texting-Based Condom Negotiation Among Forcibly Displaced Adolescents in the Slums of Kampala, Uganda: Cross-sectional Validation of the Condom Use Negotiated Experiences Through Technology Scale

Background

Promoting sexual health among forcibly displaced adolescents is a global public health priority. Digital sexual communication strategies (eg, sexting) may increase adolescents’ confidence in discussing sexual health issues and negotiating condom use. However, limited evidence exists describing validated measures for text-based condom negotiation in the literature.

Objective

This study helps fill this gap by adapting and examining the psychometric properties of a condom use experience through technology (condom use negotiated experiences through technology [CuNET]) scale.

Methods

Using peer network sampling, 242 forcibly displaced adolescents (aged 16-19 years) living in Kampala’s slums were recruited for participation between January and March 2018. A subscale (embarrassment to negotiate condom use) of the Multidimensional Condom Attitudes Scale was adapted to incorporate sexting, yielding CuNET. Participants were randomly assigned to calibration and validation subsamples to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to establish and validate the scale. CuNET measured participants’ support levels for texting-based condom negotiation via sexting based on gender, and multivariable logistic regression was used to explore its associations with sexual health outcomes (recent consistent condom use, access to sexual and reproductive health services, and lifetime sexually transmitted infection testing).

Results

The one-factor CuNET with the validation sample was valid (χ²₄=5.3; P=.26; root mean square error of approximation=0.05, 90% CI 0.00-0.16; comparative fit index=0.99; Tucker-Lewis index=0.99; standardized root mean square residual=0.006), and reliability (Cronbach α=.98). Adolescent girls showed significantly lower levels of support for using sexting to negotiate condom use (mean 13.60, SE 0.70 vs mean 21.48, SE 1.23; P=.001). In multivariable analyses, a 1-point increase in the CuNET score was associated with increased odds of recent consistent condom use (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.73, 95% CI 1.24-2.41) but not with access to sexual and reproductive health services (aOR 1.51, 95% CI 0.99-2.30) or lifetime sexually transmitted infection testing (aOR 0.90, 95% CI 0.64-1.26).

Conclusions

The unidimensional CuNET scale is valid and reliable for forcibly displaced adolescents living in slums in Kampala, gender-sensitive, and relevant for predicting consistent condom use among urban displaced and refugee adolescents. Further development of this scale will enable a better understanding of how adolescents use digital tools for condom negotiation.

Lines of Action for Sexting Prevention and Intervention: A Systematic Review

Sexting has become a new form of intimate interaction in line with contemporary communication methods. This phenomenon often leads to positive outcomes, but it can also have negative repercussions depending on the situation, such as the context of the relationship, and whether it is consensual or coercive. Despite this, the main types of sexting behaviors (sending, receiving, and third-party forwarding) must be addressed in order to promote safe and healthy practices. However, the approach to tackling this phenomenon remains unclear. This systematic review sought to summarize the lines of action proposed or conducted in the scientific literature to address sexting, to help researchers and educators create and evaluate effective programs. A systematic search of 21 databases was conducted; only articles relating to sexting education, prevention, and intervention among child and adolescent populations were considered. In total, 456 articles were identified, 91 of which were included for the purposes of this research. The results highlighted a need to respond to the aforementioned sexting behaviors and to tackle the resulting conflict situations. Although interventions across different areas are recommended (e.g., health, family, policies, legal advice, law enforcement, technology experts, and even society as a whole), most studies agree that school is the most practical setting for intervention. Thus, the 15 lines of action identified in this systematic review must all be considered to effectively address sexting in childhood and adolescence.

Sending One's Own Intimate Image: Sexting Among Middle-School Teens

BACKGROUND

There is a gap in the literature regarding data on sexting among youth under the age of 16 whereas the problems related to this practice could affect them more because of their ongoing development. This study aims to determine the prevalence rate and characteristics of sending one's own sexually related image among middle-school teens.

METHODS

Data were obtained from a web-based in-school survey conducted between October 2019 and February 2020. The sample comprised 3006 (mean age 13.7; 50.2% males) 10th-grade pupils in the canton of Vaud (Switzerland). Participants were asked "Have you ever sent a sexually related/sexy image of yourself?". Analysis of variance/chi-square tests and multinomial regression analyses were used to compare the groups.

