Extracts of Ganoderma lucidum attenuate lipid metabolism and modulate gut microbiota in high-fat diet fed rats

metaExpertPro: A Computational Workflow for Metaproteomics Spectral Library Construction and Data-Independent Acquisition Mass Spectrometry Data Analysis

Analysis of large-scale data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry metaproteomics data remains a computational challenge. Here, we present a computational pipeline called metaExpertPro for metaproteomics data analysis. This pipeline encompasses spectral library generation using data-dependent acquisition MS, protein identification and quantification using data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry, functional and taxonomic annotation, as well as quantitative matrix generation for both microbiota and hosts. By integrating FragPipe and DIA-NN, metaExpertPro offers compatibility with both Orbitrap and timsTOF MS instruments. To evaluate the depth and accuracy of identification and quantification, we conducted extensive assessments using human fecal samples and benchmark tests. Performance tests conducted on human fecal samples indicated that metaExpertPro quantified an average of 45,000 peptides in a 60-min diaPASEF injection. Notably, metaExpertPro outperformed three existing software tools by characterizing a higher number of peptides and proteins. Importantly, metaExpertPro maintained a low factual false discovery rate of approximately 5% for protein groups across four benchmark tests. Applying a filter of five peptides per genus, metaExpertPro achieved relatively high accuracy (F-score = 0.67-0.90) in genus diversity and showed a high correlation (rSpearman = 0.73-0.82) between the measured and true genus relative abundance in benchmark tests. Additionally, the quantitative results at the protein, taxonomy, and function levels exhibited high reproducibility and consistency across the commonly adopted public human gut microbial protein databases IGC and UHGP. In a metaproteomic analysis of dyslipidemia patients, metaExpertPro revealed characteristic alterations in microbial functions and potential interactions between the microbiota and the host.

Mushroom as Prebiotics: a Sustainable Approach for Healthcare

Mushrooms are considered as sustainable foods as they require less effort and can be cultivated on different agro-industrial wastes. Besides, these possess many nutraceuticals for providing health benefits along with supplementing nutrition. The mushrooms are also used as prebiotics for their ability to support beneficial microbes in the gut and inhibit the growth of pathogens. Furthermore, these remain undigested in the upper gut and reach the intestine to replenish the gut microbiota. The mushrooms boost health by inhibiting the binding of pathogenic bacteria, by promoting the growth of specific gut microbiota, producing short chain fatty acids, and regulating lipid metabolism and cancer. Research has been initiated in the commercial formulation of various products such as yogurt and symbiotic capsules. This paper sheds light on health-promoting effect, disease controlling, and regulating effect of mushroom prebiotics. This paper also presented a glimpse of commercialization of mushroom prebiotics. In the future, proper standardization of mushroom-based prebiotic formulations will be available to boost human health.

Insights into Ganoderma fungi meroterpenoids opening a new era of racemic natural products in mushrooms

Ganoderma meroterpenoids (GMs) containing 688 structures to date were discovered to have multiple remarkable biological activities. 65.6% of meroterpenoids featuring stereogenic centers from Ganoderma species are racemates. Further, GMs from different Ganoderma species seem to have their own characteristics. In this review, a comprehensive summarization of GMs since 2000 is presented, including GM structures, structure corrections, biological activities, physicochemical properties, total synthesis, and proposed biosynthetic pathways. Additionally, we especially discuss the racemic nature, species-related structural distribution, and structure-activity relationship of GMs, which will provide a likely in-house database and shed light on future studies on GMs.

Regulatory effect of Ganoderma lucidum and its active components on gut flora in diseases

Driven by the good developmental potential and favorable environment at this stage, Ganoderma lucidum is recognized as a precious large fungus with medicinal and nutritional health care values. Among them, polysaccharides, triterpenoids, oligosaccharides, trace elements, etc. are important bioactive components in G. lucidum. These bioactive components will have an impact on gut flora, thus alleviating diseases such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and obesity caused by gut flora disorder. While numerous studies have demonstrated the ability of G. lucidum and its active components to regulate gut flora, a systematic review of this mechanism is currently lacking. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the regulatory effects of G. lucidum and its active components on gut flora in cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and renal metabolic diseases, and summarize the research progress of G. lucidum active components in improving related diseases by regulating gut flora. Additionally, review delves into the principle by which G. lucidum and its active components can treat or assist treat diseases by regulating gut flora. The research progress of G. lucidum in intestinal tract and its potential in medicine, health food and clinical application were fully explored for researchers.

Gut microbiota: A magical multifunctional target regulated by medicine food homology species

BACKGROUND

The relationship between gut microbiota and human health has gradually been recognized. Increasing studies show that the disorder of gut microbiota is related to the occurrence and development of many diseases. Metabolites produced by the gut microbiota are responsible for their extensive regulatory roles. In addition, naturally derived medicine food homology species with low toxicity and high efficiency have been clearly defined owing to their outstanding physiological and pharmacological properties in disease prevention and treatment.

AIM OF REVIEW

Based on supporting evidence, the current review summarizes the representative work of medicine food homology species targeting the gut microbiota to regulate host pathophysiology and discusses the challenges and prospects in this field. It aims to facilitate the understanding of the relationship among medicine food homology species, gut microbiota, and human health and further stimulate the advancement of more relevant research.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

As this review reveals, from the initial practical application to more mechanism studies, the relationship among medicine food homology species, gut microbiota, and human health has evolved into an irrefutable interaction. On the one hand, through affecting the population structure, metabolism, and function of gut microbiota, medicine food homology species maintain the homeostasis of the intestinal microenvironment and human health by affecting the population structure, metabolism, and function of gut microbiota. On the other hand, the gut microbiota is also involved in the bioconversion of the active ingredients from medicine food homology species and thus influences their physiological and pharmacological properties.

