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Lewis R, Scott R, Bala B, Jahan H, Bartram J, Radu T. Household water use and greywater management in Khulna city, Bangladesh. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2024; 259:114376. [PMID: 38569415 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
While substantial progress has been made in improving water and sanitation services in low- and middle-income countries, aligned basic services such as greywater, stormwater, and solid waste management have progressed little in recent decades. Data was collected in Khulna city, Bangladesh via a household survey (n = 192) of low-income areas exploring domestic water use and greywater volumes, characteristics, and disposal practices. Most households (71%) use a piped water supply for domestic purposes, supplemented by seasonal rainwater harvesting (26%) and greywater use (13%). Of the total water used by households (mean: 594 L/household/day and equivalent to 116 L/person/day), approximately 58% becomes greywater through bathing, dishwashing, religious practices, handwashing, laundry, and mopping. Greywater produced ranges from 61-1274 L/household/day, with a mean of 345 L/household/day and equivalent to 78.4 L/person/day. Greywater characteristics vary depending on the activity, individual behaviours and any products used during cooking, bathing, or cleaning. After generation, households dispose greywater to open drains (67%), nearby waterbodies (17%) directly to the ground (9%), or decentralised wastewater treatment system (7%). Without services for greywater management, greywater disposal may have considerable public and environmental health implications, necessitating careful attention and oversight from service-providers and stakeholders beyond the household-level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Lewis
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Rebecca Scott
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Babul Bala
- WaterAid Bangladesh, House 97B, Road 25, Block A, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh.
| | - Hasin Jahan
- WaterAid Bangladesh, House 97B, Road 25, Block A, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh.
| | - Jamie Bartram
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9D, UK.
| | - Tanja Radu
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
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2
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Shaikh IN, Ahammed MM. Comparative evaluation of different pre-treatment alternatives for granular media filters treating greywater and their ranking using analytical hierarchy process. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2024; 89:2625-2645. [PMID: 38822604 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2024.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the performance of four different pre-treatment alternatives for granular media filtration, namely, settling, aeration, coarse media filtration and chemical coagulation were compared experimentally. Further, analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used to compare their performance based on economic, environmental, technical and performance criteria. Performance of settling and aeration were evaluated up to 24 h duration. The coarse media filter was intermittently operated with 10 L of greywater in downflow mode while alum was used for chemical coagulation. Experimental results showed that settling up to 6 h did not show significant removal of different pollutants whereas 24 h settling resulted in moderate removal of turbidity and organic content but was not efficient in the removal of nutrients and faecal coliforms. Chemical coagulation reduced 93, 66, 48 and 97% of turbidity, COD, NH4-N and faecal coliforms, respectively from greywater but resulted in excessive sludge generation and is difficult to adopt on-site and requires skilled supervision. Coarse filtration of greywater resulted in 61, 41, 36 and 35% removal of turbidity, COD, PO4-P and faecal coliforms, respectively. Considering different criteria AHP gave coarse filtration as the best pre-treatment option to the granular media filters treating greywater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad N Shaikh
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, India E-mail:
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, India
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Raj DA, Ahammed MM, Shaikh IN. Use of zero-valent iron-modified sand filters for greywater treatment: performance evaluation and modelling using response surface methodology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023:10.1007/s11356-023-31182-4. [PMID: 38017210 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31182-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
The conventional sand filter when used alone for on-site treatment of greywater fails to meet different reuse standards, and hence there is a need to improve the potential of sand filters to remove different contaminants from greywater. Performance of zero-valent iron-modified (ZVI) sand filters is investigated in the present study for the treatment of real greywater. The experiments were conducted using three filters: an unmodified filter (SF) and two iron-modified filters, MSF-2 (with 2 kg of ZVI) and MSF-4 (with 4 kg of ZVI). The study evaluated the performance of these filters under different conditions: daily feed volumes of 10 L (72 L/m2/day), 20 L (144 L/m2/day), and 30 L (217 L/m2/day), as well as pause periods of 12, 24, and 36 h. The results showed that the ZVI-modified filters outperformed the unmodified filter significantly. Specifically, MSF-4 showed higher pollutant removal compared to MSF-2. The filter MSF-4 achieved 58% COD removal, 59% BOD removal, 56% NH4-N removal, 82% PO4-P removal, and a significant 1.96 log reduction in fecal coliforms. To optimize the filter operation, three key parameters, amount of ZVI, feed volume, and pause period were considered. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) with response surface methodology was employed to achieve optimization. The results of the optimization study indicated that the optimal conditions for the filters were 2.67 kg of ZVI quantity, a feed volume of 30 L (217 L/m2/day), and a pause period of 32.1 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanush A Raj
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India
| | - Irshad N Shaikh
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India.