RESULTS

Overall, 93.0% reported never, 3.7% once and 3.3% several times. No gender differences were found. Sending was associated with older age, low academic performance, cyberbullying victimization and reception of unsolicited sexually related images.

CONCLUSIONS

Education and health professionals should be aware that it is necessary to discuss the theme, perhaps with a more global approach including pressure, consent, exchange of nonsexual images, and so on from an early age. The context and reasons for sending remain to be explored, particularly to determine if the pressure is greater at this age.

Linking Sexting Expectancies with Motivations to Sext

While many researchers have explored the impact sexting may have on relationships and mental health, few have explored the motivations and expectancies as to why individuals engage in sexting. By understanding why individuals sext their partners, we can learn more about what drives the behavior. Therefore, the current study sought to determine if sexting for sexual purposes (SP) or body image reinforcement (BIR) would predict positive sext expectancies. There was no prediction for instrumental/aggravated reasons (IAR). The online questionnaire had 348 participants, and based on regression analysis, positive sext expectancies while sending a sext message predicted sexting for sexual purposes. Somewhat surprisingly, sexting for instrumental/aggravated reasons was predicted by negative sext expectancies (both sending and receiving). These findings demonstrate individuals who sext for sexual purposes, and have positive sext expectancies, appear to enjoy the consequences of that behavior. Individuals who sext for instrumental/aggravated reasons may be uncomfortable with the outcome of their sexting behavior. This result highlights an area where clinicians could help clients explore the true reinforcements behind IAR.

Sexual Boundary Violations via Digital Media Among Students

As digital media becomes more central to the lives of adolescents, it also becomes increasingly relevant for their sexual communication. Sexting as an important image-based digital medium provides opportunities for self-determined digital communication, but also carries specific risks for boundary violations. Accordingly, sexting is understood either as an everyday, or as risky and deviant behavior among adolescents. In the affectedness of boundary violations gender plays an important role. However, it is still unclear to what extent digital sexual communication restores stereotypical gender roles and restrictive sexuality norms or, alternatively, enables new spaces of possibility. In this sense, current research points to a desideratum regarding adolescents' orientations toward sexting as a practice between spaces of possibility and boundary violations. This paper discusses the possibilities, but also the risks, of intimate digital communication among adolescents. The main question is, how adolescents themselves perceive sexting practices and how they position themselves between both spaces for possibility and for the exchange of unwanted sexual content. For this purpose, orientations toward normalities and gender of students are reconstructed. To answer these questions, twelve single-sex, group discussions were carried out with students aged 16 and 17 at five different secondary schools in northern Germany. A total of 20 boys and 22 girls took part. The group discussions were structured by a narrative generating guideline. The analysis draws its methodology from the Documentary Method, regarding implicit and explicit forms of knowledge and discourse. It results in a typology of three types with different orientations. The study shows, that most of the students consider sexting to be a risky practice; only one type shows normality in the use of sexting. At the same time, some of the young people are interested in experimenting with image-based intimate digital communication. Further, gender differences in use and affectedness are also documented. In this way, orientations toward gender stereotypes "favor" both the attribution of responsibility to girls, and overlook the responsibility of students who perpetrated the boundary violation. The orientations of adolescents should be taken more into account in research as well as in educational programs for the prevention of sexual violence.

INGRESSO DO AFETO: EXPOSIÇÃO INDEVIDA E GHOSTING EM JOVENS USUÁRIOS DE REDES SOCIAIS

RESUMO A circulação de nudes constitui um fenômeno atual pertencente ao campo amplo do sexting. Este artigo apresenta uma sessão de psicodrama junguiano no tema. O recrutamento foi realizado através de redes sociais utilizando metodologia bola de neve. Foram obtidos dois relatos de jovens de 26 anos. Com a finalidade de exploração dos relatos em maior profundidade, apenas um deles foi dramatizado. Dois fenômenos digitais foram identificados: exposição indevida e ghosting. Emergiram dinâmicas relacionais de teor afetivo-sexual nos nudes que puderam ser compreendidas como associadas ao erotismo na cultura digital. Foram realizadas amplificações mítico-simbólicas pelos mitos de Eros e Psiquê e Lilith. Recomenda-se a elaboração de novos estudos para maior abrangência na compreensão de situações relacionadas a essa prática.