Healthy regulation of Tibetan Brassica rapa L. polysaccharides on alleviating hyperlipidemia: A rodent study

Hyperlipidemia is a common metabolic disorder, which can lead to obesity, hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis and other diseases. Studies have shown that polysaccharides absorbed by the intestinal tract can regulate blood lipids and facilitate the growth of intestinal flora. This article aims to investigate whether Tibetan turnip polysaccharide (TTP) plays a protective role in blood lipid and intestinal health via hepatic and intestinal axes. Here we show that TTP helps to reduce the size of adipocytes and the accumulation of liver fat, playing a dose-dependent effect on ADPN levels, suggesting an effect on lipid metabolism regulation. Meantime, TTP intervention results in the downregulation of intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and serum inflammatory factors (interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)), implying that TTP suppresses the progression of inflammation in the body. The expression of key enzymes associated with cholesterol and triglyceride synthesis, such as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ (PPARγ), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), fatty acid synthetase (FAS) and sterol-regulatory element binding proteins-1c (SREBP-1c), can be modulated by TTP. Furthermore, TTP also alleviates the damage to intestinal tissues caused by high-fat diet, restores the integrity of the intestinal barrier, improves the composition and abundance of the intestinal flora and increases the levels of SCFAs. This study provides a theoretical basis for the regulation of body rhythm by functional foods and potential intervention in patients with hyperlipidemia.

The benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides for health and their influence on gut microbiota: a review

The gut microbiome is a complex biological community that deeply affects various aspects of human health, including dietary intake, disease progression, drug metabolism, and immune system regulation. Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) are bioactive fibers derived from mushrooms that possess a range of beneficial properties, including anti-tumor, antioxidant, antiviral, hypoglycemic, and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have demonstrated that EMPs are resistant to human digestive enzymes and serve as a crucial source of energy for the gut microbiome, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria. EMPs also positively impact human health by modulating the composition of the gut microbiome. This review discusses the extraction and purification processes of EMPs, their potential to improve health conditions by regulating the composition of the gut microbiome, and their application prospects. Furthermore, this paper provides valuable guidance and recommendations for future studies on EMPs consumption in disease management.

Deciphering the mechanism of jujube vinegar on hyperlipoidemia through gut microbiome based on 16S rRNA, BugBase analysis, and the stamp analysis of KEEG

Background

Growing data indicate that the gut microbiome may contribute to the rising incidence of hyperlipoidemia. Jujube vinegar lowers lipids, protects the liver, and reduces oxidant capacity, however, it is unknown whether this is due to the gut flora. To further research the role of the gut microbiome in treating hyperlipidemia with jujube vinegar, we looked into whether the action of jujube vinegar is related to the regulation of the gut microbiome.

Method

Thirty male ICR mice were used. The control group (CON), the high-fat diet (HFD) group, and the vinegar group (VIN) each consisted of ten female ICR mice fed consistently for eight weeks. For each treatment, we kept track of body mass, liver index, blood lipid levels, and oxidative stress state. We also analyzed mouse feces using high-throughput 16srRNA sequencing to examine the relationship between jujube vinegar's hypolipidemic effect and antioxidant activity and how it affects the gut microbiome.

Results

Jujube vinegar reduced body weight by 19.92%, serum TC, TG, and LDL-C by 25.09%, 26.83%, and 11.66%, and increased HDL-C by 1.44 times, serum AST and ALT decreased by 26.36% and 34.87% respectively, the blood levels of SOD and GSH-Px increased 1.35-fold and 1.60-fold, respectively. While blood MDA decreased 33.21%, the liver's SOD and GSH-Px increased 1.32-fold and 1.60-fold, respectively, and the liver's MDA decreased 48.96% in HFD mice. The gut microbiome analysis revealed that jujube vinegar increased the intestinal microbial ASV count by 13.46%, and the F/B (Firmicutes/Bacteroidota) ratio by 2.08-fold in high-fat diet mice, and the proportion was significantly inversely correlated with TC, TG, and LDL-C and positively correlated with HDL-C. Biomarker bacteria in the vinegar group included Lactobacillaceae and Lactobacillus, which correlated favorably with HDL-C, SOD, and GSH-Px and negatively with LDL-C, TC, and TG. Jujube vinegar increased the abundance of the Aerobic, Contains Mobile Elements, and Facultative Aerobic by 2.84 times, 1.45 times, and 2.40 times, while decreased the abundance of Potential pathogens by 44.72%, according to the BugBase study. The KEGG analysis showed that jujube vinegar was predominantly reflected in the biological process of gene function and related to signal transduction pathways, including glucagon signaling system, HIF-1 signaling pathway, adipocytokine signaling pathway, amino sugar, and nucleotide sugar metabolism, and so forth.

Conclusion

Based on these findings, jujube vinegar may reduce hyperlipoidemia by controlling the gut microbiome and enhancing antioxidant capacity.

Modulation of gut microbiota and lipid metabolism in rats fed high-fat diets by Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids

Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GP) have been reported to help prevent and improve hyperlipidemia. Modulation of the gut microbiota was proposed as underlying factor as well as a novel measure to prevent and treat hyperlipidemia. The effects of GP on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced hyperlipidemia and gut microbiota modulation were determined in rats. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF MS-MS) indicated that GP were enriched with ganoderic acids G, B, H, A, and F. After feeding with GP supplementation, serum lipid levels including total triglyceride, total cholesterol, and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly decreased in hyperlipidemic rats. Furthermore, administration of GP also has reversed the HFD-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, including a significant increase in Alloprevotella and reduced proportion of Blautia. The result above suggests that GP would be developed as a functional food to ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and hyperlipidemia.