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Kligerman DC, Zanatta AS, Toledo GDA, Nogueira JMDR. Path toward Sustainability in Wastewater Management in Brazil. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6597. [PMID: 37623180 PMCID: PMC10454515 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20166597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Developing countries have not carried out the adequate management of wastewater and are a long way off meeting the sustainability goal of universal access to safely managed sanitation services by 2030. This article discusses sustainability in wastewater management and conducts a narrative literature review to analyze four stages on the path toward sustainability: (1) the prevention of or reduction in pollution at the source; (2) wastewater collection and treatment; (3) using wastewater as an alternative source of water; and (4) the recovery of useful by-products. It also provides an overview of wastewater management in Brazil and shows the advantages of using wastewater to produce biofuel in a country in which 48.3% of energy production comes from renewable sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Cynamon Kligerman
- Departamento de Saneamento e Saúde Ambiental (DSSA) (ENSP), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil;
| | - Aline Stelling Zanatta
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biomodelos (ICTB), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brazil;
| | - Graziella de Araújo Toledo
- Departamento de Saneamento e Saúde Ambiental (DSSA) (ENSP), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil;
| | - Joseli Maria da Rocha Nogueira
- Laboratório de Microbiologia do Departamento de Ciências Biológicas (DCB) (ENSP), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, Brazil;
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Petousi I, Thomaidi V, Kalogerakis N, Fountoulakis MS. Removal of pathogens from greywater using green roofs combined with chlorination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:22560-22569. [PMID: 36289124 PMCID: PMC9938822 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23755-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Greywater is an important alternative water resource which could be treated and reused in buildings, reducing the freshwater demand in drought affected areas. For the successful implementation of this solution, it is important to ensure the microbial safety of treated greywater. This study examined the microbiological quality of treated greywater produced by an emergent nature-based technology (green roofs) and a chlorination process. Specifically, the effect of substrate, substrate depth, and vegetation on the removal of total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and enterococci in experimental green roofs treating greywater was examined for a period of about 12 months. In addition, the ability of chlorination to inactivate the abovementioned pathogen indicators was evaluated and their potential regrowth was examined. Results shown that green roofs filled with 10 cm of perlite reduce total coliform concentration by about 0.4 log units while green roofs filled with 20 cm of vermiculite reduce total coliform concentration by about 1.2 log units. In addition, the use of vegetation in green roofs improves the removal of pathogenic bacteria by about 0.5 log units in comparison with unvegetated systems. In all cases, the effluents of green roofs failed to satisfy the criteria for indoor reuse of treated greywater for non-potable uses such as toilet flushing without a disinfection process. The addition of 3 mg/L of chlorine in the effluent provided safe greywater microbiological quality for storage periods of less than 24 h, while longer periods resulted in the significant regrowth of pathogens. In contrast, a chlorination dose of 7 mg/L completely secured inactivation of pathogen indicators for periods of up to 3 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioanna Petousi
- Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Thomaidi
- Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, Mytilene, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Kalogerakis
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Crete, Greece
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Chaabane S, Riahi K, Anibi S, Thayer BB. Investigation of mechanisms of an upflow-downflow siliceous sand filtration system for surfactants bathroom grey water treatment. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 86:3181-3194. [PMID: 36579877 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) at the local level are considered as a smart alternative for small communities particularly in arid areas. The present study examines the mechanisms of an upflow-downflow Siliceous Sand (SS) filtration system involved in surfactants bathroom grey water treatment. In order to get a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in surfactants removal, particle size distribution and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of the SS particles were performed. Optimization of the upflow-downflow SS filtration system, operated following operational conditions of hydraulic load rate (HLR) and SS amounts, results indicates an average removal efficiency (ARE) of 93.7% reached with respect to surfactants removal. Results showed also that the resulting silicate materials react with surfactants in a cooperative assembly process involving the interaction of SS particles with surfactants aggregates. Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) surface area, pore volume (Vp), and pore size were found to be significantly reduced post-filtration with respectively 3.39%, 24.31%, and 21.86% reduction. From FTIR spectroscopy analysis of the Sulfonates, Silanol and Silane functional groups appear to be involved in mesoporous constructed micelle organization for surfactants removal. Such geo-materials could be green and sustainable for various applications in water and environmental engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Safa Chaabane