Sexting and Behavioral Health in First-time Justice-Involved Adolescents

Objectives

We examined the prevalence of sexting, related motivations, demographics, and association with behavioral health problems among justice-involved adolescents.

Hypotheses

We hypothesized positive associations between sexting and sexual risk, substance use, delinquency, and mental health problems.

Methods

Participants were 307 community-supervised justice-involved adolescents with a first-time offense (Mage =14.50 years, 44.6% female) and their caregivers. Adolescents answered questions on technology use and sexting by sending, receiving, or forwarding sexually suggestive text messages and images (pictures or videos). They also completed measures of recent (past 4-month) sexual activity, unprotected sex, cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, and other drug use, and delinquency; current trauma symptoms, internalizing problems, and adaptive functioning.

Results

Prevalence of sexting were 37.7% (lifetime overall; 17.0% sent texts; 17.4% sent images) and 29.5% (past-year overall; 12.8% sent texts; 13.6% sent images). Sexts were commonly sent as presents to partners, in response to sexts received, or to have fun. "Sexters" were older than "non-sexters" and more likely to identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or questioning. Past-year sexting was significantly associated with recent sexual activity; unprotected sex; alcohol use and days of use; marijuana and other drug use; delinquency and variety of delinquent acts; and elevated trauma symptoms and internalizing problems.

Conclusions

Sexting is prevalent among adolescents with a first-time offense and co-occurs with multiple behavioral health needs. Intervention for this population may be informed by routinely assessing sexting in community settings. Familiarity with local reporting laws could help clinicians navigate the legal implications of sexting among adolescents with existing justice-system involvement.

Factores relacionados y conductas sobre sexting en estudiantes de enfermería en una universidad pública

Introducción. El sexting se define como el envío de contenido erótico o pornográfico a través de dispositivos digitales, comúnmente el móvil o smartphone, como una expresión de sexualidad cada vez más frecuente, y a pesar de que este fenómeno puede tener lugar con efectos positivos en quienes lo practican, existe muy poca evidencia relacionada con los mecanismos de participación, los motivos que conllevan, la percepción de las consecuencias, entre otros. Algunos autores lo han relacionado con factores como el consumo de sustancias, la promiscuidad y el nivel socioeconómico. Método. Estudio observacional, transversal y relacional, que incluyó a 300 estudiantes universitarios de enfermería, a través de un muestreo no probabilístico a conveniencia, en el que se aplicaron dos instrumentos, la escala de conductas sobre sexting y el instrumento de nivel socioeconómico familiar NSE AMAI. Resultados. El 64,7 % declara haber participado en prácticas de sexting, de los cuales el 26,2 % publicó una imagen suya a través de sus redes sociales, el 13,9 % declaró realizarlo cuando bebe alcohol y el 43,8 % reportó que es falso que el sexting los hace sentir inmorales. Se encontraron relaciones de prevalencia e intensidad del sexting con el nivel socioeconómico y la vida sexual activa. Conclusión. Al entender los distintos factores que predominan en esta práctica se pueden desarrollar diferentes intervenciones contextualizadas en los grupos poblacionales de riesgo, que sean accesibles por ambas partes, lo que permite una libre expresión de la sexualidad sin comprometer la seguridad de las personas.

Four Problems in Sexting Research and Their Solutions

Despite over 10 years of research, we still know very little about people’s sexting behaviours and experiences. Our limited and, at times, conflicting knowledge about sexting is due to re-searchers’ use of inconsistent conceptual definitions of sexting, dubious measurement practices, and atheoretical research designs. In this article, we provide an overview of the history of sex-ting research and describe how researchers have contributed to the ‘moral panic’ narrative that continues to surround popular media discourse about sexting. We identify four key problems that still plague sexting research today: (1) imprudent focus on the medium, (2) inconsistent conceptual definitions, (3) poor measurement practices, and (4) a lack of theoretical frameworks. We describe and expand on solutions to address each of these problems. In particular, we focus on the need to shift empirical attention away from sexting and towards the behavioural domain of technology-mediated sexual interaction. We believe that the implementation of these solu-tions will lead to valid and sustainable knowledge development on technology-mediated sexual interactions, including sexting.