Cold-Brewed Jasmine Tea Attenuates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity and Gut Microbial Dysbiosis

Cold-brewed jasmine tea (CB-JT) is regarded to possess characteristic flavors and health benefits as a novel resource of functional tea beverages. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying CB-JT-mediated protective effects on obesity, we evaluated the serum biochemistry, histological condition, glucose tolerance, gene expression profile and intestinal microbial diversity in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. Our results demonstrate that cold-brewed jasmine tea can significantly attenuate HFD-induced body weight gain, abnormal serum lipid levels, fat deposition, hepatic injury, inflammatory processes as well as metabolic endotoxemia. CB-JT also modified the microbial community composition in HFD-fed mice and altered the balance to one closely resembled that of the control group. The differential abundance of core microbes in obese mice was reversed by CB-JT treatment, including an increment in the abundance of Blautia, Mucispirillum, and Bilophila as well as a decrease in the abundance of Alloprevotella. CB-JT was proved to regulate the mRNA expression levels of lipid metabolism-related genes such as Leptin, Pgc1a Il6, and Il1b in the adipose tissue coupled with Cyp7a1, Lxra, Srebp1c, and Atgl in the liver. These findings indicate that cold-brewed jasmine tea might be served as a potential functional tea beverage to prevent obesity and gut microbiota dysbiosis.

Amelioration effect of water extract from Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 solid-state fermentation fungal substance with high-yield ergothioneine on anxiety-like insomnia mice

Herein, a solid-state fermentation (SSF) system of Ganoderma resinaceum FQ23 with high-yield ergothioneine (EGT) was established, and the amelioration effect of the water extract from its fungal substance on anxiety-like insomnia mice was studied. The content of EGT in the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance increased to 1.146 ± 0.066 mg g^-1 DW in the optimization tests. Besides EGT, the common functional components of the water extract from the G. resinaceum FQ23 SSF fungal substance (GSW) were determined, including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, phenols, proteins and amino acids. The animal experiments showed that GSW could alleviate the anxiety-like behavior, improve the antioxidant capacity and protect the organ structure of the anxiety-like insomnia mice. With an increase in the dose of GSW given to the anxiety-like insomnia mice, their serum 5-HT and GABA levels increased, HPA axis hormone levels significantly decreased, BDNF level notably increased, and the response level of the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway was significantly enhanced, indicating that GSW may improve neuroendocrine regulation and neuroprotection in anxiety-like insomnia mice. A 30-times dose of GSW had no acute toxicity in the normal mice. Therefore, the SSF fungal substance of G. resinaceum FQ23 is a potential dietary source for improving sleep. It can be used as a solid drink to help people who are poor sleepers and as a substitute for tea or coffee to help people who are like to drink tea or coffee and cannot sleep.

Ganoderma lucidum Ethanol Extraction Promotes Dextran Sulphate Sodium Induced Colitis Recovery and Modulation in Microbiota

Popular edible mushrooms Ganoderma lucidum and Gloeostereum incarnatum can improve physical health as a prebiotic and positively alter intestinal microbiota. Our research investigated the prebiotic effects of Ganoderma lucidum and Gloeostereum incarnatum on colon inflammation through G. lucidum water extraction polysaccharides (GLP), G. incarnatum water extraction polysaccharides (GIP), G. lucidum ethanol extraction (GLE), and G. incarnatum ethanol extraction (GIE) administered in mice after 7 days of dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) administration. Among the extracts, GLE showed reduced mortality rates, prevention of weight loss, mitigated colon length shortening, and decreased disease activity indices and histological scores. COX-2, MPO, and iNOS activities and the inflammatory cytokines' expressions were determined to demonstrate the inhibition inflammation by GLE. Meanwhile, GLE upregulated the levels of MUC2, ZO-1, claudin-3, and occluding to protect the intestinal barrier. Furthermore, GLE modulated the composition of gut microbiota disturbed by DSS, as it decreased the abundance of Bacteroides, Staphylococcus, and Escherichia_Shigella, and increased Turicibacter and Bifidobacterium. Through cell experiment, GLE had a positive influence on adherens junction, tight junction, and TRAF6/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathways. In conclusion, GLE supplementation promotes DSS-induced colitis recovery by regulating inflammatory cytokines, preserving the intestinal mucosal barrier, positively modulating microbiota changes, and positively influences immune response in TRAF6/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Positive Effect of a Pea-Clam Two-Peptide Composite on Hypertension and Organ Protection in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

In the present study, we prepared pea peptides with high angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity in vitro using an enzymatic hydrolysis of pea protein and compounded them with clam peptides to obtain a pea-clam double peptide. The effects of the two-peptide composite and pea peptides on hypertension and the damage-repair of corresponding organs were studied in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). We found that both pea peptides and the two-peptide composite significantly reduced the blood pressure upon a single or long-term intragastric administration, with the two-peptide composite being more effective. Mechanistically, we found that the two-peptide composite could regulate the renal renin-angiotensin system (RAS), rebalance gut microbial dysbiosis, decrease renal and myocardial fibrosis, and improve renal and cardiac function and vascular remodeling. Additionally, hippocampal lesions caused by hypertension were also eliminated after two-peptide composite administration. Our research provides a scientific basis for the use of this two-peptide composite as a safe antihypertension ingredient in functional foods.

The effects of medicinal herbs on gut microbiota and metabolic factors in obesity models: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This systematic review of animal studies aimed to identify anti-obesity medicinal herbs with prebiotic properties, and investigate their effects on gut microbiota and metabolic disorders.

METHODS

To obtain the relevant publications, four electronic databases were systematically searched up to June 2019.

RESULTS

Out of 1949 publications, 20 articles met the inclusion criteria in this study. Apart from body weight, some cases (n = 11) had reported the effects of medicinal herbs on metabolic parameters, including lipid profile (n = 7) and glycemic status (n = 4).

CONCLUSION

Although some medicinal herbs could be effective in modulating metabolic status and body weight, through making changes in the gut flora, further studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of such herbs in clinical trials.