- Department of Planning and Environment, UR-GDRES, High School of Engineers of Medjez El Bab, University of Jendouba, Km 05 Route du Kef, Medjez El Bab 9070, Tunisia E-mail: ; Direction of Transfer and Technological Innovation, Tunis International Center of Environmental Technologies (CITET), Boulevard of leader Yassar Arafat, ZI Charguia, 1080 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khalifa Riahi
- Department of Planning and Environment, UR-GDRES, High School of Engineers of Medjez El Bab, University of Jendouba, Km 05 Route du Kef, Medjez El Bab 9070, Tunisia E-mail:
| | - Sameh Anibi
- Department of Planning and Environment, UR-GDRES, High School of Engineers of Medjez El Bab, University of Jendouba, Km 05 Route du Kef, Medjez El Bab 9070, Tunisia E-mail:
| | - Béchir Ben Thayer
- Institut Supérieur des Arts et Métiers de Siliana, Siliana 6100, Tunisia
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Shaikh IN, Ahammed MM. Granular media filtration for on-site treatment of greywater: A review. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 86:992-1016. [PMID: 36358042 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Rapid urbanization and industrialization have put pressure on water resources and centralized wastewater treatment facilities and the need for greywater treatment at decentralized levels is increasing. This paper reviews the studies that used granular filtration for the treatment of greywater. Filter media characteristics that helps in the selection of suitable sustainable and environmental friendly materials without compromising the quality of treated greywater is first reported. The effect of type of filter media, media size and media depth along with the effect of operating conditions are discussed in detail. The choice, role and effect of different pre-treatment alternatives to granular media filtration are also presented. The efficiency of the filters to remove different physicochemical and microbial parameters was compared with different reuse guidelines and standards. Reported studies indicate that not only filter media characteristics and operating conditions but also the quality of raw greywater significantly influence the filter performance. Based on the source of greywater and desired reuse option, different granular media filtration alternatives are suggested. Operation of filters with properly selected media at optimum conditions based on the source of greywater helps filter in achieve the different reuse standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad N Shaikh
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, India E-mail:
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, India E-mail:
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8
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Khajvand M, Mostafazadeh AK, Drogui P, Tyagi RD. Management of greywater: environmental impact, treatment, resource recovery, water recycling, and decentralization. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2022; 86:909-937. [PMID: 36358037 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2022.226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater generated from households can be classified into greywater and blackwater. Greywater makes up a substantial portion of household wastewater. Such water consists of wastewater released from kitchen sinks, showers, laundries, and hand basins. Since the greywater is not mixed with human excreta and due to the low levels of pathogenic contamination and nitrogen, it has received more attention for recycling and reusing in recent decades. Implementing decentralized greywater treatment systems can be an effective solution to overcome water scarcity by supplying a part of water requirement, at least non-potable demand, and decreasing pollutant emissions by eliminating long-distance water transportation in remote regions, like rural and isolated areas. This review focuses on greywater management in terms of reducing environmental risks as well as the possibility of treatment. Effective management of water reclamation systems is essential for a decentralized approach and to ensure the protection of public health. In this regard, the environmental impacts of disposal or reusing the untreated greywater are discussed. Furthermore, the most appropriate technologies that can be employed for the decentralized treatment of greywaters like constructed wetlands, waste stabilization ponds, membrane systems, and electrochemical technologies are described. Finally, this review summarizes resource recovery and sustainable resource reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdieh Khajvand
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre-Eau Terre Environnement (ETE), Université du Québec, Québec, Canada E-mail:
| | | | - Patrick Drogui
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre-Eau Terre Environnement (ETE), Université du Québec, Québec, Canada E-mail:
| | - Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi
- School of Technology, Huzhou University, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China; BOSK Bioproducts, Québec, Québec, Canada