Physically distant, virtually close: Adolescents' sexting behaviors during a strict lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic

This study contextualizes Belgian adolescents' (12-18 years old) sexting behaviors between romantic and non-romantic partners during a strict lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic. An online survey among 543 Belgian respondents (M _age  = 15.29, 68% girls) showed that 40.9% of the adolescents engaged in at least one type of sexting (i.e., type one = textual, type two = visual content with underwear/swimwear, type three = visual depiction of private parts, type four = visual depiction of sexual acts). Arousal needs were the most common reasons to sext (M = 3.33, SD = 1.89). Generalized ordered logit analyses show that higher arousal needs were linked to higher frequencies of the first three sexting types. Relational affirmation needs were related to the engagement in sexting type two, whereas partner pressure was related to sexting type three and four. Regarding the latter, a significant link was also found with stress regulation. Conditional relations emerged according to adolescents' sex, developmental status, and relationship status. The current study's findings not only help to inform practitioners in terms of behavioral advice for future pandemics or periods after social isolation, but can also offer explanations for (changes in) adolescents' sexting behaviors after the pandemic and the possible dual nature of its effects.

A Longitudinal Investigation of Observed Adolescent Text-Based Sexting and Adjustment

Despite strong concerns that sexting poses risks for adolescents' well-being, previous research finds mixed results. Moreover, these studies rely heavily on self-report measures and cross-sectional designs. This study utilizes observational methods to examine longitudinal relations between text-based sexting and both negative and positive indicators of psychosocial adjustment. An ethnically diverse sample of 197 adolescents was provided smartphones that captured their text messages across high school, from 2008-2012. Two, two-day samples of text messages from grades 9-12 were content-coded (468,201 total observations). Sexting was defined as sending and receiving text-based statements about past, present, or hypothetical sexual behaviors occurring between dyadic texting partners. Each year, adolescents reported on negative (internalizing, externalizing, and social problems; borderline personality features) and positive (life satisfaction, group belongingness, and positive self-perceptions) indicators of their psychosocial adjustment. Using concurrent and longitudinal multilevel models, greater sexting at one time point than one's average (within-person) was only associated with lower levels of group belongingness within the same year. For girls only, text-based sexting more than others on average (between-person) was related to increased externalizing symptoms and borderline personality disorder features, as well as decreased life satisfaction, group belongingness, self-perceived social competence, and global self-worth. No within-person differences by gender emerged, nor did longitudinal associations. Future studies and intervention efforts should examine when and why higher sexting might be related to psychosocial problems among girls.

The outcomes of sexting for children and adolescents: A systematic review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Given associated risks, sexting among children and adolescents has yielded significant interest in recent years. Several previous reviews have examined data on the prevalence, determinants, and correlates of sexting behaviour, however, in an ever-changing digital media context, a comprehensive overview of findings regarding its outcomes is warranted. This novel review aimed to systematically identify and conduct a narrative synthesis of empirical evidence regarding the outcomes of sexting involvement for children and adolescents.

METHODS

Four databases were searched for peer-reviewed literature on sexting, and 54 articles were identified for inclusion in the review. The quality of included studies was appraised using Dixon-Woods et al. (2006) five question prompts.

RESULTS

Four 'outcomes' categories were derived, namely, psychological (victimisation; sexual abuse/victimisation; mental health and quality of life; and emotional outcomes), behavioural (sexual activity, risk behaviours, and perpetration of abuse and harassment), relational (personal connections with others & reputational outcomes), and systems-level (distribution/public exposure of sexting content).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that the outcomes of sexting for children and adolescents (aged ≤19 years) are wide-ranging, some positive and desirable, others negative and unwanted. Furthermore, identified outcomes were located along a continuum spanning benefits for adolescents' well-being and relationships, stigma and associated difficulties, and serious harm or trauma. Limitations (e.g., methodological constraints of studies) and implications (e.g., informing harm prevention/intervention initiatives; further large-scale and replication studies) are discussed within.