Lanostane-type triterpenoids from the mycelial mat of Ganoderma lucidum and their hepatoprotective activities

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), a well-known Polyporaceae family fungus, is valued for its edibility and medicinal properties. It is a rich source of active polysaccharides and triterpenoids. However, obtaining material for medicinal purposes relies on artificial cultivation in a greenhouse, which requires large amounts of tree trunk due to the low biomass transformation rate. Therefore, an effective and environment-friendly culture method should be developed and the chemical compounds in the cultured material should be studied. Here we report the isolation and structural elucidation of 10 undescribed lanostane triterpenoids and 21 known compounds from statically cultured mycelial mat of G. lucidum. The hepatoprotective activity of these compounds in H₂O₂-induced HepG2 cells was evaluated. The structure-activity relationship is discussed. Our results demonstrated that twelve ganoderic acid derivatives possess significant hepatoprotective activities, as judged by suppressed activities of ALT, AST and LDH and increased GSH levels in H₂O₂-injured HepG2 cells.

Edible Mushrooms as Novel Myco-Therapeutics: Effects on Lipid Level, Obesity and BMI

Obesity, usually indicated by a body mass index of more than 30 kg/m2, is a worsening global health issue. It leads to chronic diseases, including type II diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases. Conventional treatments for obesity include physical activity and maintaining a negative energy balance. However, physical activity alone cannot determine body weight as several other factors play a role in the overall energy balance. Alternatively, weight loss may be achieved by medication and surgery. However, these options can be expensive or have side effects. Therefore, dietary factors, including dietary modifications, nutraceutical preparations, and functional foods have been investigated recently. For example, edible mushrooms have beneficial effects on human health. Polysaccharides (essentially β-D-glucans), chitinous substances, heteroglycans, proteoglycans, peptidoglycans, alkaloids, lactones, lectins, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, terpenes, phenols, nucleotides, glycoproteins, proteins, amino acids, antimicrobials, and minerals are the major bioactive compounds in these mushrooms. These bioactive compounds have chemo-preventive, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. Consumption of edible mushrooms reduces plasma triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and plasma glucose levels. Polysaccharides from edible mushrooms suppress mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, contributing to their anti-obesity properties. Therefore, edible mushrooms or their active ingredients may help prevent obesity and other chronic ailments.

The Effect of Flammulina velutipes Polysaccharide on Immunization Analyzed by Intestinal Flora and Proteomics

Proteomics and intestinal flora were used to determine the mechanism of immune modulatory effects of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide on immunosuppressed mice. The results showed that compared with the model group, F. velutipes polysaccharide could increase thymus and spleen indices and improve thymus tissue structure in mice; IL-2 and IL-4 contents were significantly increased and IL-6 and TNF-α contents were significantly decreased; serum acid phosphatase (ACP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) activities were increased (P < 0.05); in the liver, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities were increased (P < 0.001), while malondialdehyde (MDA) content was decreased (P < 0.001). Proteomics discovered that F. velutipes polysaccharides may exert immune modulatory effects by participating in signaling pathways such as immune diseases, transport and catabolism, phagosomes and influenza A, regulating the immune-related proteins Transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFRC) and Radical S-adenosyl methionine domain-containing protein 2 (RSAD2), etc. Gut microbial studies showed that F. velutipes polysaccharides could increase the abundance of intestinal flora and improve the flora structure. Compared to the model group, the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and the relative abundance of SCFA-producers Bacteroides and Alloprevotella were increased in the F. velutipes polysaccharide administration group, while Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group and f_Lachnospiraceae_Unclassified decreased in relative abundance. Thus, F. velutipes polysaccharide may play an immunomodulatory role by regulating the intestinal environment and improving the balance of flora.

Allicin Ameliorates Intestinal Barrier Damage via Microbiota-Regulated Short-Chain Fatty Acids-TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Cascade Response in Acrylamide-Induced Rats

Acrylamide (AA) is a heat-induced toxicant, which can cause severe damage to health. In the present study, SD rats were used to investigate the potential therapeutic effects of allicin dietary supplementation in the rats with AA-induced intestinal injury. The elevated expression of occludin, claudin-1, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), mucin 2, and mucin 3 indicated that oral allicin alleviated the intestinal epithelial barrier breakage induced by AA, compared with the AA-treated group. In the gut microbiota, Bacteroides, Escherichia_Shigella, Dubosiella, and Alloprevotella related to the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were negatively affected by AA, while allicin regulated cascade response of the microbiota-SCFAs signaling to reverse the reduction of acetic acid and propionic acid by AA treatment. Allicin also dramatically down-regulated the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), NF-κB signaling pathway proteins, and proinflammatory cytokines by promoting the production of SCFAs in AA-treated rats. Allicin relieved the intestinal barrier injury and inflammation caused by AA as evidenced by the regulation cascade response of the microbiota-SCFAs-TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, allicin is highly effective in the treatment and prevention of AA-induced intestinal injury.

Lactic Acid Bacteria Strains Differently Modulate Gut Microbiota and Metabolic and Immunological Parameters in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