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Mahmoudi A, Mousavi SA, Darvishi P. Greywater as a sustainable source for development of green roofs: Characteristics, treatment technologies, reuse, case studies and future developments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 295:112991. [PMID: 34346386 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Municipal activities are one of the most important water users worldwide; thus, the treatment and reuse of greywater for non-potable purposes helps to reduce a remarkable amount of consumed water within urban communities. To achieve greywater reuse standards, and remove surfactants, micropollutants, organic matters, microorganisms and other pollutants various methods including physical, chemical and biological processes have been used. Treated greywater can be used on site for different purposes: carwash, toilet flushing, fire protection, green roofs, green walls, non-food irrigation etc. Among them, the use of greywater is very important in the expansion of the green roofs. Green roofs offer many benefits to urban areas such as decreasing air pollution, reducing building cooling needs, promoting mental health of habitants, noise reduction and aesthetics improvement. Therefore, this article provides an overview mainly from two aspects, the possibilities of greywater reuse by studying the characteristics and available options for greywater treatment and its benefits toward the developing green roofs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arezoo Mahmoudi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Seyyed Alireza Mousavi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health (RCEDH), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
| | - Parastoo Darvishi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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Shaikh IN, Ahammed MM. Effect of operating mode on the performance of sand filters treating greywater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:38209-38223. [PMID: 33728602 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-13413-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A long-duration laboratory study spanning more than 6 months was conducted to evaluate the effect of operating mode on the performance of sand filters for greywater treatment. Performance of saturated and unsaturated filters operated in continuous or intermittent mode was evaluated using settled real greywater. Effects of pause period and higher loading rate on their performance were also evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of the depth of the filter medium on the performance of the filters was also assessed. The saturated filters operated continuously or intermittently performed significantly better than the respective unsaturated filters. Saturated continuous (SC) and unsaturated intermittent (UI) filters were the best and worst performers amongst the different filters. SC filter removed on an average 98% turbidity, 76% BOD, 88% COD, 84% ammonia-N (NH4-N) and 95% phosphate (PO4-P). Up to 99.68% (2.40 log) removal of faecal coliforms was also achieved by this filter. SC filter showed stable and reliable performance as its effluent quality was insensitive to fluctuations in influent quality. The pause period significantly affected the removal of some of the parameters. Doubling the hydraulic loading rate significantly affected the performance of continuous filters. Though most of the pollutant removal occurred in the top 10 cm in all the filters, a depth of 50 cm was found optimum for the removal of different pollutants. Whilst all the filters produced effluent conforming to different reuse standards except microbial standards, saturated continuous filter (SC) could also meet the faecal coliform standards towards the end of the filter operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad N Shaikh
- Civil Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Civil Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India.
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Byrne DM, Hamilton KA, Houser SA, Mubasira M, Katende D, Lohman HAC, Trimmer JT, Banadda N, Zerai A, Guest JS. Navigating Data Uncertainty and Modeling Assumptions in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment in an Informal Settlement in Kampala, Uganda. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:5463-5474. [PMID: 33750111 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Decision-makers in developing communities often lack credible data to inform decisions related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), which quantifies pathogen-related health risks across exposure routes, can be informative; however, the utility of QMRA for decision-making is often undermined by data gaps. This work integrates QMRA, uncertainty and sensitivity analyses, and household surveys in Bwaise, Kampala (Uganda) to characterize the implications of censored data management, identify sources of uncertainty, and incorporate risk perceptions to improve the suitability of QMRA for informal settlements or similar settings. In Bwaise, drinking water, hand rinse, and soil samples were collected from 45 households and supplemented with data from 844 surveys. Quantified pathogen (adenovirus, Campylobacter jejuni, and Shigella spp./EIEC) concentrations were used with QMRA to model infection risks from exposure through drinking water, hand-to-mouth contact, and soil ingestion. Health risks were most sensitive to pathogen data, hand-to-mouth contact frequency, and dose-response models (particularly C. jejuni). When managing censored data, results from upper limits of detection, half of limits of detection, and uniform distributions returned similar results, which deviated from lower limits of detection and maximum likelihood estimation imputation approaches. Finally, risk perceptions (e.g., it is unsafe to drink directly from a water source) were identified to inform risk management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Byrne