Where’s the tech in sex research? A brief critique and call for research

Internet and data-based technologies are ubiquitous in most societies around the world. People use online technologies (i.e., devices, software, platforms, applications, etc., that connect to the Internet through wired or wireless means) in almost all aspects of their daily lives, including sexuality. Yet, researchers have been slow to integrate online technologies in sexuality studies. The purpose of this paper is to briefly review the opportunities and challenges associated with integrating research about online technology with research about human sexuality. We argue that researchers focused on (almost) all topics of human sexuality would benefit from considering online technologies in their studies. We describe how people’s online and in-person experiences do not exist in separate vacuums; rather, they influence and are influenced by one another in an ongoing and dynamic fashion. We propose three ways that sexuality researchers can integrate technology and technology-informed research in their future studies that address some of the opportunities and challenges: adding variables and constructs, using technology-focused theories, and collaboration.

A Bad Romance: Sexting Motivations and Teen Dating Violence

Sexting has been commonly defined as the sharing of sexually suggestive content via new technologies. The relationship between sexting motivations and both online and offline aggressive behaviors (i.e., sexual harassment, dating violence, and bullying) is still understudied. This study aimed to investigate the association between three sexting motivations-sexual purposes, instrumental/aggravated reasons, and body image reinforcement-and teen dating violence. Specifically, only instrumental/aggravated motivations-such as sexting in exchange for something, under pressure, or with harmful intentions-were expected to be related to dating violence perpetration and victimization. The participants were 171 adolescents aged from 13 to 20 years. Having sent sexts during the last year and having had a dating relationship were inclusive criteria. The Sexting Motivations Questionnaire and the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationship Inventory were administered via an online survey. Two hierarchical regression analyses were run to investigate whether the three sexting motivations (i.e., sexual purposes, instrumental/aggravated reasons, and body image reinforcement) predict, respectively, victimization and perpetration of teen dating violence, controlling for sex, age, and relationship duration. Dating violence perpetration was predicted by sexting for instrumental/aggravated reasons, as well as by sex and relationship duration. Dating violence victimization was predicted by sexting for instrumental/aggravated reasons, as well as by age and relationship duration. These findings expand literature about sexting motivations and aggressive behaviors suggesting that instrumental/aggravated reasons are an index of aggressive/exploitative tendencies, which also lead to dating violence. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Adolescent Sexting: The Role of Body Shame, Social Physique Anxiety, and Social Networking Site Addiction

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between body shame and participation in sexting among adolescents by examining the mediational roles of social physique anxiety and misuse of social networking sites (SNSs). Four hundred thirty-nine adolescents completed self-report measures for assessing their levels of body shame, social physique anxiety, SNS addiction symptoms, and sexting participation. Female adolescents reported higher scores in body shame, social physique anxiety, and SNS addiction symptoms, whereas male adolescents reported higher participation in sexting behaviors. In addition, gender did not moderate the relationship between body shame and higher sexting behaviors. Finally, the results showed an indirect (but not a direct) association between body shame and sexting behaviors through social physique anxiety and SNS addiction symptoms. These findings provide empirical evidence for the development of sexting prevention programs that are focused on body acceptance with the aim of reducing body shame, social physique anxiety, and SNS addiction.

Teens' Experiences with Sexting: A Grounded Theory Study

INTRODUCTION

To explore and understand the relationship between sexting behavior and adolescent mental health and well-being.

METHOD

A constructivist grounded theory study was conducted. Seventeen 18-22-year-old participants provided recollective and reflective accounts of sexting experiences throughout their adolescence.

RESULTS

Engaging in the Culture of Teen Sexting materialized as the central process and title for the grounded theory that emerged. Six primary processes included Engaging in the Culture of Teen Sexting, Identifying Motivating Factors, Forming Perceptions and Feelings, Acknowledging and Managing Risks, Connecting Mental Health and Sexting, and Finding a Sexual Self.

DISCUSSION

The findings suggested sexting is part of teen culture and normal adolescent sexual growth and development. Acknowledging sexting as a culture and normal part of sexual growth and development will assist pediatric nurse practitioners in engaging teens in conversations about sexting, helping them to navigate the risks of sexting and find healthy ways to manage sexting behavior.