Background: Dietary strategies, including the use of probiotics as preventive agents that modulate the gut microbiota and regulate the function of adipose tissue, are suitable tools for the prevention or amelioration of obesity and its comorbidities. We aimed to evaluate the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with different adipo- and immuno-modulatory capacities on metabolic and immunological parameters and intestinal composition microbiota in high-fat-diet-induced in mice fed a high-fat diet Methods: Balb/c weaning male mice were fed a standard (SD) or high-fat diet (HFD) with or without supplementation with Limosilactobacillus fermentum CRL1446 (CRL1446), Lactococcus lactis CRL1434 (CRL1434), or Lacticaseibacillus casei CRL431 (CRL431) for 45 days. Biochemical and immunological parameters, white-adipose tissue histology, gut microbiota composition, and ex vivo cellular functionality (adipocytes and macrophages) were evaluated in SD and HFD mice. Results: CRL1446 and CRL1434 administration, unlike CRL431, induced significant changes in the body and adipose tissue weights and the size of adipocytes. Also, these strains caused a decrease in plasmatic glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, leptin, TNF-α, IL-6 levels, and an increase of IL-10. The CRL1446 and CRL1434 obese adipocyte in ex vivo functionality assays showed, after LPS stimulus, a reduction in leptin secretion compared to obese control, while with CRL431, no change was observed. In macrophages from obese mice fed with CRL1446 and CRL1434, after LPS stimulus, lower levels of MCP-1, TNF-α, IL-6 compared to obese control were observed. In contrast, CRL431 did not induce modification of cytokine values. Regarding gut microbiota, all strain administration caused a decrease in Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes index and diversity. As well as, related to genus results, all strains increased, mainly the genera Alistipes, Dorea, Barnesiella, and Clostridium XIVa. CRL1446 induced a higher increase in the Lactobacillus genus during the study period. Conclusions: The tested probiotic strains differentially modulated the intestinal microbiota and metabolic/immunological parameters in high-fat-diet-induced obese mice. These results suggest that CRL1446 and CRL1434 strains could be used as adjuvant probiotics strains for nutritional treatment to obesity and overweight. At the same time, the CRL431 strain could be more beneficial in pathologies that require regulation of the immune system.

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and critical review of its nutritional, cosmeceutical, mycochemical, pharmacological, clinical, and toxicological properties

Reishi owes an exceptional value in nutritional, cosmeceutical, and medical treatments; however, none of the studies has provided its future-driven critical assessment. This study documents an up-to-date review (2015-2020, wherever applicable) and provide valuable insights (preclinical and clinical evidence-based) with comprehensive and critical assessments. Various databases 'Google scholar', 'Web of Science', 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Springer Link', books, theses, and library resources were used. The taxonomic chaos of G. lucidum and its related species was discussed in detail with solution-oriented emphasis. Reishi contains polysaccharides (α/β-D-glucans), alkaloids, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderenic acids, ganoderol, ganoderiol, lucidenic acids), sterols/ergosterol, proteins (LZ-8, LZ-9), nucleosides (adenosine, inosine, uridine), and nucleotides (guanine, adenine). Some active drugs are explored at an optimum level to make them potential drug candidates. The pharmacological potential was observed in diabetes, inflammation, epilepsy, neurodegeneration, cancer, anxiety, sedation, cardiac diseases, depression, hepatic diseases, and immune disorders; however, most of the studies are preclinical with a number of drawbacks. In particular, quality clinical data are intensely needed to support pharmacological activities for human use. The presence of numerous micro-, macro, and trace elements imparts an essential nutritional and cosmeceutical value to Reishi, and various marketed products are available already, but the clinical studies regarding safety and efficacy, interactions with foods/drinks, chronic use, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and genotoxicity are missing for Reishi. Reishi possesses many valuable pharmacological activities, and the number of patents and clinical trials is increasing for Reishi. Yet, a gap in research exists for Reishi, which is discussed in detail in the forthcoming sections.

Spirulina platensis polysaccharides attenuate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism disorder in high-sucrose and high-fat diet-fed rats in association with intestinal microbiota

This study aimed to evaluate the possibility that Spirulina platensis crude polysaccharides may ameliorate the lipid and carbohydrate metabolism disorder, including obesity, hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatic steatosis, and gut dysbiosis. The results showed Spirulina platensis crude polysaccharides could improve body weight, serum/liver lipid and carbohydrate indexes, and liver antioxidant parameters in high-sucrose and high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats, which were accompanied by regulated liver mRNA expressions involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism disorder. In addition, SPLP intervention significantly decreased cecal level of propionic acid in HFD-fed rats. Notably, the SPLP could alter the relative abundance of Firmicutes, Bacteroides, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria at phylum levels. Based on Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, serum/liver lipid and carbohydrate profiles were found significantly positively correlated with genera Romboutsia, Allobaculum, Blautia, Phascolarctobacterium, Bifidobacterium, Coprococcus, Turicibacter, Erysipelotrichaceae_unclassified, Olsenella, Escherichia/Shigella, Coprobacillus, Lachnospiracea incertae, and Lactobacillus, but strongly negatively correlated with genera Atopostipes, Flavonifractor, Porphyromonadaceae_unclassified, Barnesiella, Oscillibacter, Paraprevotella, Jeotgalicoccus, Corynebacterium, Alloprevotella and Bacteroides. It was concluded that oral administration of SPLP could remarkably ameliorate the lipid and carbohydrate metabolism disorder and significantly modulate the intestinal microbiota in HFD-fed rats.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus LRa05 Ameliorate Hyperglycemia through a Regulating Glucagon-Mediated Signaling Pathway and Gut Microbiota in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

In this study, we aimed to explore the antidiabetic effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus LRa05 on glucose metabolism and gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) mice. Our data indicated that the fasting blood glucose levels were reduced by 53.5% after treatment with LRa05 at a dose of 10⁹ CFU·day^-1. Meanwhile, LRa05 attenuated insulin resistance, relieved hepatic oxidative stress, and alleviated metabolic lipopolysaccharide-related inflammation in T2DM mice. LRa05 promoted the expression of glucose transporter 2, while it inhibited the expression of glucagon receptor, glucose-6-phosphatase, cellular adenosine-3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate-dependent protein kinase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase in diabetic mice. Meanwhile, LRa05 reshaped gut microbiota, resulting in increased short-chain fatty acid bacteria (Alloprevotella and Bacteroides) and decreased proinflammatory bacteria (Odoribacter and Mucispirillum). Thus, LRa05 may be used as a functional food supplement for modulating the disorder glucose metabolism and gut microbiota in T2DM.