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3221 Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Kerry A Hamilton
- The School with Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment and The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Stephanie A Houser
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3221 Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Muwonge Mubasira
- Community Integrated Development Initiatives, P.O. Box 764, Kampala, Uganda
| | - David Katende
- Community Integrated Development Initiatives, P.O. Box 764, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Hannah A C Lohman
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3221 Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - John T Trimmer
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3221 Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Noble Banadda
- Department of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Assata Zerai
- Department of Sociology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Jeremy S Guest
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3221 Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Abunaser SG, Abdelhay A. Performance of a novel vertical flow constructed wetland for greywater treatment in rural areas in Jordan. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2020:1-11. [PMID: 33095684 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2020.1841832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Jordan is facing severe challenges in terms of water scarcity and wastewater management. Thus, there is a growing need for adopting innovative approaches to overcome these challenges. Within the framework of this study, a pilot project was implemented to treat household greywater in rural areas in Jordan with a purpose of reuse for irrigation. The project consists of designing and developing four vertical flow constructed wetland (VFCW) systems located in different sites and integrating them in a decentralized treatment system. The project work aims particularly to present a model of an innovative, compact and effective modified VFCW system. The performance of the systems was assessed by analyzing the quality of the influent and effluent streams through testing 19 water quality parameters. The results revealed that the design was adequate and efficient in treating greywater as exemplified by removal efficiencies of 90%, 90% and 92% for BOD, COD and TSS respectively. Moreover, the other physico-chemical parameters (T-N, T-P, N-NO3-, Turbidity, Ca, Mg, SO4-, and heavy metals) measured in the effluent streams complied all with the Jordanian standards for unrestricted irrigation. Therefore, the outcomes of the current study can be invested to support the use of constructed wetlands in Jordan as a sustainable technology to improve the wastewater management practices and reinforce the decentralized wastewater treatment approach in rural areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhaib G Abunaser
- Environmental and Renewable energy Engineering, German Jordanian University, Amman, Jordan
| | - Arwa Abdelhay
- Civil and Environmental Engineering department, German Jordanian University, Amman, Jordan
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Bhatt A, Arora P, Prajapati SK. Occurrence, fates and potential treatment approaches for removal of viruses from wastewater: A review with emphasis on SARS-CoV-2. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2020; 8:104429. [PMID: 32895629 PMCID: PMC7467108 DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.104429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The world is combating the emergence of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by novel coronavirus; severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Further, due to the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in sewage and stool samples, its transmission through water routes cannot be neglected. Thus, the efficient treatment of wastewater is a matter of utmost importance. The conventional wastewater treatment processes demonstrate a wide variability in absolute removal of viruses from wastewater, thereby posing a severe threat to human health and environment. The fate of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater treatment plants and its removal during various treatment stages remains unexplored and demands immediate attention; particularly, where treated effluent is utilised as reclaimed water. Consequently, understanding the prevalence of pathogenic viruses in untreated/treated waters and their removal techniques has become the topical issue of the scientific community. The key objective of the present study is to provide an insight into the distribution of viruses in wastewater, as well as the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2, and its possible transmission by the faecal-oral route. The review also gives a detailed account of the major waterborne and non-waterborne viruses, and environmental factors governing the survival of viruses. Furthermore, a comprehensive description of the potential methods (physical, chemical, and biological) for removal of viruses from wastewater has been presented. The present study also intends to analyse the research trends in microalgae-mediated virus removal and, inactivation. The review also addresses the UN SDG 'Clean Water and Sanitation' as it is aimed at providing pathogenically safe water for recycling purposes.