Lipids and organic acids in three gut locations affect feed efficiency of commercial pigs as revealed by LC-MS-based metabolomics

Feed efficiency (FE) is an important economic indicator in pig production. Improving the FE of commercial pigs is an important strategy for minimizing pig production costs and providing sustainability to the pig industry. In this study, nontargeted LC–MS metabolomics was performed on the contents of the three intestine segments (ileum, cecum and colon) of high-FE and low-FE pigs to explore the effects of small-molecule metabolites in pig intestine on pig FE. A total of 225 Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire) pigs in the 30–100 kg stage were sorted based on FE, and 20 pigs with extreme phenotypes were selected, with 10 in each group. A total of 749 metabolites were identified, of which 15, 38 and 11 differed between high-FE and low-FE pigs in ileum, cecum and colon, respectively. These candidate biomarkers mainly comprised lipids and organic acids, which could partially explain the FE difference between the two groups. Among the identified differential metabolites, the lipids are mainly involved in combatting inflammation and oxidation in the ileum and cecum and in bile acid metabolism and vitamin D absorption in the cecum. A difference in organic acids was mainly observed in the hindgut, which is involved in the metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids. This comprehensive study provides new insight into the biochemical mechanisms associated with pig FE.

Three Novel Dietary Phenolic Compounds from Pickled Raphanus Sativus L. Inhibit Lipid Accumulation in Obese Mice by Modulating the Gut Microbiota Composition

SCOPE

Although pickled radish is widely consumed worldwide, few studies have investigated the nutritional benefits of bioactive compounds extracted from pickled radish. In this study, the authors investigate the relationship among dietary phenolic compounds, lipid accumulation, and gut microbiota.

METHOD AND RESULTS

Three phenolic compounds 2,6-dihydroxyacetophenone (DHAP), 4-hydroxyphenethyl alcohol (4-HPEA), and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (HBA) are extracted from pickled radish. LO2 cells treated with free fatty acid are first used to explore the impact of the above three compounds at different doses on reducing lipid levels. The effects of the three compounds on obesity and the gut microbiota are further investigated in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced KM mice. Results show that three compounds inhibited the lipid accumulation in LO2 cells. The results of animal experiments reveal that three compounds prevented body weight gain and significantly decreased serum lipid levels. Treatment with DHAP, HPEA, and HBA reversed gut microbiome dysbiosis in HFD-induced mice. The three phenolic compounds increase Odoribacter, and decrease Helicobacter and Mucispirillum. Notably, DHAP and HBA reduce the HFD-induced increase in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that phenolic compounds extracted from pickled radish possess excellent lipid-lowering capacity, providing a theoretical basis for further analysis of the nutritional value of pickled radish.

Identification and Antihypertension Study of Novel Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Peptides from the Skirt of Chlamys farreri Fermented with Bacillus natto

The aim of this study was to isolate the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides from the skirt of Chlamys farreri fermented with Bacillus natto and to explore the antihypertension effect through in vivo studies. ACE inhibitory peptides were purified from the fermentation mixture by ultrafiltration, gel filtration chromatography, and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography sequentially. The amino acids' sequence of the five novel ACE inhibitory peptides were identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Animal experiments demonstrated that the novel ACE inhibitory peptides significantly reduced the blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats after a single or long-time treatment. Potential mechanisms were explored, and the results indicated that the novel peptides could regulate the renal renin-angiotensin system, improve vascular remodeling, inhibit myocardial fibrosis, and rebalance the gut microbial dysbiosis. Our results suggest that the fermentation products of the Chlamys farreri skirt by B. natto are potential sources of active peptides processing antihypertension activities.

Traditional uses, chemical components and pharmacological activities of the genus Ganoderma P. Karst.: a review

In recent years, some natural products isolated from the fungi of the genus Ganoderma have been found to have anti-tumor, liver protection, anti-inflammatory, immune regulation, anti-oxidation, anti-viral, anti-hyperglycemic and anti-hyperlipidemic effects. This review summarizes the research progress of some promising natural products and their pharmacological activities. The triterpenoids, meroterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and polysaccharides isolated from Ganoderma lucidum and other species of Ganoderma were reviewed, including their corresponding chemical structures and biological activities. In particular, the triterpenes, polysaccharides and meroterpenoids of Ganoderma show a wide range of biological activities. Among them, the hydroxyl groups on the C-3, C-24 and C-25 positions of the lanostane triterpenes compound were the necessary active groups for the anti-HIV-1 virus. Previous study showed that lanostane triterpenes can inhibit human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease with an IC50 value of 20-40 μM, which has potential anti-HIV-1 activity. Polysaccharides can promote the production of TNF α and IFN-γ by macrophages and spleen cells in mice, and further inhibit or kill tumor cells. Some meroterpenoids contain oxygen-containing heterocycles, and they have significant antioxidant activity. In addition, Ganoderma has been used as a medicine to treat diseases for more than 2000 years, and we also reviewed its traditional uses.

Protective Mechanism of Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) against Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Associated with Dyslipidemia in Mice Fed a High-Fat and High-Cholesterol Diet

This study aimed to investigate the protective mechanism of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) against nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) associated with dyslipidemia in mice that were fed a high-fat and high-cholesterol diet (HFD). Results showed that oral supplementation of common buckwheat significantly improved physiological indexes and biochemical parameters related to dyslipidemia and NAFLD in mice fed with HFD. Furthermore, the HFD-induced reductions in fecal short-chain fatty acids were reversed by common buckwheat intervention, which also increased the fecal bile acid (BA) abundance compared with HFD-induced hyperlipidemic mice. Liver metabolomics based on ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry demonstrated that common buckwheat supplementation made significant regulatory effects on the pentose phosphate pathway, starch and sucrose metabolism, primary BA biosynthesis, and so forth. The results of high-throughput sequencing revealed that common buckwheat supplementation significantly altered the structure of the intestinal microbiota in mice fed with HFD. The correlations between lipid metabolic parameters and intestinal microbial phylotypes were also revealed by the heatmap and network. Additionally, common buckwheat intervention regulated the mRNA expressions of genes responsible for liver lipid metabolism and BA homeostasis, thus promoting BA synthesis and excretion. These findings confirmed that common buckwheat has the outstanding ability of improving lipid metabolism and could be used as a potential functional food for the prevention of NAFLD and hyperlipidemia.