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Key Words
- ASP, Activated Sludge Process
- COVID-19
- COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 2019
- DUV-LED, Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diode
- E.coli, Escherichia coli
- EPS, Exopolysaccharide
- LRV, Log Reduction Value
- MBR, Membrane Bioreactor
- MERS-CoV, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
- MLSS, Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
- Microalgaee
- PMR, Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor
- Phycoremediationn
- RH, Relative Humidity
- SARS-CoV, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
- SARS-CoV-2, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2
- SBBGR, Sequencing Batch Biofilter Granular Reactor
- SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy
- SSF, Slow Sand Filtration
- UASB, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
- UN SDG, United Nations Sustainable Development Goal
- UV, Ultraviolet
- WHO, World Health Organisation
- WWTP, Wastewater Treatment Plant
- Waterbornee
- dsDNA, Double stranded Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- dsRNA, Double stranded Ribonucleic acid
- ssRNA, Single stranded Ribonucleic Acid
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Bhatt
- Environment and Biofuel Research Lab (EBRL), Hydro and Renewable Energy Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247667, India
| | - Pratham Arora
- Hydro and Renewable Energy Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247667, India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar Prajapati
- Environment and Biofuel Research Lab (EBRL), Hydro and Renewable Energy Department, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247667, India
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14
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Ndiaye A, Andrianisa HA, Saapi SSY, Changotade OA, Adugna AT, Konate Y, Maiga AH. Assessment on overall efficiency of urban greywater treatment by vermifiltration in hot climate: enhanced pollutants removal. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2020; 41:2219-2228. [PMID: 30574834 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2018.1561755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Vermifiltration technology using Eudrilus Eugeniae could be an alternative low-cost option for the treatment of urban greywater, which is highly polluted with high concentrations of surfactants, sodium and cooking oil. In this study, the effects of these pollutants on performance of a vermifiltration system was tested over a period of 6 to 8 weeks by enriching raw greywater with various concentrations of anionic surfactants (0, 15, 45 and 135 mg/L), sodium (0, 1, 2 and 4 g/L) and refined palm cooking oil (0, 250 and 500 mg/L). The vermifilter system was made of gravel, sand and sawdust layers from the bottom to the top, on which 200 earthworms were added. The greywater used in this study was previously used for dishwashing and laundry by an urban poor household. The greywater quality was compared with the effluent to evaluate the system performance. BOD5, COD, TSS and E. coli removal efficiencies ranged from 93% to 98%, 68% to 93%, 88% to 96% and 1.4-3 ULog, respectively, which are within the range of efficiencies reported in the literature. High proportion of surfactants (95-99%) and oil (84-89%) were removed but sodium was not removed. Instead, an increase in sodium concentrations was observed in the filter over the experimental period. Statistical analysis shows that BOD5, COD, TSS and E. coli removal efficiencies were independent of surfactants, cooking oil and sodium concentrations (p < .05). Thus, short term or accidental exposure of the vermifilter to high concentrations of these three pollutants did not have significant effect on the system performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awa Ndiaye
- Biological Sciences Department, Peleforo Gon Coulibaly University (UPGC), Korhogo, Ivory Coast
| | - Harinaivo A Andrianisa
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Sidesse S Y Saapi
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Odilon A Changotade
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Amare T Adugna
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Yacouba Konate
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
| | - Amadou H Maiga
- LEHSA Laboratory, International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE), Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
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15
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Thompson KA, Valencia EW, Summers RS, Cook SM. Sorption, coagulation, and biodegradation for graywater treatment. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2020; 81:2152-2162. [PMID: 32701493 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2020.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Population growth and climate change are exacerbating water scarcity. Graywater recycling could reduce water demand but it is not commonly practiced because of high treatment costs. Biochar, an emerging low-cost alternative sorbent with potential environmental benefits for graywater treatment, was compared to activated carbon (AC) for removing dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from graywater. The impact of pretreatments (coagulation, biodegradation) were also evaluated. Among five biochars tested, a wood-based biochar was the most effective for graywater treatment, but AC removed more DOC. Sorption resulted in a greater percent removal of ultraviolet (UV) absorbance than DOC or free chlorine demand. Graywater regulations could not be met by sorption alone but could be met with pretreatment before sorption. After biodegradation, irrigation and toilet flushing treatment targets could be achieved with AC doses less than 0.7 g/L, while a biochar dose of about 1 g/L was needed to achieve the irrigation treatment targets. For DOC removal, alum coagulation at a dose of 30 mg/L was a less effective pretreatment than biodegradation. Pretreatment and sorption to decrease turbidity and increase UV transmittance could be effective for the potential use of UV disinfection, thus creating an effective graywater non-potable reuse approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle A Thompson
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA E-mail:
| | - Evan W Valencia
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA E-mail:
| | - R Scott Summers
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA E-mail:
| | - Sherri M Cook
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA E-mail:
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16
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Shaikh IN, Ahammed MM. Quantity and quality characteristics of greywater: A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 261:110266. [PMID: 32148323 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Due to depletion of water resources and increased water demand, greywater reuse is gaining popularity as a means of water conservation all over the world. Availability of reliable data on greywater generation and quality characteristics is important in deciding the treatment system and the reuse option. This paper summarises quantity and quality characteristics of greywater reported from different parts of the world. Greywater generation from different countries is compared and its variability is discussed. Important pollutants of concern in greywater such as organic content, nutrients, microorganisms, metals and organic micropollutants from different greywater sources such as bathrooms, hand basins, kitchen and laundry are described. The review shows large variations in greywater quality and quantity with respect to time and source, and the selection of a treatment system would largely depend on this variability. The review also shows that at the levels found in greywater, heavy metals and organic micropollutants in recycled greywater generally do not pose a threat to human health if treated properly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad N Shaikh
- Civil Engineering Department, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India
| | - M Mansoor Ahammed
- Civil Engineering Department, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India.
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17
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Verma S, Daverey A, Sharma A. Wastewater treatment by slow sand filters using uncoated and iron-coated fine sand: impact of hydraulic loading rate and media depth. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:34148-34156. [PMID: 30377959 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3551-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Two lab-scale slow sand filters (SSFs), packed with uncoated fine sand (SSFu) and iron-coated fine sand (SSFco), were operated to study their efficiency in treating municipal wastewater. The effects of sand coating; hydraulic loading rates (HLRs) (0.56, 0.85, and 1.12 cm/h); and filter depths (22, 32, and 42 cm) were evaluated. Sand coating did not have any significant effect on wastewater treatment by the SSF at all depths (p > 0.05). The removals of total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and phosphate decreased with increase in HLR. On the other hand, media depth had positive effects on the removal of turbidity, TSS, COD, and total coliforms (TC). At HLR of 0.56 cm/h, the average removals of each studied parameter, i.e., turbidity, TSS, and COD, at filter depth d42 in SSFu and SSFco were 94.3, 90.1, and 56% and 92.7, 93, and 30.95%, respectively. Both filters efficiently removed the total coliforms (> 90%) and fecal coliform (up to 99%) but inefficient in nitrate removal. Frequent clogging was observed in SSFu due to the colonization of microorganisms on the sand surface, which was confirmed by SEM images. Biofilm formation or microbial colonization was absent in SSFco, which might be responsible for uninterrupted operation of SSFco. Overall, the sand coating is beneficial for long-term operation of SSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srishti Verma
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, 248012, India
| | - Achlesh Daverey
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, 248012, India.
| | - Archana Sharma
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, 248012, India
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18
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Tombola R, Buttiglieri G, Auset M, Gonzalez-Olmos R. Recycled corrugated wire hose cover as biological carriers for greywater treatment in a sequential batch biofilm reactor. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 240:475-484. [PMID: 30965175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Greywater treatment and reuse can be considered a promising option, in particular in water scarcity affected areas. In this work a waste material, namely recycled corrugated wire hose cover, was applied as an alternative and cheap carrier in a sequencing batch biofilm reactor (SBBR) for greywater treatment. The bioreactor performance was studied in terms of organic matter, nitrogen and micropollutant removal. Four operational stages were investigated: i) inoculation of the carriers; ii) greywater treatment with suspended biomass; iii) synthetic and iv) real greywater treatment with inoculated carriers in the SBBR. The SBBR could treat real greywater showing high removal efficiencies for COD (86.5 ± 5.8%), ammonium (98.4 ± 1.4%) and total nitrogen (71.4 ± 8.2%). The obtained efficiencies were similar to the ones obtained with commercial carriers and to other treatments such as MBBR or MBR. In terms of micropollutants, 7 out of 13 detected micropollutants were highly removed (efficiency higher than 85%) while 5 of them (ofloxacin, metoprolol acid, venlafaxine, iopromide and hydrochlorothiazide) were found to be highly recalcitrant to the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Tombola
- IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; Department of Industrial Engineering, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Gianluigi Buttiglieri
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), H2O Building, Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, Emili Grahit 101, 17003 Girona, Spain.
| | - Maria Auset
- IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Rafael Gonzalez-Olmos
- IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain.