Isolation and purification of acidic polysaccharides from Agaricus blazei Murill and evaluation of their lipid-lowering mechanism

Polysaccharides are important active constituents of Agaricus blazei Morrill. In the present study, WABM-A was isolated from WABM using DEAE-cellulose, and subsequently purified using sepharose CL-6B to obtain the acidic polysaccharide WABM-A-b. WABM-A-b is mainly composed of Glc dextran, with a molecular weight of 10 KDa and β-1,6-D-Glcp as its main chain. The results of in vivo experiments show that in comparison with the MG, WABM-A significantly reduced the serum levels of TC, TG, and LDL-C, increased the serum levels of HDL-C (P < 0.01), and upregulated the liver expression of PPARγ, LXRα, ABCA1, and ABCG1 in rats with hyperlipidemia (P < 0.05). The results of in vitro experiments show that in comparison with the MG group, WABM-A-b-H significantly reduced the levels of TC and TG in HepG2 cells induced by oleic acid (P < 0.01), and significantly upregulated the protein expression of PPARγ, LXRα, ABCA1, and ABCG1 (P < 0.05). The present study demonstrates that WABM-A-b is an acidic glucan with lipid-lowering activity. The lipid-lowering mechanism of WABM-A-b is via the activation of the PPARγ/LXRα/ABCA1/ABCG1 cholesterol metabolism pathway. This is the first time that the hypolipidemic effect of Agaricus blazei Morrill acidic polysaccharides has been reported.

Ganoderma polysaccharide and chitosan synergistically ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and modulate gut microbiota composition in high fat diet-fed golden hamsters

High-fat diet (HFD) and sucrose intake can lead to hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) as well as disturbed gastrointestinal microbiota and dysfunctional intestinal barrier. In the present study, we showed that Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide and chitosan (PC) significantly mitigated the hyperlipidemia in HFD-fed hamsters via lowering the contents of serum total triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Furthermore, PC changed the composition of gastrointestinal microbiota and elevated the relative abundances of beneficial bacteria, such as Prevotella, Oscillibacter, and SCFA-producers. Interestingly, we also found that the abundances of Prevotella, Alloprevotella, Bifidobacterium, and Alistipes were negatively associated with serum lipid profiles. Collectively, the above-mentioned findings indicated that PC could improve lipid metabolic disorders, at least in part, by modulating gastrointestinal microbiota, suggesting that PC could be used as a potential lipid-lowering ingredient in functional foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: PC could ameliorate lipid metabolism disorder, at least in part, by regulating specific gut microbiota, suggesting its potential as a novel lipid-lowering ingredient in functional foods. We believed that our findings could be of interest to the readers because they help others further understand the gut microbiota alterations that occurred after PC supplementation in the context of metabolic syndrome (MetS).

The Positive Effects of Grifola frondosa Heteropolysaccharide on NAFLD and Regulation of the Gut Microbiota

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major public health problem in many countries. In this study, the ability of Grifola frondosa heteropolysaccharide (GFP) to ameliorate NAFLD was investigated in rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD). The molecular mechanisms modulating the expression of specific gene members related to lipid synthesis and conversion, cholesterol metabolism, and inflammation pathways were determined. The components of the intestinal microflora in rats were analyzed by high-throughput next-generation 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Supplementation with GFP significantly increased the proportions of Allobaculum, Bacteroides, and Bifidobacterium and decreased the proportions of Acetatifactor, Alistipes, Flavonifractor, Paraprevotella, and Oscillibacter. In addition, Alistipes, Flavonifractor, and Oscillibacter were shown to be significant cecal microbiota according to the Spearman’s correlation test between the gut microbiota and biomedical assays (|r| > 0.7). Histological analysis and biomedical assays showed that GFP treatments could significantly protect against NAFLD. In addition, Alistipes, Flavonifractor, and Oscillibacter may play vital roles in the prevention of NAFLD. These results suggest that GFP could be used as a functional material to regulate the gut microbiota of NAFLD individuals.

Gut microbiota modulation with traditional Chinese medicine: A system biology-driven approach

With the development of system biology, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is drawing more and more attention nowadays. However, there are still many enigmas behind this ancient medical system because of the arcane theory and complex mechanism of actions. In recent decades, advancements in genome sequencing technologies, bioinformatics and culturomics have led to the groundbreaking characterization of the gut microbiota, a 'forgotten organ', and its role in host health and disease. Notably, gut microbiota has been emerging as a new avenue to understanding TCM. In this review, we will focus on the structure, composition, functionality and metabolites of gut microbiota affected by TCM so as to conversely understand its theory and mechanisms. We will also discuss the potential areas of gut microbiota for exploring Chinese material medica waste, Chinese marine material medica, add-on therapy and personalized precise medication of TCM. The review will conclude with future perspectives and challenges of gut microbiota in TCM intervention.