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19
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Noman EA, Al-Gheethi AAS, Radin Mohamed RMS, Talip BA, Nagao H, Mohd Kassim AH, Bakar SA. Consequences of the Improper Disposal of Greywater. MANAGEMENT OF GREYWATER IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-90269-2_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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20
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Eslami H, Ehrampoush MH, Falahzadeh H, Hematabadi PT, Khosravi R, Dalvand A, Esmaeili A, Taghavi M, Ebrahimi AA. Biodegradation and nutrients removal from greywater by an integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) in different organic loadings rates. AMB Express 2018; 8:3. [PMID: 29313258 PMCID: PMC5758483 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-017-0532-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the efficiency of Integrated Fixed-film Activated Sludge (IFAS) system in synthetic greywater treatment and nutrients removal was studied in duration of 105 days according to different Organic Loadings Rates (OLRs). The study was operated in pilot-scale and OLRs of 0.11–1.3 gCOD/L.d. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image showed that the biofilm with a proper thickness was formed on IFAS reactor’s media. The results indicated that the best removal efficiency of BOD5, COD, and TSS were 85.24, 92.52 and 90.21%, respectively, in an organic loading of 0.44 gCOD/L.d. Then, with the OLR increased, the removal efficiencies of BOD5, COD, and TSS increased as long as the organic loading reached 0.44 gCOD/L.d. But with the OLR increased more, the removal efficiency of these parameters decreased. The ANOVA statistical test results showed that the mean difference of removal efficiency in organic loadings for BOD5 (p ≤ 0.001) and COD (p = 0.003) was significant, while it was insignificant for TSS (p = 0.23). The best removal efficiencies of Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP) were 89.60 and 86.67%, respectively, which were obtained at an OLR of 0.44 gCOD/L.d. By increasing OLR up to 0.44 gCOD/L.d, removal efficiencies of TN and TP increased, while the removal efficiency decreased with the OLR increased more, and this difference was statistically significant (p = 0.021). Finally, the results showed that the IFAS system provided a proper efficiency in treatment of the synthetic greywater and it could be used in a full scale.
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21
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Verma S, Daverey A, Sharma A. Slow sand filtration for water and wastewater treatment – a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/21622515.2016.1278278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Srishti Verma
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Achlesh Daverey
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Archana Sharma
- School of Environment and Natural Resources, Doon University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
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22
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Atiku H, Mohamed RMSR, Al-Gheethi AA, Wurochekke AA, Kassim AHM. Harvesting of microalgae biomass from the phycoremediation process of greywater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:24624-24641. [PMID: 27544526 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7456-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The wide application of microalgae in the field of wastewater treatment and bioenergy source has improved research studies in the past years. Microalgae represent a good source of biomass and bio-products which are used in different medical and industrial activities, among them the production of high-valued products and biofuels. The present review focused on greywater treatment through the application of phycoremediation technique with microalgae and presented recent advances in technologies used for harvesting the microalgae biomass. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed. The microbiological aspects of production, harvesting and utilization of microalgae biomass are viewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hauwa Atiku
- Micro-pollution Research Centre (MPRC), Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
| | - R M S R Mohamed
- Micro-pollution Research Centre (MPRC), Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.
| | - A A Al-Gheethi
- Micro-pollution Research Centre (MPRC), Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
| | - A A Wurochekke
- Micro-pollution Research Centre (MPRC), Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Amir Hashim M Kassim
- Micro-pollution Research Centre (MPRC), Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia
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23
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Al-Gheethi AA, Mohamed RMSR, Efaq AN, Amir Hashim MK. Reduction of microbial risk associated with greywater by disinfection processes for irrigation. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:379-398. [PMID: 27280605 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2015.220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Greywater is one of the most important alternative sources for irrigation in arid and semi-arid countries. However, the health risk associated with the microbial contents of these waters limits their utilization. Many techniques have been developed and used to generate a high microbiological quality of greywater. The main problem in the treatment of greywater lies in the nature of pathogenic bacteria in terms of their ability to survive during/after the treatment process. The present review focused on the health risk associated with the presence of pathogenic bacteria in greywater and the treatment technologies used for the disinfection processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Al-Gheethi
- Faculty of Civil and Environment Engineering, UTHM, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia E-mail:
| | - R M S Radin Mohamed
- Faculty of Civil and Environment Engineering, UTHM, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia E-mail:
| | - A N Efaq
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia
| | - M K Amir Hashim
- Faculty of Civil and Environment Engineering, UTHM, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia E-mail:
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