Monascus yellow, red and orange pigments from red yeast rice ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and gut microbiota dysbiosis in Wistar rats fed on a high-fat diet

This study aimed to compare the hypolipidaemic activities of different Monascus pigments (yellow, red and orange pigments) and elucidate their possible regulatory mechanisms on lipid and cholesterol metabolism in rats fed on a high-fat diet (HFD). Results showed that oral administrations of Monascus yellow, red and orange pigments can markedly alleviate the disturbance of lipid metabolism through ameliorating the serum lipid levels and suppressing hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis. Meanwhile, the excretion of fecal cholesterol, triacylglycerols and bile acids was also promoted by the oral administrations of different Monascus pigments (MPs). Furthermore, Monascus pigment (MP) supplementation produced significant structural changes in the intestinal microbiota of HFD-fed rats, and modulated the relative abundance of functionally related microbial phylotypes compared with the HFD group in particular. Key phylotypes in response to the HFD and Monascus pigment (MP) intervention were found to strongly correlate with the lipid metabolism disorder associated parameters using Spearman's correlation coefficient. Some beneficial gut microbiota (such as Oscillibacter sp., Ruminococcus albus, Clostridium sp., etc.) were found to be negatively correlated with the serum and hepatic lipid indicator. Moreover, Monascus pigment (MP) treatments regulated the mRNA expression levels of the genes responsible for lipid and cholesterol metabolism. In general, different Monascus pigments (MPs) regulate the homeostasis of lipid and cholesterol metabolism through different regulatory pathways. These findings illustrated that not only Monascus yellow pigments, but also Monascus red and orange pigments have the potential to ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders, and therefore could be used as potential functional food ingredients for the prevention or treatment of hyperlipidemia and gut microbiota dysbiosis.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids from microalgae Spirulina platensis modulates lipid metabolism disorders and gut microbiota in high-fat diet rats

Effects of Spirulina platensis 55% ethanol extract (SPL55) on lipid metabolism in high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidaemic rats were investigated. Ultra performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry indicated that SPL55 was enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids. Meanwhile, serum and liver lipid levels, including total triglyceride, total cholesterol, and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, were significantly decreased in hyperlipidaemic rats of SPL55. Analysis of tissue sections showed that SPL55 treatment could markedly inhibit hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis. Moreover, SPL55 regulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of SREBP-1c, HMG-CoA, PEPCK, ACC, and AMPK genes involved in lipid metabolism. Furthermore, SPL55 led to decrease the abundances of Turicibacter, Clostridium_XlVa, and Romboutsia, which were positive correlation with lipid metabolism indicators, and has also enriched Alloprevotella, Prevotella, Porphyromonadaceae, and Barnesiella. These results provided evidence that SPL55 might be developed as a functional food to ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and hyperlipidaemia.

Grifola frondosa polysaccharides ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders and gut microbiota dysbiosis in high-fat diet fed rats

The purpose of this study was to assess the potential effects of polysaccharides from edible mushroom Grifola frondosa (GFP) on lipid metabolic disorders and gut microbiota dysbiosis, and elucidate their possible regulatory mechanisms on lipid and cholesterol metabolism in high-fat diet (HFD)-exacerbated hyperlipidemic and hypercholesterolemic rats. Results showed that oral administration of GFP markedly alleviated dyslipidaemia through decreasing the serum levels of total triglycerides, total cholesterol, and free fatty acids, and significantly suppressing hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis. Besides, the excretion of fecal bile acids was also promoted by oral administration of GFP. Metagenomic analysis revealed that GFP supplementation (400 mg kg-1 day-1) resulted in significant structure changes on gut microbiota in HFD-fed rats, in particular modulating the relative abundance of functionally relevant microbial phylotypes compared with the HFD group. Key microbial phylotypes responding to GFP intervention were identified to strongly correlate with the lipid metabolism disorder associated parameters using the correlation network based on Spearman's correlation coefficient. Serum and hepatic lipid profiles were found positively correlated with Clostridium-XVIII, Butyricicoccus and Turicibacter, but negatively correlated with Helicobater, Intestinimonas, Barnesiella, Parasutterella, Ruminococcus and Flavonifracter. Moreover, GFP treatment (400 mg kg-1 day-1) regulated the mRNA expression levels of the genes responsible for hepatic lipid and cholesterol metabolism. Oral supplementation of GFP markedly increased the mRNA expression of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) and bile salt export pump (BSEP), suggesting an enhancement of bile acid (BA) synthesis and excretion from the liver. These findings illustrated that GFP could ameliorate lipid metabolic disorders through modulating specific gut microbial phylotypes and regulating hepatic lipid and cholesterol metabolism related genes, and therefore could be used as a potential functional food ingredient for the prevention or treatment of hyperlipidemia.

Mussel polysaccharide α-D-glucan (MP-A) protects against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via maintaining the homeostasis of gut microbiota and regulating related gut-liver axis signaling pathways

We isolated and characterized a Mussel polysaccharide, α-D-glucan (MP-A), from Mytilus coruscus earlier. In this work, the pharmacological activity and mechanisms of MP-A as an oral supplement for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) were explored. High fat diet (HFD) was utilized to induce NAFLD in Sprague Dawley male rats and MP-A (0.6 g/kg) was supplemented for 4 weeks. The results showed that MP-A supplementation reduced blood lipid levels, intrahepatic lipid accumulation and NAFLD activity score in HFD-fed rats. Additionally, the analysis of 16S rDNA sequencing on gut microbiota samples revealed that HFD could induce microbial dysbiosis. However, MP-A supplementation could remodel gut microbiota structure, inhibit LPS-TLR4-NF-κB pathway activation, and restrain subsequent inflammation factors secretion. Furthermore, MP-A regulated the lipid metabolism by promoting the production of short chain fatty acids and suppressing PPAR γ and SREBP-1c expression. Our results support that MP-A can prevent against NAFLD and act as an oral supplementation for hepatoprotection via modulating gut microbiota and related gut-liver axis signaling pathways.

Glycated fish protein supplementation modulated gut microbiota composition and reduced inflammation but increased accumulation of advanced glycation end products in high-fat diet fed rats

Glycated fish protein showed positively biological effects but increased AGEs accumulation in high-fat-diet-fed rats.